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JOURNAL

of the

Bombay Natural History

Society

Vol. 81, No. 1

Editors : J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole & A. N. D. Nanavati

APRIL 1984

Rs. 45

T’-

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the editors by observ-
ing the following instructions:

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publication to other

journals or periodicals, or have already been published elsewhere, should not be
submitted. -

♦ i

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Banerji, M* L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal. 7. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 55(2): 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay. Titles of papers
should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting the author’s
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9. Synopsis : Each scientific paper should be accompanied by a concise,

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ber’s contribution earlier than a non-member’s.

Hombill House, Editors,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Journal of the Bombay

Bombay 400 023. Natural History Society .

VOLUME 81(1) : APRIL 1984

Date of Publication : 9-8-1984

CONTENTS

Page

Some aspects of the Biology and Ecology of Narcondam Hornbjll ( Rhyticeros
narcondami). By S. A. Hussain. ( With one coloured & five Black-and-W hite
plates and five text- figures) • • 1

Seasonal variation in the population of Acrida exaltata Walk, at Aligarh.

By Shamshad Ali. ( With seven text-figures ) .. 19

Larval culture of the Hermit Crab Clibanarius aequabilis var. merguiensis De
Man (Decapoda, Anomura, Diogenidae) reared in the Laboratory. By
Venkatray N. Nayak. ( With seven text-figures ) . . 29

Tourist activity and behaviour of the Leopard Panthera pardus fusca (Meyer,

1794) in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka. By M. R. Chambers, Charles
Santiapillai and N. Ishvvaran. {With two text-figures ) . . 42

Some observations of scarce birds in Nepal. By N. J. Redman, F. Lambert and

R. Grimmett . . 49

Spawning of some important cqldwater fish of tfie Garhwal Himalaya. By

S. P. Badola and H. R. Singh. {With a plate) . . 54

Reproduction biology of the Soft-furred Field Rat, Rattus meltada pallidior
(Ryley, 1914) in the Rajasthan desert. By B. D. Rana and Ishwar Prakash.

{With three text-figures) . . 59

Flowering plants around the holy shrine of Kedarnath, Uttar Pradesh. By

J. K. Semwal. {With a text-figure) . . 7!

Observations of the reproductive biology of the Indian Chameleon, Chamaeleo

zeylanicus (Laurenti). By L. A. K. Singh, L. N. Acharjyo and H. R. Bustard 86

New records and hosts of Aphid parasitoides (Hymenoptera: Aphidiida) from

Kashmir, India. By R. C. Bhagat . . 93

Host plants of the Fruit Flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) of the Indian sub-

continent, exclusive of the sub-family Dacinae. By Mohammad Zaka-ur-Rab 99

Observations cn the length-weight relationship of the fish Rasbora daniconius

(Ham.-Buch.). By V, Y. Thakre, and S. S. Bapat. {With two text-figures) .. 105

Influence of atmospheric temperature and humidity on the variations in
seasonal abundance and phenology of Micrcnecta striata Fieber. By T. C.
Banerjee, A. S. Mondal and T. K. Nayek. {With seven text-figures) .. 110

Further contribution to the Flora of Buxa Forest Division, Jalpaiguri District

(West Bengal). By J. K. Sikdar and Rolla S. Rao. {With a text-figure) .. 123

New Descriptions:

A new species of Soiichus L. (Asteraceae) from south India. By M. Chandra-

bose, V. Chandrasekaran and N. C. Nair. ( With seven text-figures ) .. 149

Description of two new species and one new record of Cryptostigmatid Mites
(Acari: Oribatei) from Maharashtra, India* By A. K. Sanyal. (With four
text-figures) . . 151

A new species of Ophiorrhiza (Rubiaceae) from Andhra Pradesh. G. V. Subba

Rao and G. R. Kumari. ( With six text-figures ) 156

Description of a new genus and some new species of tcrrenticole Diptera

of the northwest Himalaya. By B. K. Kaul. ( With thirty-four text-figures) 158

Three new species of genus Isoetes L. from Rajasthan, India. By C. B. Gena

and T. N. Bhardwaja. ( With a pi ate) . . 165

A new 'Sim pi ocos Jacq. ( Symplocaceae) from southern India. By A. N. Henry, R.

Gopalan and M. S. Swaminathan. ( With seven text-figures) . . 169

Reviews: :

1. Sunlight and Shadows. (Divyabhanusinh Chavda) .. 172

2. The IUCN Aphibia-Reptilia Data Book — Part I. (P. Kannan) , . 174

3. Symbiosis in the Mango-hopper: A study in Comparative Cytopathology.

(T. S. S. Dikshith and R. K. Varshney) .. 175

4. Supplement to Duthie’s Flora of the Upper Gangetic Plain and of the adjacent

Siwalik and Sub-Himalayan Tracts. (A. R. Daruwalla) .. 176

Miscellaneous Notes :

Mammals: 1. Record of the Fulvous Fruit Bat, Rousettus leschenaulti (Desmarest, 1820)
from Sikkim, with notes on its interesting feeding habit and status. By R. K. Ghose and
D. K. Ghosal (p. 178); 2. A feeding association between a Heteropteran Bug and Langurs.
By Paul N. Newton (p. 180); 3. White dots on the legs of Barking Deer. By J. Mangalraj
Johnson (p. 182); 4. A note on cannibalism in desert rodents. By A. P. Jain (p. 182);

5. Bandicoot rat seizing a snake. By N. C. Nandi (p. 183); 6. Record of a foetus of
the Unless Black Porpoise from Goa Coast. (With six text-figures). By M. Hafeezullah
(p. 183).

Birds: 7. Cattle Egrets (Bubulcus ibis) feeding on cicadas on trees. By S. G. Monga
and Pan ish Pandya (p. 186) ; 8. Unusual plumage in a Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis coro-
mandus (Boddaert). By Natin Jamdar (p. 187); 9. Some notes on the Indian Reef Heron.
By K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji (p. 188); 10. Exceptionally large eggs of the common House
Crow, Corvus s. splendens Viell. By S. G. Monga (p. 189); 11. Laboratory observations on
the incubation period of the Indian Black Ibis Pseudibis papillosa (Temminck). ( With a text-
figure). By C. Salimkumar and V. C. Soni (p. 189); 12. Seasonality and occurrence of
birds in the Eastern Ghats. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 191); 13. A curious experi-
ence with a small Minivet ( Pericrocotus cinnamomeus) . By Sadiq A. Futehally (p. 191);
14. Frequency and duration of incubation of the eggs for Aegithina tiphia. By H. Daniel
Wesley (p. 193); 15. Hypsipetes madagascariensis sinensis (La Touche): a first record
for India. By S. Dillon Ripley and S. A. Hussain (p. 195); 16. The diagnostic plumage
characters of the Redheaded Babblers Stachyris ruficeps and S. rufifrons. By C. J. O. Harrison
(p. 197); 17. Behavioural response of a male Magpie-Robin ( Copsychus saularis Sclater)
to its own song. By E. Narayanan (p. 199); 18. Mouse, a nest-parasite of Baya Weaver
bird ( Ploceus philippinus L.). ( With three text-figures) . By D. Regupathy and T. A. Davis

(p. 200).

Fishes: 19. First record of the freshwater Grey Mullet. Rhinomugil corsula (Hamilton)
from Maharashtra. By M. S. Pradhan and D. F. Singh (p. 202); 20. Preliminary observa-
tions on the migratory behaviour of the Garhwal Himalayan Mahseer. ( With a text-figure) .
By Prakash Nautiyal and M. S. Lai (p. 204).

Insects: 21. The spider as bee enemy. ( With a text-figure) . By A. K. Thakur and O. P.
Sharma (p. 208); 22. New records of Aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) from Uttar Pradesh.
By Basant K. Agarwala. D. Ghosh and D. N. Raychaudhuri (p. 211); 23. New record
of insect pests infesting Kastnri Bhendi. Hibiscus abehnoschus Linnaeus, a medicinal plant.
By R. Rajashekhargcuda, M. C. Devaiah and Suhas Yelshetty (p. 212); 24. A new record
of Neopheosia fasciata (Moore) on apple. By Ramesh Chander (p. 213).

Other Invertebrates: 25. On a glossiphonid leech. ( With three text-figures) . By H. V.
Ghate (p. 214); 26. Studies on the biological control of two common vector snails of

Punjab by predatory insects. By H. S. Bali. Sawai Singh and Sunita Sharma (p. 216);

27. Necrophagous habit in the Giant African Snail, Aehatina fulica fulica Bowdick. (With
a plate). By A. K. Das and R. M. Sharma (p. 219).

Botany: 28. A contribution to the vegetation of Chaibasa (North), Singhbhum Dist.
(North Bihar). By Dilip Kumar Biswas (p. 221); 29. Occurrence of Desmodium seorpiurus
(Swartz) Desvaux in Western India. (With five text-figures) . By V. D. Vartak and M. S.
Kumbhojkar (p. 224); 30. Identification and distributional note of a few species of Epilo-
bium Linn, in India. By G. S. Giri and R. N. Banerjee (p. 227); 31. Cucumis melo Linn,
in Punjab — a taxonomic reappraisal. By M. Sharma (p. 229); 32. On the identity of
two species of Oldenlandia L. (Rubiaceae). By D. B. Deb and Ratna Datta (p. 232);
33. Ceropegia pusilla Wight et Arn. (Asclepiadaceae) in Hoshiarpur District (Punjab).

By Anil K. Goel and Surendra Singh (p. 233); 34. Two noteworthy plants from West

Bengal. By S. N. Das and S. C. Roy (p. 234); 35. Abnormal flowering of Agave angusti-
folia Haw. ( With a plate). By Anand Kumar and P. G. Diwakar (p. 235); 36. Gregarious
flowering of Carvia callosa Bremek and Nilgirianthus reticulatus Bremek at Amboli. By
Ulhas Rane (p. 236); 37. Pteris scabripes Wall, ex Hook. — a new find from India.
By S. R. Ghosh (p. 237); 38. Studies in Leguminosae XXX - — Further contributions to
Dalbergia L. f. and Denis Lour. {With three text-figures) . By K. Thothathri (p. 238).

J. Bombay nat. Hist, Soc 81

Plate

Narcondam Hornbills: Female above; Male below

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

1984 APRIL

Vol. 81

No. 1

SOME ASPECTS OF THE BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY OF
NARCONDAM HORNBILL ( RHYTICEROS N A RCONDA Ml )

S. A. Hussain1 2

( With one coloured & five Black-and -White plates and five text -figures)

Introduction

Two species of hornbills of the genus Rhyti-
ceros are represented in the Indian sub-conti-
nent- Of these R. undulatus occurs in north-
eastern India, Burma down to Malay penin-
sula and the Mergui Archipelago. The other,
R. narcondami is restricted to Narcondam,
an off lying island in the Andaman group. Very
little is known about the biology and ecology
of the latter. Hume (1873) on an expedition
to the Andaman group collected several horn-
bills from Narcondam and named it narcon-
dami. Prain (1893), St. John (1898), Cory
(1902) and Osmaston (1905) visited Narcon-
dam subsequently to collect specimens. The
last spent five days, (the longest period of
time spent in the island by a visitor), in search
of stands of the timber tree Pterocarpus dal-

1 Accepted January 1984.

2 Project Scientist, Avifauna Project, Bombay
Natural History Society.

bergoides. He also made some notes on the
fauna and flora including Hornbills, whose
number he estimated to be about 200. No
further information on the hornbills was avail-
able until two of my colleagues at the BNHS*
Robert B. Grubh and R. J. Pimento visited
the island briefly in 1969. Abdulali (1971)
visited the island in the following year and
spent a few hours to collect specimens. In
1972 along with Mr. N. J. George of Prince
of Wales Museum, I visited the island at the
instance and direction of Mr. Humayun Ab-
dulali. We visited South and North Andamans
and Narcondam island from 4th March to
25th April 1972 and the field data and speci-
mens collected by us were reported in the
Journal (Abdulali 1974). The Narcondam
island (the name Narcondam is derived from
Sanskrit Naraka — Hell; Kundam — Pit, —
an obvious reference to the origin of the island
which is believed to have been an active vol-
cano not long ago) is difficult to approach,
except during the months of March, April

JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

and May when the sea around is comparati-
vely calm.

The present paper records observations made
by me during my stay on Narcondam from
16th March to 14th April 1972, and the sub-
sequent observations on the two hornbill chicks
brought back which lived in captivity at the
Society’s premises.

T axonomical notes :

Hume (1873) while describing narcondami
stated that it resembled R. plicatus of Borneo
and due to the difference in size as well as
the absence of a zoogeographic connecting link
between these species gave the former the sta-
tus of a species. Baker (1927) treated it as a
full species in the absence of intermediates
and stated that systematists may consider it to
be a small island race of R. plicatus of which
R. everetti of the Moluccas was thought to be
an intermediate form. Blyth (1845) had in the
meantime, described subruficolUs from N
Burma, which he differentiated from R. plica-
tus ruficollis by the absence of any ridges on
the sides of bill and by its smaller size. Peters
(1945) accepted this nomenclature and consi-
dered subruficolUs a valid race of plicatus.
Sanft (1960) who has authoritatively reviewed
the family Bucerotidae, did not accept subru-
ficollis as a race of plicatus preferring to
synonymise it with undulatus. His argument
was that undulatus and subruficolUs are from

3 Sanft, (IBIS 95: 702-703) after studying 16
museum specimens of R. undulatus, R. subruficolUs
and intermediates argued that the ranges of the two
overlap with the intermediates showing characteristics
of the both, and therefore subruficolUs is synony-
mous with undulatus. However, Elbe! ( Condor 71
(4) : 434-435) on the evidence of the mellophaga
present in the above two species concluded that
subruficolUs is distinct from undulatus and is closer
to plicatus.

the same ancestral stock, differing only in deve-
lopmental stages as well as localised varia-
tions. One of the main differences is in the
structure of the bill i.e. presence of ridges on
the side of the basal half of the bill (= undu-
latus) and absence of it (= subruficolUs) , which
according to him, are linked with sexual matu-
rity and tend to develop as the bird becomes
older. The difference in body size, accord-
ing to him, was ecologically linked to the types
of habitats in which they occur. Thus the
larger birds of the mountainous region are
undulatus and the smaller occurring in low hill
zones subruficolUs ■ However, he had overlook-
ed two other distinct characteristics that
differentiate the two. The colour pattern of
the head and neck of males, colour of gular
pouch, and presence or absence of a black
band on throat. These patterns are ap-
parently not linked with ecological distribu-
tion. Are they then linked with age? Does
the yellow colour of gular pouch in S and
black band on the pouch in both female and
male develop as they grow older?3 (Table 1).

A 16 year old specimen of R. p. subruficolUs
at the San Diego zoo shows all the characteri-
stics of the typical ruficollis with blue gular
pouch without the black band (K. C. Lint,
pers. comm.). Under these circumstances the
taxonomic and zoogeographic position of nar-
condami is quite intriguing. If one were to
accept Sanft’s proposition, narcondami is a
smaller form showing immature characters of
undulatus isolated in the islands long ago and
gradually evolving into the present form (ende-
mic?) and in the process losing the adult
characteristics of the undulatus. On the other
hand, the plicatus link theory, with the recogni-
tion of subruficolUs as a distinct subspecies of
the former, would perhaps open up a new line
of possibilities on the zoogeography of the re-
gion. Another species which perhaps raises

4-*

ECOLOGY OF NARCONDAM HORNBILL

Fig. 1. Distribution of Hornbilis in SE Asia (After Sanft 1960).

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Table 1

R. undulatus R. p. subniftcollis R. narcondami

Bill

Wing

Weight
Head &
Neck

Gular

pouch

Distri-

bution

Side of mandibles ridged at
base

458-505 $ 9
2.500 gm

$ dark brown crown and
hindneck-almost black lower
down. Throat & upper neck
whitish

Bright yellow with black
band 8

Dark blue and black band 9

NE India, Burma. Singapore,
Sumatra, Java & Borneo

side of mandibles
smooth at base
420-445 $ 9

1.900 gm

8 rufous head & hind neck,
white on throat

Pale blue $ 9

Without black band

S. Burma. SW Thailand
Sumatra, Borneo

side of mandibles smooth
at base
303-305 $

285-287 9
600-750 gm

$ rufous head and neck

Pale blue $ 9
without black band

Narcondam I.

similar questions is R. everetti an endemic of
Sumba islands, SE Asia (Fig. 1). There are
similarities in the evolution of these two
species. Both are endemic to small

islands, are smaller versions of neigh-

bouring forms, and have distinct morpho-
logical characters (Fig. 2). Ali and Ripley

(1970), followed Peters’ nomenclature and call-
ed it R. ( undulatus ) narcondami. Flowever,
Ripley (1982) after seeing the live specimens in
the BMHS and personal discussions with me
agreed that narcondami is closer to plicatus than
undulatus. Kemp and Kemp (1975) mention
the long-hop flights of the SE Asian hornbills
which sometimes cross the sea to offshore

islands. These hornbills have been observed to
take off from the mainland and fly in “follow
the leader” formation for some distance
straight out over the sea and return eventually
to the starting point. Is this behaviour then an
instinctive urge of a long forgotten “migra-
tory” habit? The significance of the white tail

in these hornbills which can be seen from long
distances and which may probably act as a
visual stimulus for the following hornbills, is
worth noting.

Physiography and vegetation :

Narcondam island (13°30' N; 94°38' E) is
situated c 500 km NW off Mergui archipelago
and c 300 km SW of the Gulf of Martaban off
the Burmese mainland, and c 125 km east of
North Andaman in the Andaman and Nicobar
group of islands in the Bay of Bengal. The
island has a total area of about 682 hectares and
is a part of a submerged chain of mountains in
the Andaman archipelago. Narcondam is one
of the two off-lying volcanic islands in the eas-
tern sector of the group. It rises abruptly from
the sea to a height of c 750 m sloping west-
eastwards with a succession of steep spurs
emanating from the main summit which is
situated on the western portion of the island.
The very mountainous nature of island (there

ECOLOGY OF NARCONDAM HORN BILL

Fig. 2. Ridges and gular black band is absent in plicatus plicatus, everetii everetti and
narcondami. Latter two are 1/3 the size of undulatus with plicatus being

intermediate (see text).

Abbreviations : A — Ridges; B — Black band.

R. EVERETTI

CARL P.

R. NARCONPAMI

R. PLICATUS

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

is virtually no continental shelf around the is-
land) provides no landing place except for a
small boulder-strewn bay on the southern side,
which also provides the only small flat bit of
ground for camping. A small spring in the bed
of a dry nallah about 25 m above the sea
level is the only fresh water source in the is-
land known so far.

Climate :

The climate of the Andaman group of is-
lands is tropical wet and humid with daily
temperatures ranging from 27.8°C maximum
and 21.8°C minimum. The rainfall is heavy
both during SW and NE monsoons, lasting
from May to October. Cyclonic storms occur
during this period with rough weather con-
ditions prevailing almost throughout the season.
The average annual rainfall recorded for 17
years at Mayabunder (12°55' N; 92°55' E)
the nearest weather station to Narcondam, is
3055.5 mm with an average of 13.4 rainy days
per year. The month of July recorded highest
average (538.5 m / 18.7 rainy days) and
March lowest (4.8 mm / 0.4 rainy days).

Vegetation:

Parkinson (1923) and Thothathri (1960,
1962), and Balakrishnan (?) give some de-
tails of the flora of the Andaman and Nico-
bar group of islands. Prain (1893) described
some aspects of the flora of Narcondam. The
vegetation structure of the Narcondam island
is more or less similar to that of the tropical
N Andaman group. The vegetation can be
divided into three categories (a) littoral (b)
deciduous /evergreen and (c) moist evergreen.
The very limited ‘shoreline’ of the island con-
tains Ipomoea biloba, Scaevola koenigi. Hib-
iscus tiliaceus, Panclanus sp., Thespesia popu -
Inea, Barringtonia speciosa and Sterculia
rubiginosa. Introduced plants like Coconut,

Papaya and Banana grow wild in this zone.
The lower hills immediately following the
‘shoreline’ have both deciduous and evergreen
trees. Some of the typical plants of this zone
are Terminalia catappa, T. bialata, Parishia in-
si gnis, and Cary ota mitis interspersed with
numerous thorny creepers. The flora in the
higher zones of the hill contains evergreens
like Dipterocarpus sp-, Sideroxylon sp.. Ficus
sp. etc. The vegetation still higher and close
to the summit appears to be moist evergreen,
with numerous epiphytes. Some of the seeds
collected from a hornbifl’s nest were later
identified as Anamirta cocculus, Capparis
sepiaria, C. tenera var. latifolia, Garuga pin-
nata, Amoora rohituka, Terminalia catappa
and Ixora brunniscens. Apart from these, seve-
ral other fruiting trees including the ones men-
tioned above no doubt occur in the island.

Mammals :

No large mammals have been recorded in
the island. Large rats ( Rattus sp.) obviously
introduced, are common around the landing
bay. Giant fruit bats (Ptcropus melanotus
satyrus ) are common and other smaller bats
may also occur.

Reptiles :

One of tne commonest snakes seen in the
island is the flying snake Chrysopelia paradisi
which is mostly arboreal. On the seashore oc-
casionally sea snakes Laticauda colubrina are
encountered. The giant water monitor Var anus
salvator is common in different parts of the
island. One specimen, which was collected,
measured 1 m and weighed 4.5 kg. Skinks,
Mabuya tytleri, Lygosoma maculatus and
lizards, Cnemaspis kandiana, Cyrtodactylus
rubidus and Phelsuma andamanense (endemic
to Andamans) are common.

Land Crabs ( Car disoma hirtipes ) are very

J . Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Plate i

Hussain: Rhyticeros narcondami

Above : Narcondam island from western side. The central peak is perpetually
under a shroud of cloud.

Below : Male feeding female (and young) at nest ‘B\

(Photos'. Pat Louis)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81
Hussain: Rhyticeros narcondami

Plate II

Above : Debris from nest ‘A’ (27/3/1972).

Below : A week old chick from nest (27/3/1972).

( Photos : S. A. Hussain)

ECOLOGY OF NARCONDAM HORN BILL

common throughout the island, occuring even
higher up in the hills. Of the invertebrates,
Danaidae; Nymphalidae; Lycaenidae (Butter-
flies); Chryoschroa ignita, Mimila prenceps
(Beetles); and spiders of the families Heterop-
idae, Aregiopidae, and Thomsidae are record-
ed.

Results

An attempt was made to locate as many
nests of the hornbill as possible and to census

the population. A regular count of all the
hornbills seen each day was made (see table
2). Increase in number of the females sighted
may be due to their emergence from nest
confinement after a successful brooding. It was
not possible to identify all the nesting trees
though a few nests were spotted on Sideroxylon
sp. and Sterculia sp. Most of the nests were dis-
covered from the debris and excreta and seeds
below the nest-trees while a few others by
observing the movements of the male bringing
food to the nest.

Table 2

NARCONDAM HORNBILL

Date

No. of $ seen

No. of nests

No. of 8 9 at
nest

17 / iii/76

Nil

3(3)

Nil

—

Nil

2(3)

Nil

—

1 (with $ )

Nil

—

4 ( 2 with 8 )

Nil

—

Nil

—

Nil

—

H8)

4 (2 with 8 )

Nil

—

H8)

Nil

—

l/iv/76

—

* Rain

Note : The birds were counted randomly each day. The numbers may be biased on certain days as the
birds congregating in feeding trees were counted as well as males on feeding forays may have
been counted several times over !

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

3. Nest ‘A’ sketch

ECOLOGY OF N A RCON DA M HORN BILL

Nesting site :

A rough estimate of the heights of the nests
observed varied between 2.4 m to 15.2 m. Two
nests situated at 2.5 m and 2.74 m respectively
were studied in detail. The nest ‘A' (Fig. 3)
was situated on the outer bend of one of the
main boughs of a tree facing west. The en-
trance, though not concealed, was not easy to
spot as the ground below the nest sloped down-
wards steeply. The outer rim of the hole
breadthwise measured 30 cm. Depth from the
entrance to inner wall about 180 cm gradually
tapering inwards. Nest i.T (Plate I) was on a
bare tree facing east situated about 22.9 m
from nest ‘A’. The ground rose into a steep
ascent in front of the nest which enabled one
to gaze directly into the nest hole from a cer-
tain height. The entrance measured about 25
cm with a depth of about 149 cm. The flooor
of the nest was horizontal. The contents re-
moved from nest ‘A’ weighed 1360 g and con-
sisted of eight varieties of seeds apart from
feathers and powdered plaster. Some of the
seeds were identified by the Botanical Survey
of India.

The female and the young in the nest sat
with their tail held up vertically. (They con-
tinued to remain in this posture for quite some
time even after they were removed from the
nest.) The female attended to nest sanitation
after every feeding visit of the male. She was
observed tossing out what appeared to be the
excreta of the young with her beak while she
herself turned around and forcibly ejected her
own excreta. On 6th April one of the chicks
in the nest ‘B’ was seen making feeble attempts
to defecate by bringing the anal region to-
wards the nest entrance. Thereafter both the
chicks regularly defecated in this manner.

Behaviour at nest :

The male starts fetching the food just be-

fore sunrise. No marked territorial behaviour
by the breeding pair was observed. Occasio-
nally an alien male or female was tolerated in
the vicinity of the nest (i.e- on the same tree)
though the minimum distance measured bet-
ween two nests was about 22.8 m. Frequency
of feeding varies with distance covered to the
foraging tree. The shortest time recorded was
10 minutes and the longest 30 minutes. On
arrival the male always perched on a particular
branch of a tree depending on the direction
of his arrival. If undisturbed, he would fly
directly to the nest-hole, perching on a con-
venient branch or clinging to the nest itself
and proceed feeding the female. The food is
coughed up, brought to the tip of the beak
which is inserted into the slit opening and is
offered to the female. The number of the in-
sertions depends on the size of the food
brought in. Large berries are offered piecemeal
while smaller ones, whole. No attempt was made
to retrieve the food that fell down in the
course of feeding. A minimum of 10 insertions
were counted when berries offered were large
and a maximum of 93 when they were smaller.
Some times the insertions are ‘false' when the
female is not ready to receive the next berry.
(Is she in turn feeding the young?) All this
time the young would keep calling continuous-
ly. Once the feeding was over the male would
clean his beak on the branch a few times and
after preening himself for a while fly away on
the next foraging trip.

In the beginning of my observations the
male refused to approach the nest in my pre-
sence. He kept flitting from branch to branch
and finally flew away. Fie seemed to rely on
sight and showed no reactions to normal
sounds but was wary of human voice. This
particular male did not allow me to observe
from any position below the line of its nest
but allowed me to remain in full view at a dis-

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL LUST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

tance of about 13-7 m, above the line of its
nest. (This was possible as the ground rose
upwards from the nesting tree).

It was not possible to ascertain the roles of
the male and the female in nest building. The
female in the nest ‘A’ was seen tamping the
plaster of her nest by applying material with
the sides of her bill on 18th March. The female
sheds her flight feathers in the nest. The
female taken out of the nest ‘A’ had 3rd, 4th
and 5th primaries on the left wing and 3rd,
4th, 5th and 6th on the right in moult. The
rest had fallen. Of the tail the 3rd pair was
in moult. She weighed about 680 g, while the
bill measured 108 mm, tarsus 43 mm, tail 198
mm, (moulting). She was found to be incap-
able of flight.

General behaviour

Call :

In flight, adults of both sexes emit a con-
tinuous ‘Ka . . ka . . ka’ to the accompani-
ment of wheezing laboured wingbeat. When
alarmed, the male at nest-site calls a halting
‘ko . . kokokoko . . ko . . kok . . ko kok
kok kok’ etc. The female inside the nest is
generally silent, but sometimes utters a single
‘krwak’ if the male is late in offering the next
morsel during the course of a feeding. If alarm-
ed herself she emits a repeated ‘Kraawk kok
kok’ resembling the alarm call of a frightened
domestic fowl. The young inside the nest call
feebly ‘chew . . . chew . . . chew’ continuously
like a squeaking sewing machine in operation,
especially when the male is feeding.

Courtship :

On 27th March four males and three females
were seen perching on different branches of a
Ficus tree. All were calling simultaneously-
One pair ( d* $ ) was more active than the

others. The female, which perched on the lower
portion of a horizontal branch assumed begging
posture towards the male perched a little
higher next to her on the same branch. The male
though silent now, occasionally a gave ‘krawk’
call and ‘touched’ the female’s bill and hopped
away. Twice the male brought out a berry and
offered it to the female. This went on for some-
time as both kept hopping from branch to
branch and finally flew away together. Several
pairs ( d $ ) were seen together in the different
parts of the island. This suggests that court-
ship was still in progress.

Relations with other animals :

No predators have been recorded so far but
rats and water monitors are the only large
animals/ reptiles in the islands. Flying snakes
( Chrysopelia paraclisi ) are very common and
on one occasion one was observed passing on
branches very close to a hornbiH’s nest con-
taining a female and young. Once several
hornbills were seen mobbing a whitebellied
Sea Eagle ( Haliaeetus leucogaster) from tree
to tree. Abdulali (op. cit.) also mentions
similar occurrence earlier. A koel ( Eudynamys
scolopacea ) was also seen being chased by a
hornbill. Human presence in the island is a re-
cent phenomenon and though the impact of
their presence throughout the year could not
be assessed it may be assumed that the nesting
pattern of the hornbill, may be affected as
they would avoid nesting on lower available
sites due to disturbance /predation by man.

Development of the young :

The egg (only one obtained) was earthy
brown in colour. This may be due to staining.
It measured 33 x 45 mm and weighed 28 g-
The same nest contained a chick about a week
old. It weighted 75 g and measured 130 mm
from tip of the beak to vent (Plate II). The

J . Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Plate III

Hussain: Rhyticeros narcondami

On 26/4/1972 ‘A’ on right, ‘B’ on left.

( Photo : Courtesy Indian Express, Madras)

Above: ‘A7 <3* on 13/11/1972 c 9 month old.
Below : ‘B’ $ on 13/11/1972 c 9 month old.

( Photos : S. A. Hussain)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Plate IV

Hussain: Rhyticeros narcondami

ECOLOGY OF N ARC ON DAM HORN BILL

body completely naked except about 10
rudimentary rectal barbs in an arc immediately
above and between the anus and the oil gland.
Similar barbs, numbering about 23 along the
basal half of the wing along the alar tract. The
upper mandible from gape to tip was c 25
mm, and the lower c 27 mm. The depth of the
bill c 13.5 mm and the tarsus measured c 16
mm, the eyes were completely closed. Both the
egg and the chick were preserved.

The exact age of the two other chicks obtain-
ed could not be ascertained though it is as-
sumed that the interval of hatching between
the two was about 10 days, but this factor
needs further investigation. The present obser-
vations on the growth were made from the
date (13 April) the birds were removed from
the next.

Of the two, one was considerably larger and
ultimately turned out to be male. It was not
possible to ascertain the sexes of them at this
stage as both seemed to have similar plumage
i.e. rufous on head and neck. The chicks were
named ‘A’ and ‘B’ for the sake of convenience
of description through various stages of deve-
lopment. (It became apparent in the final
stages of growth that smaller ‘B’ though it
started of with the rufous plumage of a male,
acquired black plumage of the 9 after the
post-juvenile general moult and thereafter be-
came a full-fledged female). Descriptions of
development recorded for the period April
1972 — March 1973 etc are given below. Body
measurement and weights are given separately
(see Figs. 4 and 5). The actual dates of
measurements vary, though taken roughly dur-
ing the middle of each month- There are some
obvious gaps in data as I was away on other
assignments during that period.

Both the parents and chicks, kept in a make-
shift cage were brought to Port Blair and then
on to Madras by ship and then to Bombay by

passenger train. The parent male died on
board ship one week after capture. He had re-
fused to eat. The female accepted food occa-
sionally but did not feed the young which were
kept in the cage along with her. The young
however, fed voraciously. The female escaped
from the cage when an enthusiastic reporter
from a daily newspaper in Madras tried to
photograph it in my absence. Though the news-
paper sent out an appeal through its columns
for information, she was never found and was
believed to have died somewhere in the city
of Madras. The chicks were brought to
Bombay and were temporarily kept at Hornbill
House. A cage measuring c 12' x 20' x 8' was
subsequently built in the compound adjacent
to Hornbill House and the pair remained there
till their death 6 years later.

Development :

13 th April 1972 : ‘A’ — Rufous feathers on
crown. Auriculars in sheath. Lores, area below
the eye, nasal groove, hind-neck chin, throat
and upper breast naked. The colour of skin in
these areas smalt blue and rest of the area
pinkish yellow. Vent, lower abdomen patchily
feathered. All feathers in sheath. Upper tail
coverts and lower back with a few barbs.
Wing coverts well developed- A few feathers
on the tarsus — oil gland swollen, and a line
of feathers encircling it. Stomach greatly dis-
tended. Wing and tail in moult. Bill waxy
yellow. Gular pouch pale blue. Eyelashes well
developed. Irides pale blue. Soles of feet pale
blue. Wing 153 mm. Bill 72 mm, tarsus 47
mm, tail 96 mm.

‘B’ — A few barbs appearing on the crown,
nasal groove; whole back, breast, abdomen
naked. Wing coverts fully grown. A few tufts
of feathers around oil gland. Bill 58, tarsus 41
tail 58, weight 380 gm.

Behaviour : Call monotonous and conti-

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 81

nuous chew, chew, chew . . . Both ignored
their parents and vice versa, though kept in
the same enclosure. Defecation was carried out
by stretching the neck out, raising the wings,
projecting the anal region and stepping back-
wards towards the edge of the enclosure. When
on an open ground, the ‘stepping back’ is con-
tinued till the faeces is discharged. Picking up
and throwing about whatever object found
nearby- Pecking at the toes of the observer
(resemblance to seeds?). Both voracious
caters, were fed on creamcracker biscuits,
bananas, and other fruit.

May 1972 : ‘A’ — A line of rufous feathers
in pin immediately below the gular pouch.
Auriculars fully developed. Feathers on vent
and abdomen fully developed. Upper back and
lower hind neck patchily feathered. Base of
the upper mandible swollen, showing a faint
trace of wreath (furrow). Bill waxy yellow ex-
cept at the base where it is reddish.

‘B’ — Crown, ear coverts, upper and lower
tail coverts fully developed. The feathers
adjoining these areas in pin.

September 1972: ‘A’ — All body feathers
fully grown. Crown and nape dark rufous.
Throat sulphur-yellow, grading into rufous to-
wards the upper breast where it meets the
black of the abdomen. The feathers of
abdomen and tarsus softer than those on the
back, wing coverts and scapulars. Gular pouch
light blue. Bare skin around the eye smalt
blue. Bill waxy yellow, the basal tinge of red
increased in tone. A gap of about 2 mm bet-
ween the mandibles about 8mm from the tip.

kB’ — - All body feathers fully grown. Fea-
thers adjacent to the gular skin appear
blackish. Lower neck where the black of abdo-
men merging with the rufous of the neck
seems to extend upwards. A few feathers on
the crown have a barred appearance. The

rufous feathers on the head and neck dark
greyish on the basal half.

November 1972: ‘A’ — Swollen casque of
the wreath broad at forehead tapering towards
the tip, about 72 mm in length. Depth of the
bill including the wreath 50 mm.

‘B’ — Feathers on the crown (Centre streak)
turning darker. A line immediately below and
along the gular pouch black. Another streak
across the ear coverts extending down to hind
neck blackish. Swollen casque 50 mm. Depth
of the bill including the casque 42 mm, gap
between the mandibles about 2 mm.

December 1972 : ‘A’ — Depth of the bill 72
mm. Tip of the swollen casque blunted due
to wear.

‘B‘ — Black feathers in sheath in a line
above the eye (almost a central streak). Simi-
lar streaks below the eye and extending up-
wards from the black feathers in the abdomen
and breast- Another line of black feathers ex-
tending upwards from the upper back towards
the crown. Rest of the neck area dark brown,
depth of bill 43 mm, wreath 50 mm.

March 1973 : ‘A’ — Depth of bill 54 mm,
2 central tail feathers and 7th primary moult-
ing. No body moult.

‘B’ — Extensive dropping of body and flight
feathers. Heavy body moult. All the feathers
moulting in the head and neck area black.

From March 1973, onwards the plumage of
‘R' showed a marked overall tendency to be-
come black. By the end of May the moulting
was over. The moulting of the wing and tail
feathers was irregular. Both the birds shed
their flight feathers irregularly, sometimes even
freshly moulted ones. Powdered calcium sandoz
was added to the regular diet during this
period. By this time ‘B’ attained the full adult
female plumage.

In August 1973 the transverse band on the
wreath turned opaque and developed a soft

ECOLOGY OF N ARCON DAM HORN BILL

Fig. 4.

wrinkled depression where small blood capil-

laries were seen.

Soft parts : Colour of the irides remained
pale grey in both and ? throughout while
the eye lids of & turned red in colour. Bare
skin around the eye and the gular pouch blue.

Measurements of wing, bill, tarsus, and tail
were noted at intervals (Fig. 4). Weights were
also noted for the same period (Fig. 5). The
measurements of wing and tail were discon-
tinued after March 1973, as their tips were

either breaking or wearing out as the birds
constantly flew around in the cage.

Food and behaviour in captivity :

Both were fed on suttoo (powdered roasted
Bengal gram) mixed with glucose powder and
a few drops of ABDEC, supplemented with
fruits like bananas, apple, guava, jamun
( Syzigium jambolana ) marshmelon, mango
and sapota, hardboiled eggs and chopped meat
was given in the initial stages.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Fig. 5. Weights of chicks (blank area — male, shaded area — female)

In Tockus hombills nestling weight reaches a peak at the completion of body growth
indicated by tarsus and ulna measurements. Thereafter weight declines erratically untill
about fledging time and once: again rises to a constant level (Kemp 1976). Figs. 4
& 5 indicate here that the body growth had reached a peak around the beginning of

April and Fig. 5 indicates possible fledging

Sporadic jerky movements of the head, a
trait also observed in adults in the wild state.
Occasionally tossing up the head and rubbing
the crown on upper back. An occasional fruit
or a morsel of food would be brought up and
swallowed again. Hard seeds are regurgitated,
preening is done throughout the day at irregular

period around mid-May.

intervals. Head is scratched by extending the
wing, and bring up the leg over it, (indirect
scratching) .

‘A’ ( cf ) was aggressive towards ‘B’ (?)
and would not allow it to come near, often
attacking and chasing it around the cage.
There was no significant change in plumage

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81
Hussain: Rhyticeros narcondami

Plate V

Above : Male about 4 years old.

Below : Male & female before the ‘fight’.

( Photos : S. A. Hussain)

ECOLOGY OF NARCONDAM HORN BILL

or body size / weight in the following years, but
in February 1977 the iris of male appeared to
change colour from grey to reddish. At the
same time the female began to show interest
in a nest box (prepared from a sawn-off tree
trunk) placed inside the cage. The male how-
ever did not show any sign of breeding con-
dition. The female became more aggressive
and finally both had to be separated by a
partition inside the cage. It was possible that
the female was imprinted on humans and re-
garded the male as a threat to pair bond (A.
C. Kemp, per. comm.). The female continued
to be aggressive towards the male even after
the normal breeding season (March-May) was
over and finally on 8th March 1978 she manag-
ed to sneak across the partition and attacked
the male gripping his throat in her beak till
she was separated with considerable effort. The
male died the following day. The female was
later sent to the Zoological Park at New Delhi
where she died within two months of arrival-

Discussion

The very limited scope of the study carried
out in Narcondam island restricts any detailed
discussion. One of the factors that restricted a
more detailed and systematic enquiry was that
the expedition was mainly aimed at collecting
biological specimens and as such most of the
time was spent in that direction. However,
it was possible to document, both in the wild
as well as in captivity, some hitherto unknown
aspects of the biology and ecology of the
Narcondam Hornbill.

Ecological status :

Random estimates made by the earlier visi-
tors to the island, i.e. c 200 birds is much less
than what I believe to be the actual population.
Daily counts were made by me during my

‘collecting’ forays (not more than 2 km in
various directions in the island) and the birds
seen in flight as well as on trees were recorded.
The highest counted in one day was 72 males
and 28 females (see table 2). These numbers
include a point count made on a feeding tree
where the hornbills were mobbing a white belli-
ed sea eagle. My one month long stay in the
island gave me the impression that there are
more than 200 birds in the island. All the earlier
visitors landed there in the months of March-
April which happens to be the breeding period
when most of the females would have been
confined to nest-holes. However the figures
mentioned in the above table cannot be in-
terpreted statistically to project the probable
population size since the factors contributing
•to the regulation of population in the island
are not known. What, then, is the optimum
population and what is the factor that regu-
lates it?

The apparent (?) absence of large predators
in the island (including until recently, man)
abundance of food resources with perhaps
some degree of competition for resource from
other frugivores in the island such as Green
Imperial Pigeon ( Ducula aenea). Pied Imperial
Pigeon (D. bicolor ) and the Giant Fruit Bat,
provides an ideal ecological niche for a suc-
cessful survival of a species like the hornbill.
This is borne out by the fact that the Narcon-
dam hornbills raise two chicks while most
other larger species of Rhyticeros are able to
raise only one chick (Kemp 1979). Com-
petition for nesting sites during the breeding
season may restrict the actual breeding success
as the hornbills do not excavate nest holes.
The severe cyclonic storms that lash these is-
lands destroy a great number of older nesting
trees, even causing mortality of brooding
females /chicks confined in nest-holes- The com-
petition for nesting sites may actually be acute

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

in the island as evidenced by the fact that two
of the nests studied were as low as 2.5 to 2.7
m from the ground. Another possible regulat-
ing factor may be perhaps the very insular na-
ture of the species where in-breeding is discour-
aged among siblings. The female chick's as-
suming male plumage upto fledging period may
actually be a mechanism evolved for this pur-
pose. Was the antagonistic behaviour of the
male towards the female initially and then the
female towards the male once she attained
breeding condition in captivity a part of the
behaviour pattern evolved in the wild state to
discourage mating among siblings? All this, is
of course hypothetical and needs to be studied.

Conservation outlook

Island ecosystems are, in a way, living .
laboratories for the study of evolution. The
very simplified nature of the isolated islands
provide us with an insight into the complexity
of nature at work. Some of the factors that
contribute to such systems are competition,
predation, physical environment and their
effect on the insular nature of small popula-
tions inhabiting these (Diamond 1982). If any
one of these factors is jeopardised there is a
danger of such populations becoming vulner-
able to extinction. It has been demonstrated
repeatedly elsewhere that the single most im-
portant cause for species extinction on oceanic
islands has been predation by alien elements
including man.

The vulnerability of the endemic birds is
emphasised by the fact that most of the birds
listed in the IUCN’s Red Data Book occur in
islands. It is estimated that in the past 400
years two hundred of the estimated 220-odd
species and subspecies of birds which have be-
come extinct have been island forms. Most of
these became extinct either because of the loss
of habitat or when the population size was

too small to compete with alien competitors
and predators, or even some catastrophy such
as disease.

Where does the Narcondam hornbill stand
under the present ecological conditions? It is
definitely not facing the danger of extinction
as yet but it is vulnerable and some conserva-
tion strategy has to be evolved to protect the
species from possible future exposure to the
factors mentioned above. Even if one were to
make a liberal estimate of the total population
of the hornbills to be about 400 it will be per-
haps too small a number to cope with ecologi-
cal disasters like an outbreak of an epidemic
or an extensive destruction of habitat. What,
then could be the strategy to ensure the safety
of this unique species?

First of all a complete ecological study of
the hornbill is necessary to understand its
status. Conservation measures based on such
a study will be one of the answers to the ques-
tion. Captive breeding, which has been success-
fully carried out with several endangered bird
and animal species elsewhere, is a tempting
prospect- However, it may not be necessary in
the case of Narcondam hornbill. On the con-
trary, it would be much better to find out other
islands within the Andaman group having simi-
lar ecological structure and introduce the birds
there. There are about 300 islands in the
Andaman group of which about 60% are
uninhabited. In the north Andaman group,
which are close to Narcondam, there are seve-
ral off-lying islands like Landfall, East, Inter-
view and Barren having close affinities with
the ecological conditions in Narcondam. A
third alternative is to provide suitable artificial
nesting sites in the island itself.

In conclusion it may be suggested that once
the need to conserve the species against pos-
sible extinction is sufficiently acknowledged,
the following strategy may be instituted :

ECOLOGY OF NARCONDAM H0RNB1LL

1. Studying the complete ecology of the
Narcondam Hornbill.

2. Emphasis on study of ecological require-
ment, food niche, and the nesting suc-
cess in the island.

3. Study of the habitat, vegetation struc-
ture and faunistic composition in the
island.

4. A comparative assessment of habitats of
nearby islands.

5. Experimental capture and transfer of a
few pairs of hornbills to alternate sites
under careful supervision.

6. Monitoring the progress of introduced
populations in their new habitats.

7. Declaring Narcondam and the island /s
selected for transfer of the species as
completely protected.

Acknowledgements

Under the direction of Mr. Humayun
Abdulali, who first initiated the series of col-
lecting expeditions to the Andaman and Nico-
bar islands, Robert B. Grubh and R. J.
Pimento of BNHS spent a few days on Nar-
condam. They collected several specimens
of the hornbill and attempted a rough count
of its population. In 1971 Mr. Humayun
Abdulali himself paid a fleeting visit to Nar-
condam and took a few more specimens.
Since then, following a spurious territorial
claim by Burma, a police picket of 16 men
has been posted on the island posing a poten-
tial threat to the bird. Therefore, I am par-
ticularly grateful to Mr. Abdulali for the
opportunity he provided me for this trip to

Narcondam under the Charles McCann Ver-
tebrate Zoology Fund for a field study of this
unique species while it is still relatively safe
and plentiful. I am also grateful to Mr. Har-
mender Singh, the then Chief Commissioner,
and Mr. S. Vajpayee, Chief Secretary of
Andaman Administration; Mr. V. N. Singh
IPS the then Superintendent of Police, Mr.
Fred Burns, Manager, WIMCO (since deceas-
ed); Mr. Bhaktawar Singh, Dy SP; the Master
and crew of Police boat M. V. Jawahar (who
cheerfully dropped us at Narcondam) the
Radio Officer and the Police party, including
the cheerful Nicobarese policemen for their as-
sistance in various ways, Mr. N. J. George, of
Prince of Wales Museum was of great help in
collecting specimens and Mr. Pat Louis, who
arrived with his cameras, provided a photo-
graphic cover to the trip.

I am grateful to the then Honorary Secre-
tary of the Society Mr. Zafar Futehally, and
the Dynacraft Machine Co. for providing the
cage for the hornbills at BNHS. Mr. J. C.
Daniel and Dr. Salim Ali gave all encour-
agement in my studies. Dr. A. C. Kemp of
Transvaal Museum, S. Africa read through the
manuscripts and gave useful suggestions and
advice on hornbill studies and shared his
knowledge about SE Asian hornbills. My col-
leagues at the BNHS, specially, Messrs R. J.
Pimento and Umapratap Singh helped in car-
ing for the hornbills. The expenses for feeding
the hornbills were met from a grant from
Salim Ali/Loke Wan Tho Ornithological Re-
search Fund. Mr. Carl D’Souza and Miss
Usha Ganguli helped with graphs and sketches-

References

Abdulali, H. (1971) : Narcondam island and (1974) : The fauna of Narcondam

notes on some birds from the Andaman islands. island. Part I. Birds, ibid. 71: 496-505.

J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 68(2): 385-411. Ali, Salim & Ripley, S, D. (1970): Handbook

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

of the Birds of India & Pakistan. Vol. 4, O.U.P.,
Bombay.

Baker, E. C. S. (1927): Fauna of British India,
Birds. Vol. 4, London. Taylor & Francis, London.

Blyth, E. (1845): Notices and descriptions of
various new and little known species of India.
Journal of Asiatic Soc. of Bengal 14 : 173-212.

Cory, C. P. (1902) : Some further notes on Nar-
condam Hornbills (R. narcondami) . J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 14: 372.

Diamond, J. M. (1982): Population processes
operating on Islands. Island Management Sympo-
sium 12 Aug. 1982, ICBP XVII World Conference,
Cambridge.

Hume, A. O. (1873): Novelties, Stray Feathers
1: 411.

Kemp, A. C. (1976) : A study of Ecology Beha-
viour and systematics of Tockus Hornbills (Aves:
Bucerotidae) . Transvaal Museum, Pretoria.

(1979): A review of Hornbills:

Biology and Rediation. The living bird, 1978 Annual.

& Kemp, M. I. (1975): A report

on a study of Hornbills in Sarawak, with comments
on their conservation. WWF Report.

Osmaston, B. B. (1905): A visit to Narcondam.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 16: 620-622.

Parkinson, C. E. (1923) : A forest flora of Anda-
man Islands. Simla.

Peters, J. L, (1945): A checklist of the birds of
the World.

Prain, D. (1893) : On the flora of Narcandam
and Barren Islands. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 62: 39-86.

Ripley, S. D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds
of India and Pakistan. 2nd Ed. Bombay Natural
History Society.

Sanft, K. (1960) : Bucerotidae. Das Tierrich 76.

St. John, J. H. (1898) : Some notes on Narcon-
dam Hornbill. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12: 212-214.

Thothathri, K. (1960): Studies on the flora of
Andaman Islands. Bull. Bot. Surv. of India 2:357-
373.

(1962): Contribution to the

flora of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, ibid.
4:281-296.

SEASONAL VARIATION IN THE POPULATION OF
AC RIDA EX ALT AT A WALK. AT ALIGARH1

Shamshad Ali2
(With seven text-figures)

The population level of Acrida exaltata over three years (1974-76) at Aligarh has
been discussed. Information is furnished on seasonal variation, intra and inter year
fluctuation and life cycle in natural conditions. Climatic conditions exert marked in-
fluence on the rise and fall of population. The timing of the various life history
events (i.e. oviposition, hatching and maturation) varies widely from year to year
depending upon the particular sequence of climatic conditions prevailing throughout
the entire grasshopper cycle.

Introduction

Acrida exaltata Walk, is a serious pest of
cotton and tobacco. Besides cotton and to-
bacco, it also attacks rice, sugarcane, potato and
grasses. It has long been recognized that the
wide fluctuations periodically occurring in
acridid populations throughout the world are
closely linked to weather conditions (Parker
1935, Dempster 1963). The major weather
factors involved are apparently temperature and
precipitation. In some characteristically very
dry regions, rainfall may be the principal limit-
ing factor in grasshoppers distribution through
its influence on food (Scharff 1954), breeding
behaviour (Uvarov 1956). Putnam (1954) said
that grasshoppers outbreak usually coincide
with extended period of hot, dry weather. Des-
camps (1975) studied factors influencing the
distribution and abundance of acridid popu-
lation in general.

Studies were made to note the seasonal

1 Accepted July 1980.

2 Section of Entomology, Department of Zoology,
A.M.U. Aligarh. Present address : Assistant Professor,
Institute of Biology, University of Constantine,
Algeria.

variation in the population of Acrida exaltata
Walk., due to various environmental factors
at Aligarh.

Material and Method

The field observations were undertaken for
three years from January, 1974 to December,
1976, during different months of the year. The
samples of hoppers and adults were obtained
by sweeping. A standard net was used for
collection. The insects were collected in the
morning on every tenth day for an hour from
the acridid field station (Scindia Fort, Ali-
garh). Meteorological records were obtained
from the weather station. Department of
Physics, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh.
Data on peak density recorded each month
in the area for the period (1974-76) were
used for analysis. These monthly peaks were
then analysed for the three months, each con-
stituting four seasons. Winter (December to
February), Spring (March to May), Summer
(June to August) and Autumn (September to
November). Only the mean values of various
seasons were considered to reveal intra and
inter year fluctuations. The reason for using

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

seasonal instead of monthly population was to
obtain ‘nil’ population values, invariably en-
countered for months at a time, specially during
Winter and Spring seasons.

Inter year fluctuation was measured by the
deviations of the seasonal mean from that of
annual mean for three years. Comparative be-
haviour of two types of fluctuations was also
studied.

Studies were made on the life history of
Acrida exaltata Walk, under natural condi-
tions.

Observations

Topography : The geographical position of

Aligarh is 27° 53' 38"N. Latitude and
78° 04' 30"E. Longitude. The district of
Aligarh lies in the upper Doab of the
Ganga and Jamuna rivers.

Climate : Aligarh experiences tropical monsoon
type of climate. The year is generally divi-
ded into the following three seasons —

1. The cold weather: Winter (Late Octo-
ber to February),

2. The hot weather season: Summer

(March- June),

3. The season of general rains: (Mid-
June-September).

During winter the temperature is generally

low. The mean maximum temperature is 80°F,
however, the mean minimum temperature re-
mains around 50°F. The prevailing direction
of wind during the season is from West and
North-West to South and South-East. The
winds are generally light with an average speed
of 2 miles/hour. These winds are supposed
to be of continental origin and are mostly dry.
The month of December and January are the
coldest and often register light rains due to
western disturbance otherwise the weather is
generally fine and pleasant due to bright and
sunny days with clear sky. The month of May
and June are the hottest with mercury shoot-
ing sometimes upto 115°F, however, the mean
maximum temperature is 115°F and the mean
minimum temperature 65°F. Strong dust rais-
ing hot and dry westerly winds during day
time is common feature of the summer. The
peculiar phenomenon of the summer is the
frequent occurrence of dust and thunder storms
with an average velocity of 30-40 miles /hour
gales. The humidity sometimes falls to 2 or 3%
whereas the general level is 20%.

With the onset of monsoon generally by late
June, the direction of winds is reversed due
to low pressure area developed in the north
western India. With the arrival of the humid
oceanic currents from the Arabian Sea as
well as from the Bay of Bengal, the tempera-

Table 1

Average monthly rainfall at Aligarh (1974-76)

Year

January

February

March

1 .

April

May

(in mm)

July

August

Seplembe

October

Novembc

Decembei

1974

0.0

0.6

20.9

31.8

230.9

193.4

5.5

19.6

0.0

17.2

1975

19.4

10.0

0.7

0.0

23.7

74.1

247.9

146.4

312.6

68.1

0.0

1976

0.0

13.0

5.0

11.8

22.6

35.7

354.4

426.4

73.9

0.0

SEASONAL VARIATION IN THE POPULATION OF ACR1DA EXALTATA

120

ioc£

-o

80 2

40 c

Days

FIG-1 CLIMATIC DATA 1974

ture falls and the air becomes cool. The mean
monthly temperature falls to 80°F in July. The
relative humidity increases to 70-74% R.H.
The sky is generally overcast in the rainy
season. This season receives nearly 90%
precipitation of the whole year and the mean
seasonal ranfall is 25" (Table 1 and Figs. 1,
2 and 3).

Vegetation : Water penetration plays an impor-
tant part in determining the distribution
of vegetation. Scindia Fort is rich in green
veeetation. Abundance of food is available
for feeding by grasshoppers, and is
surrounded by cultivated crop fields.

It was found that hoppers and adults were
most abundant during and after the monsoon
period (July-October) due to the optimum
ecological conditions, particularly temperature,
relative humidity and food for their develop-
ment and biological activities. As is evident
from Figs. 4, 5 and 6 the population was lowest
in winter (December-March) and summer
(May-June). This is due to slow reproductive
activities during this period. Copulation was
observed to be higher in July to October, Ovi-
position was also higher.

Egg pods laid during April to June, hatched
after the monsoon showers in July since suffi-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

cient moisture was available for the develop-
ment of eggs. But during the heavy rains,
hatching of eggs decreased, but again increased
in August to October. The population of hop-
pers and adults was at its maximum from July
to October, but decreased in subsequent months
due to the advent of winter (Figs. 4, 5 and 6).
This decrease continued till February.

Seasonal Life History at Aligarh under Natural
Conditions :

Copulation : From 15th March to 31st Octo-
ber. Maximum in July, August and Sept-
ember.

Oviposition : From last week of March to
middle of November. Maximum in August
and September.

Hatching : From first week of March to Dec-
ember last maximum hatching was observ-

ed during the months of August and
September.

Hopper Stage : Found throughout the year.
Large number of nymphs were found during
the months of August, October and March.

Adults were found throughout the year.
Large number of adults were found in Octo-
ber, November and April.

Climatic conditions were suitable for the re-
production only for a short period at the end
of the dry season. During the rainy season, it
results in rapid growth of grass cover, which
favours the grasshopper; the temperatuie and
humidity remain favourable for about two
months. However, the heavy rains in July and
August increased soil humidity and the
Oothecae were destroyed and from November
temperature frequently falls below the thre-

Days

FIG. 2 CLIMATIC OATA 1975

SEASONAL VARIATION IN THE POPULATION OF ACRIDA EXALTATA

100 »>

• «S>

• «*

80 i

60 I

40 ^
c
01
u

20 l

F M A M

J J A
Days

FIG- 3 CLIMATIC DATA 1976

S 0 N 0

shold for development. During the dry season,
low temperatures induce degeneration of the
oocytes, disrupt spermatogenesis and change the
sex ratio in adult populations. It was found
that the populations in the area was maintain-
ed only by migration from other localities.

Inter and Intra Year Fluctuations :

Apparent intra year fluctuation of the mean
peak density populations in respect of the
Winter, Spring, Summer and Autumn seasons
are shown for three years from 1974-76 in
Fig. 7. The highest peak usually occurs during
the Autumn season with the characteristic sharp
fall in the next winter. However, for the years
1975-76 Summer peaks were maximum.

Discussion

In the present three year study, the rela-
tionship between egg production and tempera-

ture was particularly apparent during the
month of September which showed extremely
variable climatological conditions from year to
year. September is a transitional period bet-
ween Summer and Winter, when rapid change
in temperature again occur. In order, grass-
hoppers may take advantage of the optimum
egglaying periods during mid Summer and so
attain their maximum reproductive potential,
it is essential that they mature early in the
season. Early maturation is dependent upon
a continued sequence of high temperatures
through all stages of development extending
even back to the previous fall following depo-
sition of eggs. Continued high temperatures
permit rapid development of nymphs to the
adult stage followed by advanced matu-
rity, early mating and oviposition. On the
other hand, a complete reversal of the weather
patterns just outlined, with consistently low

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

240

i "" ■ ■

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

FIG-4 MONTHLY POPULATION -1974

■24

Number

SEASONAL VARIATION IN THE POPULATION OF ACR1DA EXALTATA

220

200

180

160

140

120

100

□ Nymphs
■ Adults

Jan Feb Mar Apr MayJun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Oec

FIG- 5 MONTHLY POPULATION -1975

Number

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo! . 81

240

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
FIG. 6 MONTHLY POPULATION -1976

Number

SEASONAL VARIATION IN THE POPULATION OF ACRIDA EXALT AT A

Winter Spring Summer
FIG. 7 SEASONAL POPULATION

74 7 5 76
Autumn

(1974-76)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

temperatures through the various stages of
growth and development will result in drastic
reduction of the number of eggpods laid. In
eggs laid after mid September the percentage
of hatching was drastically reduced, these eggs
while still apparently viable showed only minor
embryonic development.

Similar observations were made by Suslik
(1975), who observed that seasonal dispersal
of grasshopper was found to depend on the
height of the grass stand, and population den-
sity varied at different times of the year. Pick-
ford (1970) gave the reason for population
increase as due to favourable environmental
conditions, which resulted in increased fecun-
dity and survival of more eggs Randell and
Mukherji (1974) observed that increase in
population was due to high temperatures at
the time of egglaying.

Temperature during peak population density
was highly significant (Edwards 1960). Increase
in population due to high temperature at the
time of egglaying was also supported by Ran-

R E F E

Albrecht, F. O. (1956): Limitations des effectifs
chez un acridien. Influece de la secheresse du sol
sur les oeufs de Nomadacris septemfaciata (Serv.).
Locus ta, 4 : 1-21.

Cassimir, M. (1962): History of outbreaks of
the Australian plague locust, Chortoicetes termini-
fera (Walk.) between 1933 and 1959, and analysis of
the influence of rainfall on their outbreaks. Aust. J.
Agric. Res., 72(4): 674-700.

Dempster, J. P. (1963) : The population Dyna-
mics of grasshoppers and locusts. Biol. Rev., 38:
490-529.

Descamps, M. (1975): Etude du penplement acri-
dien de 1 Etat de veracruz (Mexique). Folia Ento-
mologica Mexicana. 31/32 : 3-98.

Edwards, R. L. (1960): Relationship between
grasshopper abundance and weather conditions in
Saskatchewan, 1930-58. Canad. Ent., 92(8) : 619-624.

Parker, J. R. (1935): Factors largely responsible
for years of grasshoppers abundance. Proc. World’s
Graon Exhibition Conf., Ottawa, 2: 472-473.

dell and Mukherji (1974). Heavy rain in an
outbreak area gave rise to increase in popula-
tion (Cassimir 1962). Descamps (1975) studied
factors influencing the distribution and abun-
dance of acridid population in general.

This study on seasonal variation indicates
that in Acrida exaltata Walk. Populations in-
directly affected by climatic factors through
their effects on the sexual activity of the adults.
It is clear that mating is restricted or even
curtailed during periods of cool, cloudy wea-
ther.

Acknowledgements

I am highly indebted to Prof. S. M. Alam,
Head, Department of Zoology, A. M. U.
Aligarh for providing financial assistance and
encouragement. Thanks are also due to Mr.
Abdul Qayyum, Department of Physics,
A. M. U. Aligarh for his help in collecting
climatic data and to University Grants Com-
mission, New Delhi for providing financial
assistance.

R e n c e s

Pickford, R. (1970): The effect of climatic fac-
tors on egg survival and fecundity in grasshoppers.
Proc. International Conf. Acridids: 257-260.

Putnam, L. G. (1954): Development in grass-
hopper research and control in Canada. Rep. 6th
Common. Ent. Conf., London: 133-137.

Randell, R. L. & Mukherji, M. K. (1974): A
technique for estimating hatching of natural egg
population of Melanophus sanguinipes (Orthoptera:
Acrididae). Canad. Ent., 106(8): 801-812.

Scharff, D. K. (f954) : The role of food plants
and weather in the ecology of Melanoplus mexica-
nus mexicamis Sauss. J. econ. Ent., 47 : 485-489.

Suslik, V. (1975) : Disperzia, abundanica a bio-
rnasa konikovz celade acrididae (Orthoptera) na
pasienkupri Basukej staavnica. Biologia Czechoslo-
vakia, 39(11) : 847-851.

Uvarov, B. P. (1956): The locusts and grass-
hoppers problem in relation to the development of
arid lands. The Future of Arid Lands, 43: 383-389.

LARVAL CULTURE OF THE HERMIT CRAB
CUBAN ARIUS AEQUABILIS VAR. MERGUIENSIS
DE MAN (DECAPOD A, ANOMURA, DIOGENID AE )
REARED IN THE LABORATORY1

Venkatray N. Nayak2
(With seven text-figures)

The paper describes the complete life history of an intertidal hermit crab, Clibanarius
aequabilis var. merguiensis, as observed in the laboratory. The larvae pass through
four zoeal stages and a glaucothoe stage. All the developmental stages are fully
illustrated and described. Characters of generic importance are listed.

Introduction

The present paper deals with the complete
larval history of Clibanarius aequabilis var.
merguiensis de Man as observed in the labo-
ratory.

Materials and Methods

An ovigerous female of C. aequabilis var.
merguiensis was collected on September 16,
1974 from a tide pool of Kinkade rocky shore
along the west coast of India, and was kept
in a glass trough containing filtered sea water
until the larvae hatched out on 28th September
1974. The larvae were separated into groups
of 5 per bowl with approximately 150 ml of
sea water. Newly hatched Artemia nauplii were
added as food. Every day the larvae were
transferred to fresh sea water. Exuviae and
the dead larvae were removed regularly and
were preserved in a special preservative
(Thakur 1960). During the course of the ex-
periment the temperature ranged from 25° to
28°C and salinity about 25 ppt.

1 Accepted September 1981.

2 Department of Marine Biology, Kamatak Uni-
versity, Kodibag, Karwar-581 303. Present address :
Government Arts and Science College, Karwar-
581 301, India.

The larvae were dissected in 5% glycerine
under a binocular microscope. All the draw-
ings were prepared with the aid of a camera
lucida. The total length of the larva was measur-
ed from the tip of rostrum to median posterior
margin of telson. The carapace length was
measured from tip of rostrum to postero-
dorsal margin of carapace. The term ‘stage’ is
used herein in the sense of instar or inter-
moult.

The eggs are oval, violet to pinkish (when
young) turning transparent and pale when
about to hatch; egg size ranged from 0.37-
0.44 x 0.30-0.38 mm.

Results

The larvae of Clibanarius aequalibis var.
merguiensis de Man reached the glaucothoe
after passing through four successive zoeal
stages in about 22 days after hatching. A sum-
mary of the various instars and duration of
instars is shown in Table 1.

Table 1

Larval stage

Duration in days

I zoea

6 — 8

II zoea

4 — 7

III zoea

5 — 8

IV zoea

6 — 9

Glaucothoe

None moulted to crab

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Fig. 1. First zoea, Clibanarius aequabilis var. merguiensis de Man.
a, entire larva; a 1? rostrum; b, antennule; c, antenna; d, mandibles; e, first maxilla;
f* second maxilla; g. first maxilliped; h, second maxilliped; i, third maxilliped; r, telson.

THE HERMIT CRAB CLIBANARIUS AEQUABILIS VAR. MERGUIENSIS

Chromatophores :

The chromatophores of the larvae are of
diffuse type, giving orange yellow to red appea-
rance to the larvae. The chromatophores are
stellate with mainly orange, crimson red and
light yellow components.

Description of larval stages :

First Zoea (Fig. 1)

Carapace length: 1.0 mm; Abdomen length:
1.2 mm

Rostrum beak like, acutely pointed at the
tip and broad at the base, projects beyond the
antennule and antenna (fig. 1, a); eyes sessile;
carapace smooth, rounded on postero-lateral
angle, 4 exopod setae each on first and 2nd
maxillipeds; third being rudimentary; abdomen
nearly as long as carapace, inclusive of rostrum;
telson process formula 7+7, 1st slightly laterally
situated and blunt, finger-like.

Antennule (fig. 1, b) with 2 terminal aesthe-
tascs and 2 unequal setae; inner ramus repre-
sented by a long, plumose seta. Antenna (fig.
l,c): Endopod nearly 2 /3rd the length of
scale, with 3 terminal setae; scale, long and
narrow with 11 plumose setae; endopod and
scale distinctly articulated to peduncle; pedun-
cle with a minutely serrated ventral spine on
the distal margin. Mandibles (fig. l,d) asym-
metrical and stout; ventral plate with 4-5 large
but unequal teeth in the middle, whereas the
dorsal provided with several unequal small
teeth all along the edge. First maxilla (fig.
l,e): Coxal endite with 6 setae of which 3-4
simple and others bristle-like; basal armed
with 2 serrated spines and one short spine-like
seta; unsegmented palp with 2 terminal and 1
subterminal setae. Second maxilla (fig. l,f):
Coxal and basal endites bilobed; proximal of
coxal with 5 terminal and single sub-
terminal setae; distal with 3 terminal and
1 subterminal; proximal of basal with 4

and distal with 3 terminal and a short sub-
terminal setae; endopod with 2 groups of 2
setae each; scaphognathite bears 5 marginal
plumose setae. First maxilliped (fig. l,g):
Endopod nearly as long as exopod, 5-segment-
ed, setation being, 1, 2, 1, 2 and 4+1 (outer)
distalwards; exopod 2-segmented with 4 nata-
tory setae; basis with 8 setae as in figure.
Second maxilliped (fig. l,h): Endopod 4-
segmented, 3rd being the longest, setation, 2,
2, 2 and 4+1 (outer) distalwards; exopod as
in first maxilliped; basis with 4 setae as illus-
trated. Third maxilliped (fig. 1, i) rudimentary
and uniramous. Abdomen (fig. 1, a) 5-seg-
mented, segments smooth and broader than
long. Telson (fig. 1, r) broader than long, pro-
cess formula 7 + 7; 1st finger-like process arti-
culated and situated laterally; 2nd reduced
‘anomuran’ hair; 3rd to 7th, plumose setae;
4th being the longest, 7th alone spinose on the
outer margin; posterior margin of telson and
median notch fringed with microscopic hairs.
Second Zoea (Fig. 2)

Carapace length 1.2 mm; Abdomen length 1.6
mm

Larvae increase in size; eyes stalked; num-
ber of setae on exopod of first two maxillipeds
increased to 6; exopod of third maxilliped well
developed with 5 setae, but endopod bud-like;
telson process formula 8 + 8.

Antennule (fig. 2, b): Peduncle with 3 long
plumose setae at its distal margin; outer ramus
now distinctly articulated with peduncle, bear-
ing 2 aesthetascs (of which one is quite pro-
minent) and 3 unequal setae. Antenna (fig.
2, c) : No considerable change over previous
stage. Mandible (fig. 2, d) : No change except
for a slight increase in size and prominence
of teeth. First maxilla (fig. 2, e) : Coxal endite
and endopod unchanged; basal now with 4
serrated spines and 2 short setae. Second
maxilla (fig. 2, f ) : Coxal and basal endites

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

a, entire larva; b. antennule; c, antenna; d, mandibles; e, first maxilla; f. second
maxilla; g, first maxiliiped; h, second maxilliped; i, third maxilliped; r, telson.

THE HERMIT CRAB CLIBANARIUS AEQUABILIS VAR. MERGUIENSIS

with 7 + 4 and 4-5 + 3 setae respectively;
scaphognathite now with 6-7 marginal setae;
no change in endopod. First maxilliped (fig.
2, g) : Exopod with 6 natatory setae; addition
of a plumose seta each on the outer margin
of first 3 segments of endopod. Second maxi-
lliped (fig. 2, h): Exopod as in 1st maxilliped;
addition of 1 seta each on 2nd and 3rd seg-
ments of endopod. Third maxilliped (fig. 2, i) :
Exopod well developed, partially 2-segmented
with 5 natatory setae; endopod as indistinct
bud. Telson (fig. 2, r) : Slightly broader than
long; process formula 8 + 8; median pair being
spinulose distally.

Third Zoea (Fig. 3)

Carapace length: 1.4 mm; Abdomen length:
1.7 mm

Zoeae increase considerably in size and can
be distinguished by the following characters:
antennal endopod with a single seta; 3rd maxi-
lliped now with 6 setae; 4 pairs of pereiopod
buds developed; abdomen 6-segmented; telson
process formula 8 + 1 + 8, 4th process reduced
to a spine; uropod biramous.

Antennule (fig. 3, b) : Peduncle with 4 long,
plumose and 4 fine hair-like setae distally;
inner ramus separated from peduncle; outer
now with 3 aesthetascs and 4 unequal setae.
Antenna (fig. 3, c) : Endopod elongated, reach-
ing upto the tip of the scale and with a single
seta; scale with 12 setae. Mandible and first
maxilla (fig. 3, d & e) as in previous stage.
Second maxilla (fig, 3, f) : Coxal and basal
endites with 8 + 4 and 4 + 3 setae respectively;
scaphognathite with 10 plumose setae; no
change in endopod. Maxillipeds (fig. 3, g, h &
i): No change in 1st and 2nd; exopod of 3rd
with 6 natatory setae; endopod slightly
elongated. Pereiopods (fig. 3, k) : Four pairs
of rudimentary buds clearly seen. Abdomen
(fig. 3, a): Sixth segment separated from tel-
son; Telson (fig. 3, r) : Somewhat rectangular

in shape; process formula 8 + 1 + 8; 4th pro-
cess now reduced to an unarticulated spine;
all the processes plumose except the 1st and
4th, somewhat spinose at the tip. Uropods (fig.

3, r) biramous, with a functional exopod and
a rudimentary endopod; exopod with 8 plu-
mose setae on its posterior margin; endopod
present as bud.

Fourth Zoea (Figs. 4 & 5)

Carapace length: 1.7 mm; Abdomen length:

1 . 9 mm

This stage exhibits following advanced
features over the previous stage: inner ramus
of antennule now gets distinctly separated from
peduncle; mandibular palp developed as rudi-
mentary bud; 5 pairs of pereiopod buds; 4
pairs of pleopod buds; endopod of uropods
functional.

Antennule (fig. 4, b) : Peduncle now with 4
long plumose and 3 hair-like setae distally;
inner ramus clearly separated and tip devoid
of setae; outer with 3 aesthetascs and 4 un-
equal setae terminally. Antenna (fig. 4, c) :
Endopod 2-segmented, about l\ times longer
than scale and with a single terminal seta.
Scale with 13 marginal setae. Mandible (fig. 4,
d) : Palp developed as bud.FzV.st maxilla (fig.

4, e) : No change except for the addition of a
plumose seta on the coxal endite. Second
maxilla (fig. 4, f ) : Coxal and basal endites
with 8-9 + 3 and 4-5 +5 setae respectively;
endopod being unchanged; scaphognathite
fringed with about 14 setae. Maxillipeds (fig.

5, g, h & i) : 1st and 2nd unchanged; endopod
of 3rd segmented with a terminal seta.
Pereiopods (fig. 5, k) represented as 5 pairs of
elongated buds showing partial segmentation,
1st being chelate and 5th subchelate. Abdo-
men (figs. 4, a & 5, 1) : Four pairs of pleopods
present as buds from 2nd to 5th segments.
Telson (fig. 5, r) : Process formula 8+1 + 8;
4th process still present, but reduced. Uropods

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Fig. 3. Third zoea, Clibanarius aequabiiis var. merguiensis de Man.
a, entire larva; b, antennule; c, antenna; d, mandible; e, first maxilla; f, second
maxilla; g, first maxilliped; h: second maxilliped; i, third maxilliped; k, pereiopods;

r, telson.

THE HERMIT CRAB CLIBANARIUS AEQUABILIS VAR. MERGUIENSIS

Fig. 4. Fourth zoea, Clibanarius aequabilis var. merguiensis de Man.
a, entire larva; a1? rostrum; b, antennule; c, antenna; d, mandibles; e, first maxilla;

f, second maxilla.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Fig. 5. Fourth zoea, Clibanarius aequabilis var. merguiensis de Man.
g, first maxilliped; h, second maxilliped; i, third maxilliped; k. pereiopods; 1, pleopod;

i, telson and r1? uropods.

THE HERMIT CRAB CLIBANARIU5 AEQUABILIS VAR. MERGUIENSIS

(fig. 5,1*0: Both exopod and endopod func-
tional; exopod rather oval with 9-10 plumose
setae; endopod with 4-6 setae.

Glaucothoe (Figs. 6 & 7)

Carapace length: 1.2 mm; Abdomen length:

1 .9 mm

Rostrum short and broad at the base; abdo-
men about 1J times the length of carapace;
chelipcds more or less equal; eye-stalks nearly
twice as long as broad and almost reaching
the distal end of antennular and antennal
peduncle; ophthalmic scales small; fourth and
5th pereiopods smaller, subchelate and chelate
respectively; 4 pairs of biramous pleopods;
uropods slightly unequal.

Antcnnule (fig. 6, b) : Peduncle 3 -segment-
ed, first segment somewhat globular, second
and third segments somewhat cylindrical; outer
ramus 5-segmented with 0, 5-6, 4 and 2 aesthe-
tascs respectively on 1st to 4th segments,
distal wards and 3-4 setae on 5th, in addition
to few simple setae on 2nd and 3rd segments.
Antenna (fig. 6, c) : Peduncle 5-segmented;
scale with 3 outer marginal and 2 distal setae,
reaching nearly to the distal margin of 4th
segment, with a pointed process on the outer
distal angle; 9-segmented flagellum with 0, 3, 3,
3, 4, 3, 4, 5 and 7 setae from 1st to 9th segments
distalwards. Mandible (fig. 6, d) : As in adult;
palp 3 -segmented with about 12 bristle-like
setae distally on terminal segment. First maxilla
(fig. 6,e): Both coxa and basis membranous
bordered with setae and plumose hairs; coxa
with about 19 setae and basis 15-17 setae;
inner margin of basis with 2 simple setae;
endopod short and unsegmented with a short
knob-like projection terminally on the outer
side bearing a single seta; inner margin with
1 or 2 setae. Second maxilla (fig. 6, f) : Similar
to adult except that palp is simple; scaphogna-
thite well developed and fringed with about
50 setae. First maxilliped (fig. 6, g) : As in

adult, except that exopod lacks the terminal
flagellated portion. Second maxilliped (fig. 6,
h) : Of the endopod segments merus is the
longest as in adult; exopod shows distinct
flagellated and nonflagellated portions, flagellat-
ed portion 3 -segmented bearing 5 to 6 plumose
and a few simple distal setae. Third maxilliped
(fig. 6, i) : Distal 2 segments of endopod bear
many setae, remaining 3 segments with 2 + 2,
2+1 and 4 + 1 setae distalwards; the flagellated
portion of exopod do not show clear segmen-
tation and with 6 plumose setae terminally.
Pereiopods (fig. 7, k2-5): First pair of cheli-
peds (fig. 7, kj), as in adult, distinctly chelate,
in almost horizontal plane; merus is the lon-
gest segment; carpus somewhat triangular,
1 /3rd the length of merus; propodus longer
than broad and devoid of tubercles; fingers
hoofed; dactylus more or less equal to propo-
dus in length with slightly curved but somewhat
hoofed tip; few scattered setae on all segments
but no spines and tubercles. Second pereio-
pods (fig. 7, k2), more or less similar; seg-
ments long and cylindrical; propodus is the
longest segment; carpus 1/2 the length of pro-
podus; dactylus nearly Jth the length of pro-
podus, unlike in adult wherein dactylus is 1.7
times propodus, with 2-3 spinules on its poste-
rior margin. Third pereiopods (figs. 7. k3)
similar to the second leg except for 2-3 spinu-
les on its posterior margin. Fourth pereiopods
(fig. 7, k4) quite small, smaller xhan fifth leg;
merus and carpus more or less of equal length;
propodus as broad as long and with about 4-6
pectinate granules and tufts of setae distally;
dactylus claw-like with no spines but bearing
tufts of setae and a long seta. Fifth pereiopods
(fig. 7, k5) minutely chelate; merus being the
longest segment; carpus nearly 2/ 3rd the length
of merus and bears few setae on either mar-
gins; anterior part of propodus and proximal
part of dactylus show corneous granules; the

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Fig. 6. Glaucothoe of Clibanarius aequabilis var. merguiensis dc Man.
a, lateral view of entire larva; a1? dorsal view of entire larva; b, antennule; c, antenna,
d, mandible; e, first maxilla; f, second maxilla; g, first maxilliped; h, second maxi

lliped; i, third maxilliped.

THE HERMIT CRAB CLIBANARIUS AEQUABILIS VAR. MERGUIENSIS

Fig. 7. Glaucothoe of Clibancuius aequabilis var. merguiensis de Man.
kj, cheliped; k2, second pereiopod; k„. third pereiopod; k4, fourth pereiopod; k5 fifth
pereiopod; 1, pleopod; r. telson and uropod; rv telson

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

latter forming a chelate structure with dacty-
lus; very long setae both on propodus and
dactylus. Abdomen (fig. 6, a) nearly \\ times
as long as carapace; 6-segmented; 2nd to 5th
segments with a pair of pleopods each. Pleo -
pods (fig. 7, 1) biramous with a long pedun-
cle; a setose exopod and 2 hooks in the inner
margin of endopod. Telson (fig. 7, r) some-
what obtuse, slightly broadening anteriorly,
with about 9 plumose setae on its plain poste-
rior margin and 2 pairs of small simple setae
laterally and dorsally and a pair of submar-
ginal setae posteriorly. Uropods (fig. 7, r) well
developed; both the rami being somewhat
rectangularly triangular and armed with cor-
neous granules on the posterior end; with 14
plumose setae on the posterior and inner lateral
margins of exopod and about 11 on posterior
margin of endopod.

Discussion

Based on the hitherto described larvae, the
features of generic importance of Clibanarius
may be summarised as under for first zoeal
stages : carapace and abdominal somites

smooth; rostrum long, broad at the base, blunt
or acutely pointed at the tip; reaching beyond
the antennule and antenna, beak-like; antennal
scale without a terminal spine, endopod with
three long plumose setae; telson deeply
notched; first process laterally situated, blunt,
finger-like except for C. erythropus wherein it
is a small spine.

Of the three species wherein published in-
formation on the laboratory reared larvae in
the genus Clibanarius is available, the larvae
of C. vittatus (Lang & Young 1977) pass
through 5 zoeal instars, rarely 4, whereas, C.
infraspinatus (Shenoy & Sankolli 1977) and
C. padavensis (Shenoy & Sankolli 1975) pass
through 4 zoeal instars before a glaucothoe.

Thus, stage to stage comparison is possible
with only the latter two species.

The first stage larva of Clibanarius aequa-
bilis var. merguiensis differs from those of
C. padavensis and C. infraspinatus in the
following: the posterior border of telson

along with the notch fringed with fine hairs;
exopods of first and second maxillipeds two-
segmented; outer margin of endopod of second
maxilla without hairs. Also, the larvae of the
present species differ from other larvae in seta-
tion of appendages.

The third zoea of Clibanarius aequabilis
var. merguiensis differs from those of C. pada-
vensis and C. infraspinatus in the telson, having
an unarticulated spine as the fourth process
in the present species as against a minute
tubercle in C. infraspinatus and C. padavensis.

Shenoy & Sankollii (1977) consider the re-
duced fourth process of C. infraspinatus as a
generic character. However, in the larvae of
C. vittatus (Lang & Young) and C. aequabilis
var. merguiensis (present species) the fourth
process changes into an unarticulated spine and
retains its prominence throughout the zoeal
stages. Hence the reduced fourth telson pro-
cess in C. infraspinatus should not be consider-
ed as a generic feature.

The glaucothoe of Clibanarius aequabilis
var. merguiensis exhibits generic features sum-
marised by Shenoy & Sankolli for C. infra-
spinatus (1977). The differences observed are
mainly in the armature of appendages, hence
a detailed comparison is not made.

Ack nowledgements

I am thankful to K. N. Sankolli and Shakun-
tala Shenoy, Taraporevala, Aquarium, Bombay,
for checking the drawings, and to the Kama-
tak University for providing laboratory faci-
lities. Also, thanks are due to Dr. V. B.
Nadkarni, Head of the Department of Zoo-

THE HERMIT CRAB CLIB AN ARIUS AEQUABILIS VAR. MERGUIENSIS

logy, Karnatak University, for his valuable by an award of Junior Fellowship from the
suggestions. The research work was supported C.S.I.R., which is gratefully acknowledged.

References

Lang, W. H. & Young, A. M. (1977) : The larval
development of Clibanarius vittatus (Bose) (Crusta-
cea: Decapoda: Diogenidae) reared in the labora-
tory. Biol. Bull. 152: 84-104.

Shency, Shakuntala & Sankolli, K. N. (1975):
Metamorphosis of an estuarine hermit crab, Cliba-
narius padav crisis de Man, in the laboratory (Deca-
poda, Anomura). Bull. Dept. Mar. Sci. Uni. Cochin

VII (3): 671-683.

(1977):

Laboratory culture of the hermit crab Clibanarius
infraspinatus Hilgendorf (Crustacea, Decapoda,
Anomura). Proc. Symp. Warm Water Zooplankton:
660-670.

Thakur, M. K. (1960): A new technique for
preserving prawn larvae. Curr. Sci. 29: 128.

TOURIST ACTIVITY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE
LEOPARD PANT HERA PARDUS FUSCA (MEYER,
1794) IN THE RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK, SRI LANKA1

M. R. Chambers2, Charles Santiapillai3

AND

N. ISHWARAN4
(With two text -figures)

The activity of the leopard ( Panthera pardus fusca) was carefully monitored in three
areas of Block I of the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka, from July 1979 to June
1980. In 67 hours of observations there were 16 sightings. Despite few records, the
following conclusions were made: — (a) leopards had two activity peaks, early morn-
ing and late evening; (b) leopards were seen more frequently in the drought months;
(c) leopards were not seen with the same frequency in the different areas; (d) sight-
ings were short, mostly 10 seconds or less, and (e) most sightings caused obvious
disturbance to the leopards. Tourist activity in the Park mav account for these

characteristics of leopard behaviour.

Introduction

In Sri Lanka the leopard, once widespread,
is now mainly limited to the country’s major
National Parks, and there are probably no
more than a few hundreds remaining in the
country (Santiapillai et al. 1982).

The National Parks are visited by large num-
bers of tourists and the wildlife authorities are
concerned that these visitors may be having
harmful effects such as altering the behaviour
and distribution patterns of ungulates and
carnivores.

In the Ruhuna National Park the leopard is
confined mainly to forested areas, and direct

1 Accepted, June 1983.

2 Department of Biology, University of Papua
New Guinea.

3 Department of Zoology, University of Perade-
niya, Sri Lanka.

4 Department of Zoology, University of Perade-
niya, Sri Lanka.

observations on the animal are not easy. Sight-
ings are frequently brief and restricted to early
morning and late afternoon periods of activity.
The present study reports an attempt to make
brief sightings of the leopard of quantitative
value so that reasonable inferences may be
made concerning its behaviour and abundance.
In addition, good quantitative data on leopard
sightings may be useful for measuring future
changes in leopard behaviour and/or abun-
dance.

The study area

The Ruhuna National Park is situated in
the arid south-east corner of Sri Lanka (for-
merly Ceylon). The annual rainfall is less than
1000 mm unequally spread throughout the year.
There is a prolonged drought from June to
September, a marked rainy season from Octo-
ber to December and intermittent rains from
January to May. The Park is 1,160 km2 and is

THE LEOPARD IN THE RU HUN A NATIONAL PARK, SRI LANKA

divided into several Blocks. The present study
was carried out in Block 1, the main tourist
area of the Park which currently attracts about
90,000 visitors each year. Most tourists enter
in the early morning or late afternoon. The

vegetation of Block 1 consists principally of
climax riverine forest, thorn scrub (degraded
climax forest) and grasslands (edaphic
climaxes maintained by seasonal floodings and
by ungulate and small mammal grazing pres-

Fig. 1. Map of Block I, Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka showing the locations
( • ) of the leopard sightings in the main study Areas A, B & C.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 81

sure). The predominant vegetation is a dense
thorny scrub through which visibility rarely
exceeds 20 m and is frequently much less. The
grasslands of Block 1 are found throughout
the area although more commonly in the cen-
' tral and coastal regions. They are small in size,
the largest being about 0.5 km2.

The Park supports a large biomass of herbi-
vores, the most important being spotted deer
( Axis axis Erxleben), water buffalo ( Bubalus
bubalis L.), elephant ( Elephas maximus L.),
wild pig ( Sus scrofa L.), sambar ( Gervus uni-
color Kerr) and the black-naped hare ( Lepus
nigricollis F. Cuvier). The leopard is the only
large carnivore in the Park and in Sri Lanka.
For a fuller description of the Ruhuna National
Park see Comanor (1971) and Mueller-Dom-
bois (1968 and 1972).

Methods

All observations were made between July
1979 and June 1980. During the course of our
studies on the herbivores of the Park (Bala-
subramaniam et al. 1980, Santiapillai and
Chambers 1980, 1981 and 1982, Santiapillai
et al. 1981 and 1982) we travelled extensively
in Block 1. For the purposes of studying the
leopard population. Block 1 was divided into
three Study Areas A, B and C (Fig. 1). Area
A comprised the main road running the length
of Block 1 from the entrance at Palatupanu
to its termination at the Yala bungalow and
all roads east of this. Area B comprised the
central roads and Area C the northern roads.
A fourth major road running along the western
side of Block 1 was not surveyed frequently
enough to be included in this analysis although
leopards have been seen there. Each day was
divided into 2-hour time intervals from 0600
to 1800 with an additional interval later than
1800 h. The amount of time spent travelling in

each Study Area was carefully logged and
whenever a leopard was sighted the following
information noted:- date, time, duration of
sighting, minimum distance from the leopard
and its behaviour during the sighting. Every
effort was made to reduce disturbance during
the sighting and each sighting was continued
until the leopard disappeared from view.

Results

The total observation time within the Park
was 4020 minutes (67 hours) and there were
16 leopards sighted (l/4.2h). For ease of
comparison, sighting frequencies are reduced
to a standard unit of number of sightings per
hour of observation.

(a) Pattern of daily sightings

The total amounts of time spent on the look-
out for leopards in each time period, together
with the number and frequency of sightings,
are given in Table 1. The data show two peaks
of activity each day, a smaller one between
0600 and 0800 h (0.43 sightings /h) and a
second larger one after 1800h with a frequency
of sightings (0.79/h) double that of the morn-

Table 1

Number and frequency of leopard sightings in

EACH TIME INTERVAL, RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK, JULY

1979 to June 1980

Time interval

Minutes
of obser-
vations

Number of Frequency
sightings of sight-

ings (no./h)

06. CO-08. 00

415

0.43

08.00-10.00

820

0.07

10.00-12.00

475

0.12

12.00-14.00

385

• —

14. CO-16. ©0

340

—

16. 00-18. GO

830

0.07

From 18.00

755

0.79

THE LEOPARD IN THE Rli HUN A NATIONAL PARK, SRI LANKA

ing. The leopards in Block 1 were therefore
mainly active after 1800h, and most of these
sightings were made after sunset (about 1830 h).
There may also be considerable activity before
0600 h. The activity peaks, at least during the
daylight hours, were very short indeed. Between
0800 and 1 800 h there were only three leopard
sightings in 2850 minutes (0.06/h) and none
between 1120 and 1755 h.

(b) Seasonal variations in sightings

The frequency of leopard sightings during
the dry season, wet season and the period out-
side the peak dry season are given in Table 2.

Table 2

Seasonal variation in the frequency of leopard
SIGHTINGS, RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK, JULY 1979 TO

June 1980

Season

Minutes
of obser-
vations

Number of Frequency
sightings of sight-
ings (no.|h)

Peak dry season

920

0.46

(July /Aug)
Peak wet season

815

0.22

(Nov/Dec)
Period outside
peak dry season

3100

0.18

(Nov/June)

These frequencies varied with season. Leopards
were seen most frequently during the drought
months of July and August (0.46/h). During
the wet season (November and December)
sightings were 0.22/h and for the whole of
the period outside the drought. 0.18 /h. It was
therefore apparent that leopard behaviour
varied between dry season and the rest of the
year.

the number and frequency of sightings in each
of the three Study Areas are given in Table 3.

Table 3

Variation in the frequency of leopard sightings
in the study areas of Ruhuna National Park,
July 1979 to June 1980

Area

Minutes of
observations

Number of
sightings

Frequency of
sightings
(no./h)

2415

0.22

890

0.33

715

0.17

Leopards were seen most frequently in Area
B (0.33/h) and least in Area C (0.17/h). It
was not possible (because of the few sightings
and seasonal and daily variation in sighting
frequencies) to assess whether or not the diffe-
rent rates from the Areas reflected chance
observations or real differences in leopard be-
haviour and/or abundance. A possible indica-
tion of the differences between Areas A and
B was the frequency of early morning sightings
(0600 to 0800 h). In Area A no sightings were
made during 190 minutes, whereas in Area B,
3 leopards were seen in 225 minutes. Similarly
nearly all night sightings (after dusk) were in
Area A. These observations tend to suggest
that leopards avoided the busy roads of Area
A during the daylight hours but came to them
after sunset once the tourists had left the
Park.

(d) Duration of sightings

The duration of each of the 16 sightings is
shown diagrammatically in Fig. 2. The total
duration of all 16 sightings was 896 seconds
and the average 56 seconds. If the one long
sighting of 600 seconds is excluded, the average
duration of the remaining 15 was 20 seconds.

Number of Sightings

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 81

Duration (s) of Sightings

Fig. 2. Histogram showing the duration and frequency distribution of leopard sightings
in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka, from July 1979 to June 1980.

Ten of the sightings were of 10 seconds or less.
These generally very short sightings were in
marked contrast to the long ones noted by
Eisenberg and Lockhart (1972) and Mucken-
hirn and Eisenberg (1973) that averaged from
8 to 10 minutes in the Wilpattu National Park,
Sri Lanka.

Of the 16 sightings there were 12 (75%) in
which the leopard was obviously alarmed by
us. In the remaining 4 the leopard was appa-
rently unconcerned by the sometimes close
encounters with the vehicle. On two occasions
leopards strolled with 5 m of the jeep without
apparently being aware of its presence.

THE LEOPARD IN THE RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK, SRI LANKA

Discussion

The leopard sightings documented here form
a part of our studies on the fauna of the
Ruhuna National Park. In anticipation of in-
frequent sightings we attempted to collect the
data in such a way that it would be possible
to draw conclusions about leopard behaviour,
possible disturbance by tourists and to provide
baseline information for comparison with
future studies. During the year we recorded
only 16 sightings in 67 hours of travels along
the roads and tracks of the Park. Although
this was not an ideal data base from which to
make interpretations, several tentative conclu-
sions can be drawn.

Firstly, leopards had morning (06.00 to
08.00) and evening (after 18.00) activity
peaks. Between these periods there was very
little observed activity. Such a daily behavi-
our pattern is typical of large carnivores. FIow-
ever the daylight activity peaks were shorter
than those observed by Eisenberg and Lock-
hart (1972) in Wilpattu National Park, Sri
Lanka. This had considerably fewer visitors
than Ruhuna. It was possible therefore that
daytime leopard activity in Ruhuna was cur-
tailed by the early morning and late evening
rush of visitors to the Park. More detailed
studies would be required to show if leopards
were active in the daytime but in areas away
from the roads.

The results also show that leopards were
seen more frequently during the July /August
drought than at any other times of the year.
One possible reason for this is that Ruhuna
was closed to visitors at this time. Consequently
very few vehicles were in the Park and the
leopards were less frequently disturbed. Since
the normal reaction of the leopard on
seeing or hearing a vehicle was to disappear
quickly into the adjacent scrub, it follows logi-

cally that the fewer vehicles in the Park the
greater the chance of seeing leopards on or
by the roadside. The drought season was also
the leopard breeding season (Santiapillai et al
1982) and therefore the animals may have
been more active and wider ranging at this
time which could account for more frequent
sightings.

Other possible explanations for increased
frequency of sightings at this time — loss of
leaves by much of the scrub vegetation and
changes in prey distribution — were unlikely
to account for them. This was because all
sightings were in open spaces — on roads,
verges or grasslands and therefore unaffected
by increased visibility into the scrub. Similarly
during the drought one of the leopard’s main
prey species (spotted deer) moved into the
scrub away from the roads (Balasubramaniam
ei al. 1980). If the leopards followed them
closely, reduced sightings would be expected
at this time.

The average duration of leopard sightings
in Ruhuna was 56 seconds and the majority
were 10 seconds or less. These short observa-
tion periods were undoubtedly due to the facts
that virtually all sightings took place on or
by roads and that the leopards moved quickly
into the scrub when disturbed. Large numbers
of vehicles travelling within the Park therefore
virtually ensured that very few leopards would
be seen.

The affinity of leopards for roads has long
been documented (Storey 1907). The results
of this study suggest that at Ruhuna this affi-
nity was such that daily and seasonal behavi-
our patterns were to some extent at least gear-
ed to human activity on the roads.

The data collected during this study gave no
information on the density of leopards in
Ruhuna. The frequency of leopard sightings
however, especially when related to time of the

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 81

day and locality, provide baseline information
that can be used to monitor any future changes
in numbers. Any significant increase or de-
crease in the leopard numbers would be ex-
pected to show up as corresponding changes
in the frequency of sightings during a similar
future survey, providing the behaviour of the
leopards was unchanged.

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank Professors K. D. Arud-
pragasam and H. Crusz of the Universities of

Refer

Balasubramaniam, S., Santiapillai, C. & Cham-
bers, M. R. (1980): Seasonal shifts in the pattern
of habitat utilization by the spotted deer ( Axis axis
Erxleben 1777) in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri
Lanka. Spixiana 3: 157-166.

Comanor, P. L, (1971) : An analysis of the woody
scrub vegetation of Ruhuna National Park, Ceylon.
Tropical Ecology (India) 72: 209-222.

Eisenberg, J. F. & Lockhart, M. (1972) : An eco-
logical reconnaissance of the Wilpattu National Park,
Ceylon. Smithsonian Contrib. zool. 101. Smithsonian
Institution Press, Washington, D.C.

Muckenhirn, N. & Eisenberg, J. F. (1973):
Home ranges and predation of the Ceylon leopard
(Panthera pardus fusca). In: Eatob, R. (ed.). The
World Cats, volume 1. World Wildlife Safari, pp.
142-175.

Mueller-Dombois, D. (1968): Ecogeographic

analysis of a climate map of Ceylon with particular
reference to vegetation. Ceylon Forester 8: 39-58.

(1972) : Crown distortion

and elephant distribution in the woody vegetation
of the Ruhuna National Park, Ceylon. Ecology 53:
208-227.

Santiapillai, C. & Chambers, M. R. (1980):
Aspects of the population dynamics of the wild pig

Colombo and Peradeniya respectively for their
help and encouragement in our Ruhuna studies.
We also wish to thank Mr. Childers Jayawar-
dhana. Assistant Director of the Department
of Wildlife Conservation for his help and hospi-
tality during our visits. We are grateful to the
National Science Council of Sri Lanka for
financial support. Our thanks to Mr. Tissa
Alagoda of the Department of Zoology, Uni-
versity of Peradeniya for technical assistance.
Finally we wish to thank Dr. Brian Mitchell of
the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Banchory,
Scotland, for helpful comments and criticisms.

ENCES

(Sus scrofa L.) in the Ruhuna National Park.
Spixiana 3: 239-250.

Santiapillai, C. & Chambers, M. R. (1981):
Observations on the Sambar ( Cervus unicolor Kerr
1792) in the Ruhuna National Parte, Sri Lanka,
Ceylon Journal of Science 14: 193-205.

(1982):

The social organisation and calving patterns of the
water buffalo (Bubal us bubalis L.) in the Ruhuna
National Park, Sri Lanka. In: Workshops on water
buffalo research in Sri Lanka, SAREC report R. 3.
Published by the Swedish Agency for Research Co-
operation with Developing Countries, Stockholm, pp.
59-67.

Santiapillai, C, Balasubramaniam, S. & Cham-
bers, M. R. (1981): A preliminary study of bark
damage by cervids in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri
Lanka. Spixiana 4: 247-254.

Santiapillai, C., Chambers, M. R. & Ishwaran,
N. (1982) : The leopard ( Panthera pardus fusca
Meyer 1794) in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri
Lanka and observations relevant to its conservation.
Biological Conservation 23: 5-14.

Storey, H. (1907): Hunting and shooting in Cey-
lon. (Reprinted 1969). Tissara Prakasakayo. Dehi-
wela, Sri Lanka.

SOME OBSERVATIONS OF SCARCE BIRDS IN NEPAL1

N. J. Redman2, F. Lambert3 and
R. Grimmett4

Sightings of three species of birds previously unrecorded in Nepal are documented.
Brief details of a further eleven species of ornithological significance to Nepal are
also presented.

Introduction

From December 1978 to February 1979 the
authors, R. Filby, C. Murphy and L. Norton
visited Nepal to observe birds. C. Murphy and
N. J. Redman made a return visit from April to
June 1979. During these two periods 585
species of birds were identified, three of which:
Baer’s Pochard Aythya baeri , Sanderling
Calidris alba and Common Gull Larus canus,
were recorded for the first time in Nepal. The
main purpose of this paper is to document these
sightings. Brief details are also given of other
species seen for which there are very few pre-
vious Nepalese records or for which informa-
tion on breeding or unusual behaviour was
gathered.

A wide variety of habitats and altitude zones
in central and eastern Nepal was visited. Areas
of significant ornithological interest included
the Jomosom trek (January), Helambu/Gosain-
kund trek (May), Kathmandu Valley, central
tarai, Ilam district and Kosi Barrage. The latter
proved to be of particular interest since many
scarce species were found here, including all
three new species for Nepal. We visited Kosi

1 Accepted March 1983.

2 I Westfields, Saffron Walden, Essex.

" 15 Bramble Rise, Westdene, Brighton, Sussex.

4 12 Hobbs Way. Rustington, Littlehampton, W.
Sussex.

Barrage on four separate occasions, 10-13
February, 20-21 February, 17-20 April and
briefly on 23-24 April. During these four short
periods totalling eight full days, the majority
of our time was spent in areas on the north
side of the barrage.

New Species for Nepal
baer’s pochard Aythya baeri (Radde)

Baer’s Pochard was first identified on 12
February 1979 when two males and one female
were seen on open water just north of the Kosi
Barrage amongst a flock of several hundred
Aythya spp. On 20 February we saw this
species again and counted at least 17 males
and 3 females. Prolonged observation of both
sexes was possible and comparisons were made
with accompanying Tufted Duck A. fuligula ,
Common Pochard A. ferina and Ferruginous
Duck (White-eyed Pochard) A. nyroca.

In shape Baer's Pochard was comparable to
Ferruginous Duck and Common Pochard, and
intermediate in size.

Males were readily identifiable by the com-
bination of iridescent green head and rich
chestnut breast, unlike any other Aythya
species. Other features included white belly,
dusky brown flanks, white under-tail coverts
and gleaming white eye. Females were similar
ir coloration to the males but duller, the

JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

dusky head showing only a slight greenish
gloss. At a distance, female Baer’s Pochard
appeared confusingly similar to other female
Ay thy a species. Common Pochard and Tufted
Duck, however, both lacked white undertail
coverts and Ferruginous Duck could generally
be separated by its uniform chestnut coloura-
tion, less white on the belly and flanks, and
smaller size.

Baer’s Pochard breeds in eastern Siberia
wintering primarily in eastern China. In the
Indian sub-continent, Ripley (1982) states that
it is an uncommon and erratic winter visitor
to Manipur, Assam and associated states,
Bangladesh and Bengal; also recorded from
Bihar and Maharashtra. Ali and Ripley (1978)
suggest that it may be less rare than records
indicate. There are no previous records from
Nepal and this species was not seen at Kosi
in the subsequent three winters (C. and T.
Tnskipp in lift.).

sanderling Calidris alba (Pallas)

A single Sanderling was discovered at Kosi
Barrage on 11 February 1979 feeding on a
mudbank with nine Dunlin Calidris alpina and
fifty Little Stints C. minuta. It was not seen
on subsequent days.

In size it was considerably larger than Little
Stint and about the same as Dunlin but with a
shorter, straight bill. Bill and legs were black.
The very pale plumage, pale grey above and
pure white below, served to distinguish the bird
at some distance. A small black shoulder patch
and black primary tips were also noted, and in
flight it showed a more prominent white wing
bar than Dunlin or Little Stint. A distinctive
feature was its rapid feeding action. All the
observers are familiar with this species in
Europe.

Sanderling breeds in the Arctic, wintering
on coasts almost throughout the world.

Although a regular winter visitor to the coasts
of India, it has apparently not been previously
recorded inland in the subcontinent (Ali and
Ripley 1980). Our sighting constitutes the first
record from Nepal.

common gull Lotus canus Linnaeus

On 12 February 1979 a Common Gull was
found amongst a group of Black-headed Gulls
L. ridibundus resting on a sandbank at Kosi
Barrage. It remained in the area all day and
allowed direct comparison with the Black-
headed Gulls and also with Brown-headed
Gulls L. brunnicephalus and a single adult
Slender-billed Gull L. genei. It was still pre-
sent on 21 February. Despite its rarity in
Nepal, Common Gull is a familiar bird in
Europe and was readily identified by all the
observers as a first-year bird.

In appearance it was an elegant, medium-
sized gull with a rounded head and a small
yellowish bill with a dark tip. The head, neck
and underparts were white with some faint
brownish markings on the sides of the breast
and head. A pale whitish oval patch on the
closed wing contrasted with the grey mantle.
The protruding primaries were dark brown and
the legs were pale yellowish. In flight it showed
a broad whitish band across the inner wing,
contrasting with the brown flight feathers. The
tail was white with a broad dark terminal band.

The Common Gull was easily separated
from all other gulls present by its size, shape
and colour of bare parts. Black-headed Gull
was noticeably smaller and slimmer with red-
dish bill and legs. Brown-headed and Slender-
billed Gulls, although of similar size, were
different in shape and also had reddish bills
and legs. The only species of gull likely to
cause confusion within the Indian subcontinent
is the Herring Gull L. argentatus, but this
species is considerably larger and deeper-

SOME OBSERVATIONS OF SCARCE BIRDS IN NEPAL

chested with a more angled head and much
stouter bill. Its wings are broader and flight
heavier.

Common Gull is a widely distributed and
abundant holarctic species breeding across the
northern palearctic and moving south in winter.
Surprisingly it has rarely been recorded from
the Indian subcontinent. It is not included in
Ali and Ripley (1981) or Ripley (1982) and
the only records from the Indian subcontinent
of which we are aware are two individuals
from the Punjab area of Pakistan: L. J.
Djiksen, F. Koning and A. Vittery saw an
adult at Rasul Barrage on 27 January 1974
and A. Vittery identified a first winter bird at
Rawal Lake, near Islamabad on 17 February
1974 (A. Vittery, pers. comm.). Our sighting
represents the first record from Nepal. Subse-
quently, an adult in winter plumage has been
observed at Phewa Tal near Pokhara on 21
January 1981 (del-Nevo and Ewins 1981).

Other records of outstanding interest
fulvous whistling duck (Large Whistling
Teal) Dendrocygna bicolor

A single individual of this species was iden-
tified amongst a flock of 1500 Lesser Whistling
Duck (Teal) D. javanica at Kosi Barrage on
12 February 1979. This record constitutes the
only sighting of Fulvous Whistling Duck in
Nepal this century. Although overlooked by
recent authors, a Hodgson specimen from
Nepal is listed by Sharpe (1894). The speci-
men is still present in the British Museum and
was located by C. Inskipp in 1981. In the Indian
subcontinent this species is scattered widely,
but sporadically in many areas and everywhere
rather scarce. It is apparently more common
in Bengal and Bangladesh (Ali and Ripley
1978).

ruddy shelduck Tadorna ferruginea

A pair with 8 newly-hatched young was

present on a lake at Gosainkund on 27 May
1979 at an altitude of approximately 4300 m.
This represents the first positive breeding re-
cord for Nepal (R. L. Fleming Jr., pers.
comm. ) .

white-tailed (sea) eagle Haliaeetus albicilla
Seven birds were seen from December to
February including three at Kosi Barrage. An
adult at Begnas Tal near Pokhara on 2 Janu-
ary 1979 was seen to catch a Purple Gallinule
(Purple Moorhen) Porphyrio porphyrio in
flight. The gallinule was subsequently dropped
and defied repeated attempts at recapture by
diving. Attacks on flying birds are apparently
rare (Cramp et al. 1980).

black-tailed godwit Limosa limosa
A flock of 29 was seen at Kosi Barrage on
18 April 1979. In the 19th century Hodgson
obtained at least one specimen in April and five
between mid- August and late October (no year
given), from the Kathmandu Valley. He
wrote: “small flocks feed by day on chours or
moist cultivated plots”. J. Scully obtained a
specimen on 7 September 1876 or 1877 in the
Kathmandu Valley (Scully 1879), stating that
“the godwit is a winter visitant to the Nepal
Valley, but does not appear to be common
there”. In this century, a single bird was obser-
ved in the Kathmandu Valley in August 1978
(Fleming et al. 1979) and a specimen was
taken at Chobar on 30 August 1981 by H. S.
Nepali. There have been at least five other re-
cords at Kosi Barrage in Spring since 1979 (C.
and T. Inskipp in lift. 1983).

little owl Athene noctua
A single Little Owl was found at Kagbeni
in the upper Kali Gandaki Valley on 14-15
January 1979 at an altitude of approximately
2800 m. This species was first recorded in Nepal

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

in July 1978 when two specimens were collect-
ed in Dolpo (H. S. Nepali pers. comm.). It
has been seen subsequently at Kagbeni and
nearby at Muktinath by several observers (C.
and T. Inskipp in litt. 1983).

Indian cliff swallow Hirundo jluvicola
Up to ten birds were present at Begnas Tal
near Pokhara on 3 January 1979. This consti-
tutes the second record from Nepal, the first
being a single bird at Kosi on 10 April 1975
(Fleming et al. 1979).. There have been at
least five subsequent records (C. and T. Ins-
skipp in litt. 1983).

rufous-bellied robin Tarsi ger ( Erithacus )
hyperythrus

A pair was feeding young on 24-25 May
1979 at about 3500 m on the west side of the
Gandak-Kosi watershed. The nest was not seen
but was sited on or close to the ground at the
side of a shady wooded ravine. A second
female was found nearby. Fleming et al. (1979)
state that the species is known from the Kosi-
Gandaki watershed ridge eastward but there
have subsequently been several records west
to the Kali Gandaki (C. and T. Inskipp in litt.
1983). The nest is undescribed (R. L. Flem-
ing, Jr., pers. comm.).

EYE-BROWED THRUSH (DARK THRUSH)

T urdus obscurus

Two birds were identified at Kokarna in the
Kathmandu Valley on 20 December 1978
amongst a flock of thrushes comprising five
species. Excluding a Hodgson specimen of
unknown origin this was the first record of this
species for the Kathmandu Valley. All other
records are from East Nepal (C. and T.
Inskipp., pers. comm.).

dusky thrush T urdus naumani

An adult was found at Lete in the Kali

Gandaki Valley on 22-24 January 1979 in the
company of a flock of sixty Dark-throated
Thrushes T. ruficoilis. A second bird, duller in
plumage and presumed to be in first winter
plumage, was discovered on 4 February 1979
at Gokarna in the Kathmandu Valley, also
amongst a flock of Dark-throated Thrushes. In
the 19th Century at least two specimens were
obtained by Flodgson in the Kathmandu Valley
in January (Gray and Gray 1846, Seebohm
1881). The only subsequent reference to Dusky
Thrush in Nepal is a report of large parties
on Nagar Jong at about 1500 m in Spring
1948 and a few in the Kathmandu Valley the
following winter (Proud 1949). There have
been several individuals reported since our
observations, in both the Kali Gandaki and
Kathmandu Valleys (C. and T. Inskipp in litt.
1983). In the Indian subcontinent, Dusky Thrush
is stated to be an irregular winter visitor, rare
in the west and more frequent in the east
(Ripley 1982).

yellow-browed tit Sylviparus modestus

An occupied nest hole of a pair of Yellow-
browed Tits was found on 2 May 1979 on the
slopes of Phulchowki in the Kathmandu
Valley, at an altitude of 2000 m. The pair was
feeding young. This was only the third nest
ever discovered of this species. Full details have
already been published (Lohrl 1981).

SCARLET-BACKED FLOWERPECKER Dicaeum

cruentatum

A male and two females were seen at Dharan
in East Nepal on 21 April 1979. This is only
the second record of this species in Nepal
(Fleming et al. 1979).

Acknowledgements

We are indebted to Carol and Tim Inskipp
for providing valuable information on the

SOME OBSERVATIONS OF SCARCE BIRDS IN NEPAL

status and distribution of birds in Nepal and
for commenting on an earlier draft of this
paper. Thanks are also due to Bob Fleming

Refer

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1978): Handbook of the
Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 1 (2nd edition).

— (1980) : Handbook of the

Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 2 (2nd edition).
Bombay.

(1982): Handbook of the

Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 3 (2nd edition).
Bombay.

Cramp, S. et a/. (1980) : Birds of the Western
Palearctic. Vol. 2. Oxford.

Del-Nevo, A. & Ewins, P. (1981): Bird Watch-
ing in Nepal, 7th December 1980 — 19th February
1981. Unpublished.

Fleming, R. L. et al. (1979) : Birds of Nepal,
(2nd edition). Kathmandu.

Gray, J. E. & Gray, G. R. (1846) : Catalogue
of the specimens and drawings of Mammalia and

Sr. and Bob and Linda Fleming for much
assistance and encouragement during our stay
in Nepal.

ENCES

birds of Nepal and Tibet, presented by B. H. Hodg-
son, Esq to the British Museum, London.

Hodgson. B. H. (undated). Original paintings
held in the Zoological Society of London Library.
Unpublished.

Lohrl, H. (1981) : “Zur Kenntnis der Laubmeise,
Sylviparus modestus”. J. Orn. 122 : 89-92.

Proud, D. (1949): Some Notes on the Birds of
the Nepal Valley. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48:
695-719.

Ripley, S. D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds
of India and Pakistan. 2nd edition. Bombay.

Scully, J. (1879) : Contribution to the Ornitho-
logy of Nepal. Stray Feathers 8: 204-368.

Seebohm, H. (1881) : Catalogue of the Birds in
the Collection of the British Museum. Vol. 5.

Sharpe, R. B. (1894): Catalogue of the Birds in
the Collection of the British Museum. Vol. 23.

SPAWNING OF SOME IMPORTANT COLDWATER
FISH OF THE GARHWAL HIMALAYA1

S. P. Badola2 and H. R. Singh3
{With a plate )

The present study gives an account of the spawning of some important coldwater
fish of the Garhwal Himalaya. Most of them have one breeding season and breed in
summer, monsoon and postmonsoon months. However, Schizothorax species show a
long spawning season (July to January) and their breeding is at a peak from Sept-
ember to November. Puntius chilinoides and P. hexastichus spawn twice a year during
two different but relatively short spawning periods, May-July and December-January.
Increased pH and flooding (turbidity) is necessary for the spawning of Noemaeheilus,
Glyptothorax, Pseudecheneis and Tor species of the Garhwal streams. High concen-
tration of dissolved oxygen and relatively low pH are necessary for the spawning
of Schizothorax, Labeo and Barilius. Besides flooding and varying values of pH
and oxygen content of the waters, a varying suitable temperature is also necessary
for the spawning of these species. The natural breeding grounds of these fishes are
also disturbed by the transportation of timber in the Garhwal rivers.

There is little or no information available
on the breeding habits of coldwater
fishes of the Garhwal Himalayas. Hence this
study was undertaken.

Material and Methods

The period of spawning as inferred by the
presence of mature ova and testes in the body
cavity was confirmed by actually finding the
spawn, fry and fingerlings. In some cases the
ova attached to stones, lying in a particular
breeding place were collected and counted
(Plate 1). The breeding site of a particular
fish was decided by the occurrence of its eggs
and fry in that place. The temperature, pH,
depth, gradient, current, and dissolved oxygen

1 Accepted December 1980.

2 Department of Zoology, Government Postgra-
duate College, Rishikesh, Dehra Dun.

3 Department of Zoology, Garhwal University,
Srinagar Garhwal. (U.P.).

of the water in the breeding ground were re-
corded. The specimens were collected and exa-
mined from different snow-fed and non-snow-
fed rivers and streams.

This study was made in respect of the fol-
lowing fishes:

Schizothorax sinuatus (Heckel), S. plagio-
stomus (Heckel), S. richardsonii (Gray), Tor
tor (Ham.), T. putitora (Ham.), Labeo dyo-
cheilus (McClell.), L. dero (Ham.), Barilius
bendelisis (Ham.), B. vagra (Ham.), B. barna
(Ham.), Puntius chilinoides (McClell.), P.
hexastichus (McClell.), Noemaeheilus monta-
nus (McClell.) M. multifasciatus (Day), N.
rupicola (McClell). Glyptothorax pectinopterus
(McClell.), and Pseudecheneis sulcatus,
(McClell.).

1. Schizothorax sinuatus, S. plagiostomus
and S« richardsonii. These species are most
common in snow-fed rivers and streams of
this region. It was found that they start spawn-
ing gradually from July and end in January.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81

Singh: Spawning of coldwater fish

Plate

Above : Showing fish ova attached to stones.

Below : Showing destruction of ova in the breeding ground by timber logs

SF AWNING OF SOME IMPORTANT COLDWATER FISH

The peak spawning period was observed in
September-October and November. In these
months the water velocity, temperature, and
dissolved oxygen remain quite favourable for
their breeding. They breed in shallow running
semistagnant water along the banks of the
rivers among gravel and stone. The eggs re-
main attached to stones in batches. The water
temperature of the breeding ground ranged
between 7.8 and 15.6°C, the atmospheric
temperature was 12.9° to 31.2°C, pH of water
was between 7.0 and 8.2 dissolved oxygen
9.0 to 18.1 ppm. The depth of breeding
ground varied from 25 to 32 cm. The gradient
was less and velocity was observed to be 0.496
metre /second.

2. Tor tor and T. putitora: These species
spawn from April to July when the water of
Alaknanda becomes turbid due to the melting
of snow at the peaks. They move from the
deeper waters or lower regions upward for
breeding. This type of local movement was
noticed right from April, when the water starts
becoming turbid. It is believed that mature
specimens travel upstream from Rishikesh or
Hardwar, first to the upper reaches of the
Ganga and then to Alaknanda and Bhagirathi
for breeding. The eggs are laid on and under
stones at a depth of 35 to 50 cm where the
gradient is less. The water temperature of the
breeding place was from 15° to 17.5°C,
atmospheric temperature 26.1° and 31.2°C,
pH of the water 7.0 to 8.2 and dissolved oxy-
gen 9.0 to 9.9 ppm. The fertilized eggs were
slightly brown in colour and found attached
to the stones and rocks and other objects such
as logs, etc. However, we could not get adult
Tor species in Alaknanda after July- August
when only large number of fry and fingerlings
were found in the backwaters and sidestreams
of the Alaknanda and Bhagirathi rivers. It
appears that after spawning the adults move

down the Ganga probably due to the effect
of the low water temperature. Thus we could
observe the breeding only from April to July.

3. Lafoeo dyocheilus and L. dero : These
two species abound in Alaknanda, Bhagirathi
and Finder, etc. from March to June when
they come from Ganga for the purpose of
breeding. During these months, they are found
with mature gonads. The eggs are laid on
and among the stones towards the bank of the
river at a depth of 30 to 35 cm in slow running
water. The water temperature in the breeding
grounds was 12.6° to 17.5°C, atmospheric
temperature 26.8° (in April) to 31.2°C (in
June), maximum pH was 8.2 and dissolved
oxygen from 9.3 to 9.9 ppm. The velocity of
water was 0.616 to 1.234 metre /sec. Thus,
they prefer clear shallow water for breeding.
The fertilized eggs were somewhat greenish in
colour.

4. Bardins bendelisis9 B. vagra and B.
barna : These species always prefer small rivers
and streams, where the water is clear and
shallow with high percentage of dissolved
oxygen. They do not survive in polluted water.
In this investigation it was found that these
species breed from April to June. The breed-
ing grounds were observed in Nayar, Khoh
and in the side stagnant waters of Alaknanda.
These small fishes are found schooling in
abundance and lay their eggs in shallow
pockets of water under stones and weeds
(algae), as well as in the sand mixed gravel
bed at a depth of 15 to 28 cm. The water tem-
perature of the breeding grounds ranged from
20.5° to 22.5°C with the pH from 7.0 to 7.3.
The dissolved oxygen was 9.5 to 10.2 ppm.
The water was semistagnant, with low velocity
(0.197 to 0.204 metre/second) and less gra-
dient.

5. Puntius chilinoides and P. hexastichus :

The two species are very common in Nayar,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Mandakini and Pindar rivers and their breed-
ing period was noticed to be from May to July
and December to January. However, the
actual breeding grounds of these species could
not be located. But from the fry it was esti-
mated that they breed in shallow water under
stones and rocks, with the water temperature
at 8.9°C, pH of water 7.0 and dissolved
oxygen 16.8 ppm. The gradient and velocity
of water was also low.

6. Noemacheilus momtanus, N. rupicola
and N. multifasciatus : These species spawn
from July to August in small streams and
rivulets. Being small in size, their breeding
ground could not be located. But it is almost
definite that they breed in small streams and
rivulets and not in large snow-fed rivers like
Alaknanda, Bhagirathi, etc.

7. Glyptothorax pectinopterus : This species
breeds from April to August and is quite com-
mon in streams throughout the year. In Alak-
nanda, Bhagirathi and Pinder, etc. it occurs
in abundance in the rainy season. Probably
having been swept in from small streams and
rivulets by the swift current. Its breeding niches
could not be observed due to the increased
water level and velocity (2.493 metres | second).

8. Pseudecheneis sulcatus : P. sulcatus is
found in snow-fed streams all the year round,
but in Alaknanda, Pindar, Bhagirathi and
Jam una it is available after April, when the
water becomes turbid. Its spawning period was
observed to be from April to August. The
mature testes are branched. In female the
abdomen is bulged out by large number of
eggs. However, its breeding ground could not
be located due to the high speed of water in
the rainy season.

Destruction of eggs

During the course of this study it was found
that the breeding grounds in Alaknanda and

Nayar are disturbed by the floating of timber
logs (Plate 1). In winter and summer the log-
ging is most common in Alaknanda and Nayar.
In this period most of the fishes are in spawn-
ing stage, for instance Schizothorax species
breed from September to January and the
Puntius species from December to January.
The Tor and Labeo species breed from April
to June-July. Wc have noticed that the logs
that float in the main current of the river
sometimes reach the banks of the river and
strike the stones and rocks, and thus crush
thousands of eggs and disturb the natural
breeding grounds. It was estimated that about
26% eggs are damaged by this type of trans-
portation of the timber. (Table 1).

Table 1

Destruction of fish eggs by timber in
Alaknanda River

Spot Nature
No. of sub-
stratum

Total

eggs

examined

No. of

living

eggs

No. of
damaged
eggs

Percen-
tage of
damaged
eggs.

Stony

347

235

112

32.27

Stony

286

160

126

44.05

Stony &

rocky

360

292

18.88

Stony

198

178

10, 10

Stony

307

nil

Stony &

Rocky

401

nil

Discussion

According to this study most of the fishes
of the Garhwal Himalaya breed in the summer
and monsoon months. However, only Puntius
chilinoides and P. hexastichus breed twice a
year, i.e., from May to July and December to
January. Of all the species included in this
study, Schizothorax spp. have the longest

SPAWNING OF SOME IMPORTANT CO LOW A TER FISH

breeding period ranging from July to January.
Their breeding is at peak during September
to November, the eolder days of the year,
when the water has ample amount of dissolved
oxygen (about 18.1 ppm). According to Jhin-
gran (1975), S. richardsonii of Himachal
Pradesh spawns from March to June. Bhat-
nagar (1964) in his studies on Bhakra reser-
voir fishes has reported that Schizothorax
plagioslomus breeds in July-August and Dec-
ember- January. However, our observations are
that the Schizothorax species of the Garhwal
waters do not spawn intermittently. Probably
one reason for the availability of the Schizo-
thorax in the snow-fed rivers and the streams
throughout the year is that the fish has a long
and continuous breeding period. The other
reasons are the favourable water spread and
a large amount of dissolved oxygen.

Bhatnagar (1964) has reported that the T.
putitora of the Bhakra reservoir first spawns
in July and this activity continues intermit-
tently throughout the year. According to
Karamchandani et al. (1967), T. tor of Nar-
bada river has a prolonged breeding season
which commences in July- August and conti-
nues upto December with peak breeding from
July to September. Some other studies on the
breeding of the Tor species of the other re-
gions arc of Khan (1939), Qasim & Qayyum
(1962), and Sehgal et al. (1971), and accord-
ing to them Tor species spawn two to three
or more times a year. But our studies show
that the Tor tor and T. putitora of the Garh-
wal hills spawn once a year, i.e. from April
to July. These species come to the Alaknanda
and Bhagirathi from the Ganga for breeding,
ft appears that the presence of suitable isolated

and well protected breeding grounds, the high
amount of dissolved oxygen and the abundance
of insect larvae in Bhasirathi and Alaknanda
waters, which form the food of these species
are some of the factors that attract Tor for
this breeding migration.

Bhatnagar (1964) described the spawning
of Labeo dero in July and according to him
flooding was necessary for its breeding. How-
ever, our observations indicate that L. dero
and L. dyocheilus of Garhwal rivers prefer
shallow water for breeding. Similarly Barilius
bendelisis, Barilius barna and Barilius vagra
were also found to breed in shallow pockets
of clear waters. According to Khanna (1958)
and David et al. (1967), the presence of flood
water in the breeding ground and a current
of moderate intensity were essential for breed-
ing and increased pH did not seem to be
necessary for fish breeding. Mookerjee (1945)
pointed out that change of pH may be one
of the principal factors which may induce carp
to spawn. Das & Das Gupta (1945) stated that
although an increased pH and high oxygen
content of water play an important role in the
spawning of carps, they have no independent
position. However, our observations indicate
that high pH and flood water were necessary
for the breeding of Glyptothorax pectinopte-
rus, Pseudecheneis sulcatus and Noemacheilus
species of this region. But high oxygen con-
tent. relatively low pH values and mild velo-
city of the water were essential for the breed-
ing of Schizothorax, Labeo, Puntius and Bari-
lius species of the Garhwal streams. On the
basis of this study it may be pointed out that
a suitable temperature is also necessary for the
breeding of the different species.

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

References

Bhatnagar, G. K. (1964) : Observations on the
spawning frequency of certain Bhakra reservoir
fishes. Indian J. Fish. 1 : 285-502.

Das, K. N. & Das Gupta, B. N. (1945) : Breeding
of the Principal carps in Bengal. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci.
India 11: 324-327.

David, A., Govind, B. V., Rao, N. G. S. & Raj-
gopal, K. V. (1967) : Fish seed resources of some
rivers in South India. Indian J. Fish. 74(1-2) : 54-84.

Jhingran, V. G. (1975): Fish and Fisheries of
India. Flindustan Publishing Corporation (India),
Delhi.

Karamchandani, S. J., Desai, V. R., Pisolkar,
M. D. & Bhatnagar, G. K. (1967): Biological in-
vestigations on the fish and fisheries of Narbada
river (1958-66). Bull. Cent. Ini. Fish. Res. Inst. Bar-

rack pore (10) : 40p.

Khanna, D. V. (1958): Observations on the
spawning of the Major carps at a Fish Farm in
Punjab. Indian J. Fish. 5(2) : 282-290.

Mookerjee, H. K. (1945) : Factors influencing
the spawning of principal carps in India. Symposium
on “The factors influencing the spawning of Indian
carps*’. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India. 11: 312-315.

Qasim, S. Z. & Qayyum, A. (1962): Spawning
frequencies and breeding seasons of some fresh water
fishes with special reference to those occurring in
the Plains of Northern India. Indian J. Fish. S(l) :
24-43.

Sehgal, K. L., Shah, K. L. & Shukla, J. P. (1971) :
Studies on some aspects of cold water fisheries in
Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir (1966-67) (M.S.).

REPRODUCTION BIOLOGY OF THE SOFT-FURRED
FIELD RAT, R ATT US MELT AD A PALLIDIOR (RYLEY,
1914) IN THE RAJASTHAN DESERT1

B. D. Rana2 and Ishwar Prakash3
(With three text-figures )

Introduction

The soft-furred field rat, Rattus meltada is
distributed throughout India. It is found abun-
dantly in the crop fields of the south-eastern
region of the desert (Rana and Prakash 1980).
It usually inhabits irrigated crop fields but is
also found in grasslands on heavier soils. This
species is one of the economically important
among crop inhabitants and inflicts losses to
standing crops and grain stores of cereals,
chiefly wheat, jowar ( Sorghum vulgare) and
bajra (Pennisetum typhoides). Thus, keeping
in view, its economic importance, an attempt
has been made to study its ecological rela-
tionships in the desert environment (Rana
1981) and in this paper its reproduction bio-
logy is described.

The Study Area

Bisalpur (25°7'N, 73°10'E), is situated in
western Rajasthan, on the south-eastern fringe
of the Thar desert, very near to Aravalli
ranges. The mean maximum and minimum
temperatures are observed to the order of
32.8°C and 20.0°C respectively. The average
amount of precipitation received is about 500
mm but 90 per cent falls during Julv-

1 Accepted October 1981.

2 Rodent Biologist.

8 Professor of Eminence, Central Arid Zone Re-
search Institute. Jodhpur- 342 003 (Rajasthan), India.

September period. The vegetation is rich due
to the water retaining capacity of sandy loam.
Rodents were trapped in a protected grassland
and from surrounding crop fields. Two crops
are raised in the region: rainfed, July to Octo-
ber and irrigated, November to March. There-
fore, green food is available to rodents for the
greater part of the year, except from April to
June.

Material and Methods

The Soft-furred field rat, or the metad,
Rattus meltada pallidior (Ryley, 1914) were
collected every month at Bilaspur from Janu-
ary 1978 to December 1979. Soon after their
collection, they were weighed, sexed and dis-
sected. Ovaries were checked for the number
of corpora lutea and uterine horns for im-
planted embryos in freshly killed material. The
teats in females were also examined for any
sign of lactation.

Epididymal smears were examined for the
presence of sperms and uterine horns for an
indication of embryonic mortality. The testes
and ovaries were weighed to the nearest 0.001 g
on a semi-micro Mettler balance.

Results

MALE FECUNDITY
Epididymal smear

Sexual maturity of male metads was attain-
ed at 45 g body weight during both the years

BODY WEIGHTS ( q )

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. HI

* MALE WITH SPERMS
v MALE WITHOUT SPERMS

o FEMALE WITH GORPQRALUTEA
x FEMALE WITHOUT CORPORALUTE A

»©@l

90<

to*

T- ■ T T ■ . ■ ^B3ua"B»gf

J FMAM J JASOWDJFMAMJASONO
• ------ — 197© — — » i~ — — • 1979 —

Fig. 1. Gross body weights of R. m. pallidior during 1978 and 1979.

of study (Fig. 1). However, a few metads
weighing 70 to 73 g during 1978 and 1979 res-
pectively did not exhibit sperms in their epidi-
dymis. It may possibly be due to regression
of the testes. The regression of the testes dur-
ing a part of the year has also been observed

in many rodents (Asdell 1946). Prasad (1961)
and Jain (1970) also found regressed testes in
T. i. cuvieri and T. i. indica respectively. The
present study points out that in male R. m.
pallidior the reproductive activity does not
cease completely during winter as pregnant

MEAN PAIRED TESTES WEIGHTS MEAN MONTHLY RAINFALL (mm)

REPRODUCTION BIOLOGY OF THE SOFT-FURRED FIELD RAT

450*
400-
350
300
250
200
1 50-*
100
50J

• PERCENT FEMALE PREGNANT

* PERCENT MALE FECUND
MEAN MONTHLY RAINFALL

1978*

1979

Fig. 2. The breeding intensity of R. m. pallidior in relation to the mean monthly rainfall.

PERCENT MALE FECUND
— k MEAN PAIRED TESTES WEIGHT

00i

•60

)0-

30*

50-

*0*

Fig. 3. The male fecundity rate and mean paired testes weights of R. m. pallidior.

;

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

The weights of right and left testes were, there-
fore, pooled. The paired testes weight, differed
significantly (F = 13.38, P < 0.05) between
months. They were found to be maximum
during June to October and lowest during Dec-
ember. During 1979, two peaks in paired testes
weight, one during March and the other in the
months of August to October was observed.
However, the lowest testes weights were re-
corded during January (Fig. 3). The mean
monthly paired testes weights run parallel to
the per cent fecund males during both the
years of the study.

FEMALE FERTILITY
Ovary weights

The mean paired ovary weights of adult
metads exhibits two main peaks, one during
March to May and the second during June
to October period during 1978 (Table 2).
Lowest weights were observed in December,
soon after attaining their peak level in Septem-
ber, which may be due to ovarian refractoriness
during winter. Similar trend in the variations
of ovary weights was found in 1979 (Table 3).

Table 1

Monthly testes weights (mean + se) of R. m. pallidior

Months

Right

1978 Weight of testes (g)

Left

1979

Right

Left

Jan.

0.3225+0.10

0.3394+0.10

0.2402 +0.04

0.2453+0.05

Feb.

0.3160+0.18

0.2925 +0. 14

0.4182+0.11

0.3695 + 0.35

Mar.

0.5210+0.00

0.6630+0.00

0.5520+0.04

0.5452+0.04

April

0.3306+0.05

0.3327+0.04

0.3623 + 0.08

0.3441+0.08

May

0.4320+0.23

0.4145+0.19

0.4036+0.22

0.4156+0.20

June

0.6700 + 0.19

0.6620+ 0.19

0.5135+0.06

0.4816+0.03

July

0.6543+0.06

0.6269 +0.08

Collection was

not made

Aug.

0.8685+0.35

0.9050+0.30

0.5741+0.04

0.5754+0.01

Sept.

0.6590+0.00

0.5930+0.00

0.4574+0.25

0.6787+0.30

Oct.

0.3275+0.06

0.3050+0.04

0.8725+0.11

0.8212+0.08

Nov.

0.4710+0.08

0.4150+0.01

0.3914+0.05

0.3962+0.05

Dec.

0.2211+0.08

0.3129+0.09

0.4079 + 0.65

0.3826+0.59

metads were found throughout the two years
(Fig. 2).

The male metads were found to be fecund
throughout the two years. But the maximum
rate of fecundity (100 per cent) was observed
from March to October, 1978. Thereafter, it
reduced to 50 per cent in the month of Dec-
ember. Surprisingly, a minor peak in January
was also observed. During 1979, two peaks of
fecundity rate, one during spring and the second
in monsoon seasons, were recorded.

A comparison of fecundity rate between the
two years revealed that it remained at higher
rate during 1978 (50 to 100 per cent) as com-
pared to that of 1979 (35 to 100 per cent).
The proportion of fecund males during both the
years was also found to be closely similar to
that of pregnancy rate in the population (Fig.

3).

Testes weights

Mean monthly weights of right and left testes
did not differ significantly from each other in
any of the months during the two years except
during March 1978, when the right testes was
found to be lighter than the left (Table 1).

REPRODUCTION BIOLOGY OF THE SOFT-FURRED FIELD RAT

Table 2

Prevalence of pregnancy and ovary weights of R . m. pallidior during 1978

Months

Total

number of
females
collected

Number of adult female metads

Prevalence

pregnancy

Paired ovary
weights
(Mean±SE)

Not

pregnant

Pregnant

Pregnant &
lactating

January

0.50

0.0135± .005

February

0.66

0.0150± .007

March

1.00

0.0220± —

April

1.00

0.0213± .006

May

0.50

0.0215±0.007

June

0.60

0.0310± .001

July

1.00

0.0452± .005

August

1.00

0.0441± .004

September

1.00

0.0463± .001

October

1.00

0 . 0267 ± .002

November

0.28

0.0172± .002

December

—

0.42

0.0101± .004

Prevalence of

Table 3

PREGNANCY AND OVARY WEIGHTS OF R. m.

pallidior during

1979

Months

Total

number of
females
collected

Number of adult female metads

Prevalence

pregnancy

Paired ovary
weights
(Mean±SE)

Not

pregnant

Pregnant

Pregnant &
lactating

January

0.12

0.0173± —

February

0.37

0.0273±0.002

March

0.80

0.0377±0.002

April

0.50

0.0229±0.002

May

0.75

0.0276±0.001

June

0.50

0.0176±0.001

August

1.00

0.0596± 0.006

September

1.00

0.0663±0.005

October

0.66

0.0263±0.001

November

0.38

0.0221 ±0.001

December

0.20

0.0200±0.003

Production of ova

Sixty-eight pregnant females exhibited 282
corporalutea in right ovary and 238 in left
ovary, which are significantly different (x2(i) =

3.60, P < 0.05) from each other, ova pro-
duction being more in the right ovaries. During
1978, the right ovary (110) possessed signifi-
cantly (x2G)=7.40, p < 0.01) larger num-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

ber of corporalutea than the left (73, Table
4). However, during 1979, the difference was
not significant (Rt. 172: Lt. 165, x2(i)=0.14;
Table 5).

The production of ova per pregnant female
varied from 5.50 to 10.00 (av. 6.53) during
1978 and 5.00 to 12.00 (av. 8.25) during
1979. The average number of ova produced

Table 4

Pre-implantation losses in R. m. palliclior during 1978

Number of embryos Number of corpora lutea Pre-implanation losses

Mths. — — — — —

Right

Left

Total

Right

Left

Total

Mean±SE

Right

Left

Total

Jan.

1 1

5.50±0.50

27.2

Feb.

6.00+0.00

25.0

Mar.

7.50+0.50

13.3

Apr.

5.50+0.50

36.3

May

10.00±0.00

30.0

June

6.33+0.91

36.8

July

5.80+0.89

17.2

Aug.

7 . 00+0.79

14.2

Sept.

7. 50±0. 68

13.3

Oct.

1 1

7 . 50±0. 50

26.6

Nov.

6.50+0.65

30.7

Dec.

6. 33±0. 82

15.7

Total

141

410

183

6. 53 ±0. 98

22.9

Table 5

Pre-implantation losses in R. m. palliclior during 1979

Number of embryos Number of corpora lutea Pre-implanation losses

Mths. — — —

Right

Left

Total

Right

Left

Total

Mean±SE

Right

Left

Total

Jan.

5.00+0.00

—

Feb.

9.00±0.00

37.0

Mar.

7 . 75±0. 59

16. 1

Apr.

8.50+0.28

23. 1

May

6.05+Q.00

36.0

June

12,00+0.00

29.0

Aug.

9.25+0.47

37.8

Sept.

9.33+0.45

32.2

Oct.

7.75±0.75

28.6

Nov.

7.00+0.70

28.6

Dec.

9.20+0. 89

32.6

Total 125

121

246

172

165

337

8. 25±2. 35

29.08

REPRODUCTION BIOLOGY OF THE SOFT-FURRED FIELD RAT

Table 6

Transfer of blastocyst

Female

nos.

Corpora lutea
Right Left

Embryos present
Right Left

Transfer of
blastocyst

From right

— do —

From left
to right

per pregnant female did not vary significantly
between months and between seasons except
during winter when it was significantly
(p < 0.01) lower than that in the summer
season during both the years (Tables 4 & 5).
The high production rate of ova during summer
months may be due to influence of day length
which is maximum in this period in the desert
region. The mean number of produced ova
(8.2) during 1979 did not differ significantly

(x2G) = 0.2416) than that of 1978 (6.5).
Transfer of blastocyst

The transfer of blastocyst was investigated
by comparing the number of corpora lutea and
the actual number of embryos in both the ute-
rine horns. Out of 68 pregnant females exa-
mined during both the years, in five cases the
transfer of blastocyst was observed. In female
nos. 1, 14, 15 and 24 the blastocyst was trans-
ferred from right to left, whereas, in female
no. 50, it was transferred from left to right
(Table 6). Transfer of blastocyst was also re-
ported in Cutch Rock Rat, Rat t us cutchicus
(Prakash et al. 1973).

Implantation rate in right and left uterine horns

During 1978, the number of implanted em-
bryos was significantly higher (x2(i)=7.72,
P < 0.05) in the right uterine horn. However,
no significant difference (x2(!)=0.26) was
found between right (125) and left (121) im-
planted embryos during 1979. After pooling
the embryo numbers for both the years of

Table 7

Distribution of litters of various sizes in the monthly collection of R. m. pallidior during 1978

Months

Frequency of occurrence of litters
No. of implanted embryos

3 4 5 6

Total
number
of embryos

Mean±SE

Jan.

—

00±0.66

Feb.

, 50±0. 64

March

,50±0.61

April

,50±0.01

May

00 ± —

June

00±0.42

July

80±0.69

Aug.

,00±0.51

Sept.

,50±0.58

Oct.

, 50±0. 56

Nov.

,50±0.61

Dec

—

,33±0.86

Total

141

03±0. 89

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Table 8

Distribution of litters of various sizes in the monthly collection of R. m. pallidior during 1979

Months

Frequency of occurrence of litters

Number of implanted embryos
4 5 6 7

Total

number of

embryos

Mean±SE

Jan.

—

5.00±0.00

Feb.

6.33±0.93

Mar.

6.50±0.56

Apr.

6.50±0.50

May

5 . 25±0. 51

June

8.50±0.85

Aug.

5.75±0.62

Sept.

6.33±0.62

Oct.

5. 25 ±0. 39

Nov.

5.00±0.63

Dec.

—

6.20±0.73

Total

246

6. 15±1 . 87

study, it is observed that the embryonic rate in
right uterine horn is significantly (x2(x) = 4.24,
P < 0.05) higher than that of left uterine
horn (Tables 4 & 5).

Prevalence of pregnancy

Pregnant females were found during the two
years of the study but the intensity of repro-
duction activity in the metad population was
more during 1978 in which the pregnancy rate
of 100 per cent was observed during 6 months,
whereas, during 1979 it was only for two months.
The period of maximum breeding activity
(March-September, 1978) coinciding with the
occurrence of larger litter size also. During
1979, however, 100 per cent pregnancies occur-
red during August-September, the period of
maximum precipitation, but the largest litters
occurred during February to June only. It is
also observed that after a low pregnancy rate
during winter, a peak occurs during spring,
followed by a low during summer and then
again with a peak during monsoon (Tables 2

& 3) — a typical reproduction cycle observed
in other desert rodents also.

Litter size

Litter size varied from 3 to 7 (av. 5.03)
and 4 to 9 (av. 6.15) during 1978 and 1979
respectively (Tables 7 & 8). The two yearly
average was found to be 5.69 while in 1978
the larger litter size was scattered over the
period March to September, they were restrict-
ed to the February- June period in 1979.
Smallest litters were observed during the win-
ter (November to January).

Super-foetation

One female R. m. pallidior bore four em-
bryos in the left uterine horn, their mean crown
rump length was 25 mm (new born young ones
measure 34 mm in crown rump length). But
the right uterine horn carried two embryos
(crown rump length = 5 mm) which were quite
healthy. Considerable difference in the size of
embryos in the two uterine horns, suggests

REPRODUCTION BIOLOGY OF THE SOFT-FURRED FIELD RAT

that the second conception might have occur-
red around 9 to 12 days of first pregnancy
(gestation period is 20 days, Bindra and Sagar,
1968). This phenomenon in metad is probably
being reported for the first time though it is
common in mice (Barnett and Munro 1970),
in Indian gerbil, T. i. indica (Jain 1970) and
in the shrew, S. m. sindensis (Rana and
Prakash 1979).

Lactation

Out of all the pregnant females collected
during both the years, during the period.
March-April and October-November, seven
female metads (10.3 per cent. Tables 2 & 3)
were found to be pregnant as well as lactating.
The difference between the first year (3 preg-
nant & lactating) and latter year (4 pregnant
& lactating) did not vary significantly. The pre-
sence of pregnant and lactating females in the
collection suggests the possibility of occurrence
of postpartum oestrus in R. m. pallidior and
therefore, a regular littering throughout the
breeding season is logical. In various species
of small mammals, the presence of postpartum
oestrus has been reported earlier (Prakash
et ai. 1973, Asdell 1946, Barnett and Little
1968).

Embryonic Mortality
Pre-implantation loss

Pre-implantation losses were judged by com-
paring the number of corporalutea and the
implanted embryos whereas, post-implantation
losses were judged by identifying resorbed and
mummified embryos in the uterus. In the sample
of metads, the former type of mortality
accounted for 22.9 and 29.0 per cent of the
total number of ova produced during 1978
and 1979 respectively. The preimplantation
mortality ranged from 13.3 per cent to 36.8

per cent during 1978 and 16.1 to 37.8 per
cent in 1979 (Tables 4 & 5). The intensity of
loss of ova during both the years was more
in right (72) than in the left (68) uterine horn,
the difference was, however, not statistically
significant. Thus, the average annual pre-
implantation mortality amounted to 26.92
per cent.

Post-implantation loss

One female (body weight, 54 g) bore four
embryos, two in each uterine horn (their
crown rump length was measured to 12-15
mm). Two in left horn were in healthy state
but the two in right uterine horn were in mum-
mified stage. Out of 387 total implanted em-
bryos examined in this study, only 0.51 per
cent account for post-implantation loss. In
another case, a female during December
possessed one embryo in right and three in
left uterine horn. These four embryos were
found to be resorbed, which amounts to 1.03
per cent loss. The total post-implantation loss
comes to 1.55 per cent.

Annual Productivity

The number of young produced by an adult
metad during the breeding season can be deter-
mined by dividing the number of days of breed-
ing season by number of days of gestation
period (Prakash and Taneja 1969). The period
of gestation in R. m. pallidior is 20 days
(Bindra and Sagar 1968), and applying the
data from this study we find that (365/20 =
18.20) litters can be produced by a female in
a breeding season. Correcting this figure by
multiplying it by the average prevalence of
pregnancy (18.20 x 0.51 = 9.28), the number
of litters per adult female comes to 9.28
Multiplying this with 5.69, the average num-
ber of embryos per pregnant female during

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

the breeding season, it appears that (9.28 x
5.60 = 52.80) young ones can be produced
by a female annually. If the pre-implantation
(26.92 per cent) and post-implantation (1.55
per cent) losses are accounted for, the figure
is corrected to 52.52 young per female per
year.

Discussion

Rattus meltada is essentially a sub-mesic
species, distributed all over the Indian plains
but its subspecies, R. m. pallidior occurs in
the arid and semi-arid zones of northern India
(Prakash 1975). Its frequency of occurrence
is poor in arid zones but it is found in fair
numbers on the foothills and in desert areas
which receive over 500 mm rainfall annually.
Its breeding season appears to be similar to
those rodents inhabiting tropical regions of the
country and not that of the Saharo-Indian
rodents which breed during winter as stated
by Bodenheimer (1957). It breeds throughout
the year with two peaks, one during spring
and the other during monsoon and two lows,
one during summer and the other in winter,
the latter shows very low pregnancy rates as
well as smallest litter size. Our study area at
Bisalpur, on the foothills of the Aravalli ranges,
does not experience severe climatic and vege-
tational fluctuations as the low rainfall areas
do. The metads being nocturnal and fossorial
are not exposed to severities of climatic con-
ditions. Secondly in this area, due to the pre-
sence of irrigation cropping, green food is
consumed by them for the greater part of the
year. Experiencing these environmental condi-
tions R. m. pallidior maintain rather a high
prevalence of pregnancy rate with bimodal
peaks, one in spring and the other in monsoon.
It is surprising, however, that R. meltada in-
habiting similar environmental conditions in

Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Pakistan breed
from March to October only (Bindra and
Sagar 1968, Guraya and Gupta 1975, Srivastava
1966, Smiet et al. 1980). In southern India,
however, R. m. meltada breeds all the year
round (Blanford 1888-91, Lloyd 1909, Chan-
drahas and Krishnaswami 1974). In Uttar
Pradesh and Punjab the non-reproductive state
of female metads and low breeding rate at our
study area during winter may be due to the
partial quiescent state of ovary. After this re-
fractory period, their inherent physiologic
activity is accelerated causing a spring peak
in pregnancy rate in R. m. pallidior. The
breeding activity slightly decreases during May
and June, the hottest months of the year.
Second main peak then occurs during the
monsoon season. These two peaks well coincide
with the availability of green food to R. m.
pallidior which in turn influences their repro-
ductive activity. R. m. pallidior , the northern
subspecies of metad was even able to maintain
a fairly high (50 to 80 per cent) prevalence of
pregnancy during summer of 1978 and 1979
at the study site, when the air temperature was
high and the relative humidity was low. The
maintenance of a relatively high rate of repro-
duction during summer is presumably a reflec-
tion of the rodent’s efficient eco -physiological
adaptive mechanisms to cope with the arid
environment.

The mean litter size of R. m. pallidior was
5.69 which is slightly lower than 6.0 report-
ed by Bindra and Sagar (1968) at Ludhiana,
but more or less equal to that of Kanpur
metads (5.7, Srivastava 1966). However, the
lowest litter size was reported by Lloyd (1909)
in India as a whole.

A comparison of mean litter size and lati-
tudes of the localities revealed that it was the
lowest, 4.8 in Karnataka (latitude 12°), and
the highest, 6.0 in Punjab (latitude 30°) and

REPRODUCTION BIOLOGY OF THE SOFT-FURRED FIELD RAT

a mid position was occupied (5.7) by Bisalpur
field metads (latitude 25°). Thus, a relation-
ship between litter size and latitude exists,
which was larger in Northern than in Southern
India, irrespective of wide variations in their
geographical range.

Another very interesting point emerged out
of this study is the occurrence of superfoeta-
lion which is not recorded in any other species
of R. meltada in India.

Annual productivity of R. m. pallidior is
comparatively higher, 52.52 young ones /year
than other species of desert rodents such as
R. cutchicus (19.96, Prakash et al 1973). T.
i. indica (17.75, Jain 1970); and more or less
equal to R. norvegicus (53.4 young/adult
female/year; Southwick 1966).

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Director, Dr. H. S.
Mann for providing necessary facilities and
constant encouragement throughout the course
of this study, to Dr. P. K. Ghosh, Head of
Division of Animal Studies for various useful
suggestions. Thanks are also due to staff mem-
bers of Cartography Section of the Institute
for drawing. The assistance of Sarvashri R. P.
Mathur, B. K. Soni and Mala Ram during
field work are also acknowledged.

Summary

The Soft-furred field rat, Rattus meltada
pallidior (Ryley) were snap trapped every
month during 1978 and 1979 at Bisalpur

R E FE

Asdell, S. A. (1946) : Patterns of mammalian
reproduction. Comstock Publishers. Ithaca, N.Y.,
xi+670.

Blanford, W. T. (1888-91): The fauna of British
Tndia. including Ceylon and Burma. Mammalia.

(25°7'N, 73°10'E) situated on the fringe of
the Thar desert in India. The male R. m. palli-
dior were found to be fecund in every month
from January 1978 to December 1979. The
fluctuations in testes weights coincided with
the number of pregnant females. The left testes
of adult rodents collected over two years were
observed to be heavier than the right. The
average testes weights were also found to vary
significantly (P < 0.05) from month to
month.

The production of ova ranged from 5.5 to
10.0 (av. 6.5) and 5 to 12 (av. 8.2) during
1978 and 1979 respectively. The maximum
number of ova per pregnant female metad was
produced during the period of maximum preci-
pitation. The implanted embryos per pregnant
female varied from 3 to 7 and 4 to 9 during
1978 and 1979, average being 5.03 and 6.15
respectively.

Embryonic mortality before implantation
was found to be 22.9 and 29.0 per cent dur-
ing 1978 and 1979 respectively and due to
mummification and resorption 0.51 per cent
and 1 . 03 per cent respectively.

Considering these losses, litter size and pre-
valence of pregnancy during both the years,
the annual production was estimated to be
52.52 young ones per annum.

R. m. pallidior litters all through the year.
The prevalence of pregnancy was found to be
broadly correlated with the day length. Maxi-
mum production appears to have been influ-
enced by the level of nutrition which was found
to be maximum during monsoon due to availa-
bility of green forage in the desert.

E N C E S

Taylor and Francis, London.

Barnett, S. A. & Little, M. J. (1968) : Concep-
tion and parturition of mice at two temperatures.
/. Reprod. Fertil. 15: 295-304.

Barnett, S. A. & Munro, K. M. H. (1970) :

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Superfoetation of mice. Nature, 227 : 1343-1344.

Bindra. O. S. & Sagar, Prem (1968): Breeding
habits of the field rat, Rattus meltada. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc., 65: 477-481.

Bodenheimer, F. S. (1957) : The ecology of mam-
mals in Arid Zone. In: Human and Animal Ecology,
Review of Research, Arid Zone Research, UNESCO,
Paris, 8: 100-137.

Chandrahas, R. K. & Krishnaswami, A. K.
(1974) : Ecology of the Soft-furred field rat, Rattus
meltada meltada (Grey) in Kolar, Mysore State. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70: 447-457.

Guraya, S. S. & Gupta, S. (1975) : Observations
on the reproductive biology of the Soft-furred field
rat ( Millardia meltada ). Proc. All India Rodent
Seminar, Ahmedabad, 70-75.

Jain, A. P., (1970): Body weights, sex ratio, age
structure and some aspects of reproduction in the
Indian gerbil, Tatera indica indica Hardwicke, in the
Rajasthan desert, India. Mammalia 34: 416-432.

Lloyd, R. E. (1909): The races of Indian rats.
Rec. hid. Mus. 3: 1-100.

Prakash, Ishwar, (1975): The ecology and zoo-
geography of mammals. Chapter XIX in “Environ-
mental Analysis of the Thar Desert” (Edited by Dr.
R. K. Gupta & Dr. I. Prakash) . English Book Depot,
Dehradun: 448-467.

Prakash, Ishwar, & Taneja, G. C. (1969): Re-
production biology of the Indian desert hare, Lepus

nigricollis dayanus Blanford. Mammalia, 33: 102-117.

Prakash, Ishwar, Rana, B. D. & Jain, A. P.
(1973) : Reproduction in the Cutch Rock Rat, Rattus
cutchicus cutchicus in the Indian desert. Mammalia,
37: 452-467.

Rana, B. D. (1981): Ecological studies on Soft-
furred field rat, Rattus meltada pallidior (Ryley, 1914)
with special reference to its feeding and breeding
habits, population structure and interspecific relation-
ship in mixed population of small mammals (Un-
published Ph.D. Thesis submitted to Agra Univ.,
Agra) .

Rana, B. D. & Pra-kash Ishwar, (1979): Repro-
ductive biology and population structure of the house
shrew, Suncus murinus sindensis in western Rajas-
than. Sauget. Kunde, 44: 333-343.

Rana, B. D. & Prakash Ishwar, (1980): The
metad — a serious rodent pest of Indian Agriculture.
Indian Farming, xxxix(10: 21 & 23.

SouTHWiCK, C. H. (1966): Reproduction, morta-
lity and growth of murid rodent populations. Proc.
Indian Rodent Symp., Calcutta USAID & John Hop-
kins CMRT, New Delhi, 152-176.

Smiet, A. ., Fulk, G. W. & Lathiya, S. B. (1980) :
Rodent ecology in sugarcane in lower Sind, Pakistan.
Acta Theriol., 25: 81-87.

Srivastava. A. S. (1966): Rodent control for in-
creased food production. Rotary Club (West)
Kanpur, 1-52.

FLOWERING PLANTS AROUND THE HOLY SHRINE
OF KEDARNATH, UTTAR PRADESH1

J. K. Semwal2
(With a text-figure)

This paper gives an account of the angiospermic flora of Kedarnath, which is an
alpine zone in Garhwal Himalaya. A list of 262 species of flowering plants represented
by 149 genera and 52 families is given from 3200 to 3800 metre altitude a.s.l. The
dominant families of the area are: Ranunculaceae, Brassicaceae, Caryophyllaceae,
Rosaceae, Apiaceae, Asteraceae, Ericaceae, Primulaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Lamiacea,
Polygonaceae, Orchidaceae, Liliaceae and Poaceae.

Introduction

Garhwal Himalaya is famous for its vegeta-
tion and some of the noblest peaks of the
world mountain system namely, Nanda Devi,
Kamet, Trisul, Dunagiri, Chaukhamba, Nil-
kantha, Badrinath, Kedarnath and others.
Kedarnath is the first among the Holy ‘Panch
(five) Kedars’ of Uttarakhand, the other four
being Madmaheshwar, Tungnath, Rudranath,
and Kalpeshwar respectively. Mandakini river
has its origin from Kedarnath glacier, and con-
fluences with Alaknanda at Rudraprayag and
Bhagirathi at Deoprayag whenceforth it is
named ‘Ganga’. The explored area lies in bet-
ween 30° 40-45' N and 79° 0-5' E. The main
rock components are of crystalline and meta-
morphic nature like other parts of the Hima-
layas (Fig. 1).

Compared with other sectors of the Hima-
layas, this region is humid. The characteristic
feature of Kedarnath is the presence of marshy
habitats, clothed with the typical marshy vege-
tation consisting of Primula munroi, J uncus

v i ......

{. j ■ .

* _ ...

1 Accepted May 1982.

2 High Altitude Plant Physiology Research Centre,
Garhwal University, Srinagar- 246 174.

spp. Triglochin palustre, sedges and species of
Epilobium and others. Callitrache verna is a
delicate aquatic herb floating on the water
surface of ditches in these marshy localities.

In this region timberline zone is not conspi-
cuous, as is observed in most of the alpine re-
gions of Garhwal Himalaya, however, the dis-
tributional pattern of the common taxa is the
same. The trees other than Betula utilis are
present up to the elevation of 3200 m or slightly
more according to the aspect of the slopes. The
tree population is very scarce at the upper
limits and gradually increases in density to-
wards lower elevations. The major elements
of temperate forests are Aesculus indica, Lyonia
ovalifolia, Fraxinus excelsior, Buxus walli-
chiana and species of Acer, Pyrus, Carpinus,
Quercus and Rhododendron. The tree species
reaching the highest limit are Betula utilis,
Syringa emodi, Viburnum foetens, Prunus cor-
nuta, Abies pindrow, Taxus baccata and species
of Acer, Pyrus and Rhododendron associated
with the shrubs like the species of Berberis,
Spiraea, Rosa, Cotoneaster and climbers like
the species of Clematis, Smilax and occasion-
ally Codonopsis. Elaegnus umbellata and
Pyrus lanata can be seen here and there on
road sides up to 3000 m along with Piptanthus

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Fig. 1.

/ LOWERING PLANTS AROUND THE HOLY SHRINE OF KEDARNATH

nepalensis , Cotoneaster affinis and some others.
Unlike other alpine zones of the western
Himalayas pure stands of the scrubs of Rhodo-
dendron campanulatum are lacking in this part.

The pattern of seasonal appearance of vari-
ous plant species in this alpine zone is similar
to that of Tungnath (Semwal et al, 1981). The
vegetation of the glacial bed is quite distinct
compared to that of the meadows and marshy
lands. The species found in these habitats are
tufted and very much reduced in size forming the
continuous interwoven matted cushions on the
grounds. Androsace villosa and Arenaria per-
levis are the typical examples of such vegeta-
tion, Primula nivalis , P. minutissima and
Helerpestes sermentosa are found in rock
crevices in these harsh habitats. The plant
species on boulders and dry rocky faces are
the species of Sedum, Lychnis, Potentilla,
Arcyosperma, Rheum, Senecio, Ligularia, Seli-
num. Goody era and many others. The vege-
tation of the ravines is constituted by the
species of Pedicularis, Epilobium, Impatiens,
Polygonum and Rumex etc. Chamaenerion
latifolium and Polygonum affine are the most
attractive species of the ravines. Danthonia
cumins ii is the dominant alpine grass on steep
slopes like in other alpine zones.

This alpine zone was previously explored
by M. A. Rau during the last week of Sept-
ember 1958 (Ran 1961). He recorded about
53 species of flowering plants from Kedarnath.
T have been working on the alpine flora of
Tungnath (Semwal. 1981; Semwal et al, 1981;
Semwal and Gaur, 1981). During the course
of these studies it was considered useful to ex-
plore the neighbouring alpine zones for com-
parison. Collections were made during early
Tune 1978 and late July 1981. The specimens
were compared with the authentic specimens
of the ‘Herbarium of Botanical Survey of India,
Northern Circle Dehradun’ (BSD) and are de-

posited in the herbarium of Garhwal Univer-
sity, Srinagar, U.P. Bentham and Hooker f.’s
system is followed with slight modifications
as proposed by Hutchinson (1973) in the
arrangement of families.

The little known taxa recorded in the pre-
sent work are, Circaeaster agrestis, Gentiana
albicalyx, Cypripedium elegans and Herminium
pugioniforme. Circaeaster agrestis was collect-
ed from an elevation of 3200 m and the other
three were collected between 3500-3600 m alti-
tudes.

Enumeration

DICOTYLEDONS

Ranunculaceae

Aconitum heterophyllum Wall, ex Royle
Herb with dull green purple veined flowers.
July, 1981. Semwal 7210.

Anemone narcissifolsa Linn, var polyanthes
Finnet et Gagnep.

White flowered hairy herb on rocks. July,
1981. Semwal 7242.

A. oMusiloba D. Don

Herb in meadows with white and blue
flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7157.

A. rivularis Buch.-Ham.

Large herb with white flowers. July, 1981.
Semwal 7167.

A. tetrasepala Royle

Herb with cream -white flowers. June, 1978.
Semwal 7179.

Caltha palustris Linn.

Marshy herb with brilliant-yellow flowers.
June, 1978. Semwal 7156.

Clematis barbellata Edgew.

Climbers, sometimes spreading on grounds
in alpine slopes, flowers purplish. June, 1978.
Semwal 7168.

Halerpestes sarmentosa (Adms) Kom. et Klob
Small glabrous herb with yellow flowers.
July, 1981. Semwal 7221.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Oxygraphis polypetala (Royle) Hook. f. et
Thoms.

Scapose glabrous herb with yellow flowers
and persistent calyx. June, 1978. Semwal 7138.
Ranunculus diffusus DC.

Glabrascent herb with yellow flowers. June,
1978. Semwal 7162.

R. hirtellus Royle

Herb abundant in marshy meadows, flowers
yellow. June 1978. Semwal 7159.

Thalictrum alpinism Linn.

Small glabrous herb with minute, drooping
purple flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7211.

T. minus Linn.

Erect herb with purplish flowers. July, 1981.
Semwal, 7234.

Berberidaceae

Berberis edgeworthiana Schneid.

Tall shrub with yellow flowers, spines few.
June 1978. Semwal 7169.

B. jaeschkeana Schneid.

Spinous shrub with yellow flowers. July,
1978. Semwal 7184.

Podophyllum hexandrum Royle
Herb with palmate leaf and drooping
fruit, very rare. July. 1981. Semwal 7212.

ClRCAEASTERACEAE

Circaeaster agrestis Maxim.

A small glabrous herb growing in crevices,
perianth very much reduced, rare. July, 1981.
Semwal 7213.

Papaveraceae

Meconopsis aculeata Royle

Aculeate herb with sky-blue flowers, in
ravines. July, 1981. Semwal 7217.

M. robusta Hook. f. et Thoms.

Robust herb with light yellow flowers, not
common. July, 1981. Semwal 7171.

Fumariaceae

Corydaiis cornuta Royle
Spreading yellow flowered herb. July 1981.
Semwal 7165.

C. cashmeriana Royle

Small delicate herb with bulbous base and
blue flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7136.

C. govaniana Wall.

Tufted herb with yellow flowers. June 1978.
Semwal 7147.

C. vaginans Royle

Glabrous herb with yellow flowers. July,
1981, Semwal 7215.

Brassicaceae

Arcyosperma primulifoSium (Toms) O. E.
Schulz

Lithophytic white flowered herb. June, 1978.
Semwal 7141.

Barbarea vulgaris R. Br.

Erect herb with yellow flowers. June, 1978.
Semwal 7158.

Draba gracillima Hook. f. et Thoms.

Weak herb with minute yellow flowers. June,
1978. Semwal 7142.

Lepidium ruderale Linn.

Glabrous herbs with fruits. July, 1981. Sem-
wal 7208.

Megacarpaea polyandra Benth.

Large herb with dull white flowers. July
1981. Semwal 7371.

Sisymbrium wallichii Hook. f. et Thoms.

Herb with white flowers with long pods.
July 1981. Semwal 7219.

Thlaspi andersosiif (Hook. f. et Thoms.) O.
E. Schulz

Herb with white flowers. June, 1978. Semwal
7148.

FLOWERING PLANTS AROUND THE HOLY SHRINE OF KEDARNATH

VlOLACEAE
Viola biflora Linn.

Small herb with yellow flowers. July, 1981.
Semwal 7214.

V. serpens Wall.

Herb with violet flowers. June, 1978. Sem-
wal 7170.

Caryophyllaceae

Arenaria perlevis (Williams) Handl.-Mazz.

Lithophytic white flowered herb. July, 1981.
Semwal 7222.

Cerastium vulgatum Linn.

Herb with white flowers. June, 1978. Sem-
wal 7127.

Gypsophila cerastioides D. Don
Herb with pink streaked flowers. July 1978.
Semwal 7105.

Lychnis indica Benth.

Herb with fimbriate petals. June, 1978. Sem-
wal 7172.

L. nutans Benth.

Pubescent herb with purplish flowers. July,
1981. Semwal 7254.

L. pilosa Edgew.

Herb on rocks with white flowers. July,
1981. Semwal 7246.

Sagina saginoides (Linn.) Karsten

Dark green glabrous white flowered prostrate
herb. June, 1978. Semwal 7114.

Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke
Large glabrascent herb with greenish- white
flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7220.

Stellaria uliginosa Edgew. et Hook. f.

Apetalous spreading herb. July, 1981. Sem-
wal 7185.

S. cherleriae (Fisch.) Williams
Cushioned herb with white flowers. July,
1981. Semwal 7223.

S. himalensis Majumdar
Glabrous herb with bright-white flowers.
June, 1981. Semwal 7191.

S. patens D. Don

Diffused herb with white flowers. July, 1981.
Semwal 7301.

Hypericaceae

Hypericum hookeriana Wt. et Arn.

Small shrub with large yellow flowers. July,
1981. Semwal 7312.

H. nepaulense Choisy

Herb with yellow flowers. July, 1981. Sem-
wal 7224.

CtERANIACEAE

Geranium coliinum Stephan ex Willd.

Glabrous herb with dark pink flowers. July,
1981. Semwal 7227.

G. pa lustre Linn.

Large glabrascent herb with pink flowers.
July, 1981. Semwal 7235.

G. wallichianum Sw.

Straggling herb with pink-purple flowers.
July, 1981. Semwal 7236.

Balsam i naceae

Impatiens amplexicaulis Edgew.

Erect pink flowered herb. July, 1981. Sem-
wal 7303.

I. giandulifera Edgew.

Tall herb in ravines with dark pink flowers.
July, 1981. Semwal 7309.

I. thomsonii Hook. f.

Marsh herb with umbellate pale flowers.
July, 1981. Semwal 7248.

Kutaceae

Skimmia laureola Sieb. et Zucc.

Prostrate shrub, flowers greenish. June, 1978.
Semwal 7186.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Aceraceae

Acer acuminatum Wall, ex D. Don
Tree with white flowers and pink winged
fruits. June, 1978. Semwal 7199.

A. caesium Wall, ex Brandis

Large tree, flowers white. June, 1978. Sem-
wal 7188.

Fabaceae

Astragalus chlorostachys Lindl.

Erect herb with yellow flowers. July, 1981.
Semwal 7225.

Lotus corniculatus Linn.

Decumbent herb with yellow or orange
flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7241.

Parochetus communis Buch.-Ham ex D. Don
Prostrate herb with blue flowers. July, 1981.
Semwal 7187.

Piptanthus nepalensis D. Don
Pubescent shrub with yellow flowers. June,
1978. Semwal 7189.

Trifolium repens Linn.

Herb with white flowers in globose heads.
June, 1978. Semwal 7174.

Trigonella pubescens Edgew. ex Baker
Diffused herb with yellow flowers. June, 1978.
Semwal 7125.

Rosaceae

Cotoneaster acuminatus Lindl.

Erect shrubs, flowers white. June, 1978.
Semwal 7175.

C. rotundifolius Wall, ex Lindl.

Procumbent shrub with pinkish-white flowers.
July, 1981. Semwal 7226.

Fragaria nubicola Lindl. ex Lacaita
Herb with white flowers. June, 1978. Semwal
7128.

F. daltoniana Gay

Stoloniferous herb with dark green leaves
and white flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7119.
Geum urbanum Linn.

Erect herb with yellow flowers. July, 1981,
Semwal 7302.

G. datum (Royle) Hook. f.

Leaves forming rosette, flowers large, yellow
and drooping. July, 1981. Semwal 7255.
Potentilla cuneifolia Betrol.

Base shrubby, leaves glabrous, trifoliate,
flowers yellow. July, 1981. Semwal 7228.

P. arbuscula D. Don

Shrubs on rocks with yellow flowers. July
1981. Semwal 7243.

P. argyrophylla Wall, ex Lehm.

Herb with silvery trifoliate leaves and yellow
flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7304.

P. atrosanguinea Lodd.

Herb with crimson-red flowers, abundant,
June, 1978. Semwal 7159.

P. doubjouneana Camb.

Glabra scent herb on rocks with trifoliate
leaves and yellow flowers. July, 1981. Semwal
7229.

P. fulgens Wall, ex Hook.

Silky herb with yellow flowers. June, 1978.
Semwal 7176.

P. mkrophylla D. Don var. commutata Hook. f.

Herb, leaves green-glaucous above and
pubescent beneath, flowers yellow. June 1978.
Semwal 7149.

P. polyphylla Wall, ex Lehm.

Pubescent diffused herb with yellow corym-
bose flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7262.

Rosa macrophylla Lindl.

Erect shrubs with large pink flowers. June,
1978. Semwal 7177.

R. sericea Lindl.

Shrub with white flowers. July, 1978. Sem-
wal 7230.

FLOWERING PLANTS AROUND THE HOLY SHRINE OF KEDARNATH

Rubus nutans Wall.

Creeping shrubby herb with white flowers.
June, 1978. Semwal 7178.

R. pedunculosus D. Don

Rambling shrubs with light pink flowers.
June, 1978. Semwal 7183.

Sibbaldia cuneata Hornem. ex O. Ktze.

Creeping, base shrubby, flowers minute
yellow. June, 1978. Semwal 7123.

S. micropetala (D. Don) Hand.-Mazz.

Diffused herbs with minute yellow flowers.

July, 1981. Semwal 7315.

S. purpurea Royle

Similar to S. cuneata but with pentafoliate
leaves and pink flowers. June, 1978. Semwal
7102.

Spiraea bella Sims.

Shrub with light pink flowers. July, 1981.
Semwal 7263.

S. canescens D. Don

Shrub with white flowers. July, 1981. Sem-
wal 7319.

S. vestita Wall, ex G. Don
Herbs, leaves pinnate, flowers greenish-
white. July, 1981. Semwal 7249.

Saxifragaceae

Chrysospleniuni tenelium Hook. f. et Thoms.

Delicate creeping glabrous herbs with small
green-yellow flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7132.
Parnassia nubicola Wall, ex Royle
Glabrous herb with single, sessile, cauline
leaf, flowers solitary, terminal. July, 1981. Sem-
wal 7207.

Saxifraga brachypoda Wall. var. fimbriata
(Wall.) Engl, et Irmsch.

Tufted herbs with yellow flowers. July, 1981.
Semwal 7247.

S. bmnoniana Wall, ex Sternb.

Stoloniferous with solitary yellow flowers.
July, 1981.

S. diversifolia Wall, ex DC.

Erect glabrous herbs with corymbose yellow
flowers. July, 1981 Semwal 7305.

S. pallida Wall, ex DC.

Herb with white flowers. July, 1981. Sem-
wal 7250.

Gross ulariaceae

Ribes glaciaSe Wall.

Shrub with unisexual purplish flowers. June,
1978. Semwal 7117.

Crass ulaceae

Seduin bupleuroides Wall, ex Hook. f. et
Thoms.

Fleshy herbs with purplish-red flowers. July,
1981. Semwal 7203.

S. heterodontum Hook. f. et Thoms.

Fleshy herbs with greenish or yellowish
flowers. June, 1981. Semwal 7118.

S. imbricatuni (Edgew.) Walp.

Herb on rocks with dull yellow flowers. July,
1981. Semwal 7232.

S. qtiadriffduni Pall.

Densely tufted herbs with small red flowers.
July, 1981. Semwal 7206.

S. trullipetaluin Hook. f. et Thoms.

Herbs on boulders with yellow flowers. July,
1981. Semwal 7233.

Callitrichaceae

Callitriche verna Linn.

Delicate aquatic herbs floating on water
surface. July, 1981. Semwal 7306.

Onagraceae

Chamaenerion latifoSium (Linn.) Sw.

Herbs with beautiful purple-pink flowers in
glacial beds. July. 1981. Semwal 7238.

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY . Vol. 81

Epilobium iaxum Royle
Erect glabrous herbs in marshy localities.
July, 1981. Semwal 7307.

E. palustra Linn.

Herbs with pinkish-white flowers. July, 1981.
Semwal 7317.

E. royleamini Hausskn.

Herbs with pink flowers. June, 1981. Sem-
wal 7180.

Apiaceae

Acronema tenera Edgew.

Small herb in crevices with minute purplish
flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7239.

Bupleurum longkaule Wall, ex DC.

Glabrous procumbent herb with brownish-
black flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7308.
Heracleum brunonis (DC.) C. B. Clarke
Erect herb on rocky slopes with white
flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7318.

Selinum candoSSei DC.

Robust aromatic herbs with white umbels.
July, 1981. Semwal 7279.

S. vaginatum C. B. Clarke
Herb in marshy places with dark-green
glossy leaves and white flowers July, 1981.
Semwal 7310.

Trachydium roylei Lindl.

Herb in the meadows with white flowers
and black tipped fruits. July, 1981. Semwal
7369.

Yicatia coniifolia DC.

Glabrous herb with fruits. June, 1978. Sem-
wal 7152.

Y. millefolia (Klotzsch) C. B. Clarke
Herb with small flowered umbels. June,
1978. Semwal 7164.

Caprifoliaceae

Lonicera asperifolia (Decne) Hook. f. et Thoms.

Shrub with yellow flowers. June, 1978. Sem-
wal 7130.

L. myrtillus Hook. f. et Thoms, var depressa
Rehder

Decumbent shrub with white flowers. June
1978. Semwal 7121.

L. obovata Royle ex Hook. f. et Thoms.

Shrub with white corolla gibbous at the
base. June, 1978. Semwal 7116.

Yiburnum foetens Decne
Small tree with white flowers and red drupes.
June, 1978. Semwal 7181.

Rubiaceae

Galium acutum Edgew.

Spreading herb with minute greenish-white
flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7240.

G. asperuloides Edgew.

Decumbent herbs with dull white flowers.
July, 1981. Semwal 7244.

G. mollugo Linn.

Scabrous herbs with whitish flowers. July,
1981. Semwal 7311.

G. rotundifolium Linn.

Decumbent herbs, leaves in whorls of four,
flowers white. June, 1978. Semwal 7182.

Valeria naceae

Yaleriana hardwickii Wall.

Herb with white flowers. July, 1981. Semwal
7197.

Dipsacaceae

Morina Songifolia Wall, ex DC.

Spinous herbs with pink flowers. July, 1981.
Semwal 7245.

Asteraceae

Anaphalis cuneifolia Hook. f.

Herbs with cuneate leaves and white flowers.
June, 1978. Semwal 7190.

A. nepalensis (Spreng.) Handl-Mazz.

Woolly herbs with lanceolate leaves and
white heads. July, 1981. Semwal 7341.

FLOWERING PLANTS AROUND THE HOLY SHRINE OF KEDARNATH

A. royleana DC.

Woolly herbs with dirty white heads. June,
1978. Semwal 7196.

Artemisia roxburghiana Besser var. grata
Hook. f.

Erect herbs, leaves green above and white
beneath. July, 1981. Semwal 7348.

Aster peduncularis Wall.

Herbs with violet flowers. July, 1981. Sem-
wal 7358.

Cicerbita cyanea (D. Don) Beauv.

Lithophytic herbs with blue flowers. July,
1978. Semwal 7355.

C. macrorhiza (Royle) Beauv.

Lithophyte, flowers purple-blue. July, 1981.
Semwal 7350.

Dubyaea hispida (D. Don) DC.

Hispid herb with yellow heads. July, 1981.
Semwal 7352.

Erigeron muttiradiatus (DC.) Benth. et Hook. f.

Erect herbs with violet heads. July, 1981.
Semwal 7363.

Gerbera lanuginosa Benth. var. pusilla Hook. f.

Small herb with solitary white heads. June,
1978. Semwal 7153.

Leontopodium himalayanum DC.

Woolly herbs with dull white heads. July,
1981. Semwal 7346.

Ligularia amplexicaulis DC.

Robust herbs with large glaucous leaves and
yellow corymbose heads. July, 1981. Semwal
7354.

L. sibirica Cass. var. racemosa (DC.) Kitamura
Herbs with yellow racemose heads. July,
1981. Semwal 7366.

Myriactis javanica (Bl.) DC.

Erect herbs with purple heads. June 1978.
Semwal 7175.

Saussurea hypoleuca Spreng.

Herb with drooping solitary heads. July,
1981. Semwal 7367.

S. lappa (Decne) Sch.-Bip.

Erect herb with purplish heads. July, 1981,
Semwal 7356.

S. leontodontoides (DC.) Lipsch.

Herbs with sessile, purple heads. July, 1981.
Semwal 7365.

S. obvallata (DC.) Sch.-Bip.

Robust aromatic herb with large translus-
cent floral leaves. July, 1981. Semwal 7360.

S. piptatkera Edgew.

Erect herb with simple leaves and purplish-
violet heads. July, 1981. Semwal 7364.

S. taraxacifolia Wall, ex DC.

Aromatic herbs, acaulescent or almost so,
heads purple. July, 1981. Semwal 7359.

Senecso chrysanthemoides DC.

Erect herbs with yellow corymbose heads,
July, 1981. Semwal 7320.

S. kunthianus Wall, ex DC.

Aromatic herbs, leaves white tomentose
below, heads yellow, corymbose. July, 1981.
Semwal 7314.

Taraxacum officinale Weber

Glabrous scapose herb with solitary yellow
heads. July, 1981. Semwal 7313.

Campanulaceae

Campanula cashmeriana Royle
Herb with blue flowers. June, 1981 Semwal
7139.

Codonopsis rotundifolia Benth.

Climber with purple veined flowers. July,
1981. Semwal 7370.

Cyananthus lobatus Wall, ex Benth.

Glabrous herb with black calyx and dark
blue flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7368.

Ericaceae

Cassiope fastigiata D. Don
Stem tufted, flowers drooping, white. June,
1978. Semwal 7139.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Gaultheria nummularioides D. Don

Decumbent shrubs, leaves with brown hairs
on ventral surface, flowers light pink. June,
1978. Semwal 7161.

G. trichophylla Royle

Glabrous wiry herb with light pink flowers
and sky blue fruits. July, 1981. Semwal 7135.
Rhododendron anthopogon D. Don

Creeping shrub with light yellow flowers.
June, 1978. Semwal 7160.

R. arboreum Sm.

Small tree with large, red flowers. June,
1978. Semwal 7193.

R. campamilatum D. Don
Large shrubs with pale-purple flowers. June,
1978. Semwal 7198.

R. lepidotum Wall, ex G. Don
Small shrub with purplish-red flowers. July,
1981. Semwal 7199.

Primulaceae

Androsace lanuginosa Wall, ex Roxb.

Spreading herb with lilac flowers. July, 1981.
Semwal 7316.

A. villosa Linn.

Herb in glacial beds, forming dense cushions,
flowers purple-lilac. July, 1981. Semwal 7264.
Lysinsachia prolifera Klatt.

Prostrate herb with pale-purple flowers.
July, 1981. Semwal 7259.

Primula denficulala Sm.

Sea pose herb with pink-purple to pale-lilac
flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7133.

P. minutissima Jacq. ex Duby

Small herb in crevices with blue, solitary
flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7106.

P. munroi Lindl.

Marsh herb with white flowers. June, 1978.
Semwal 7155.

P, nivalis Pall. var. moorcroffiana (Wall.) Pax.

Densely mealy herb with floral buds. June,
1978. Semwal 7104.

P. reidii Duthie

Hairy herb with cream-white flowers, on
rocks. July, 1981. Semwal 7254.

Oleaceae

Syringa emodi Wall, ex Royle
Small tree with fragrant white flowers. July,
1981. Semwal 7272.

Gentianaceae

Gentiana albiealyx Burkill

Small, stemless herb with imbricate leaves
and white flowers. June, 1978. Semwal 7101.

G. argentea Royle ex D. Don

Herb with blue flowers, abundant in mea-
dows. June, 1978. Semwal 7111.

G. capitata Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don
Glabrous herb with light blue flowers. June,
1978. Semwal 7107.

Swertia ciliata (G. Don) B. L. Burtt
Erect herb with purple flowers. July, 1981.
Semwal 7260.

S. cuneata D. Don

Herb with blue flowers. July, 1981. Semwal
7281.

S. speciosa D. Don.

Robust glabrous herb with purple streaked,
lurid-green flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7324.

POLEMONIACEAE

Polemonium coerufeum Linn.

Herb, flowers blue. June, 1978. Semwal 7122.

Bor AGIN ACE AE

Hackeiia uncinata (Benth.) C. E. C. Fischer
Herb with blue flowers, yellow at the centre.
July, 1981. Semwal 7261.

Lindelofia longiflora (Benth.) Baill.

Herb with intense blue drooping flowers.
July, 1981. Semwal 7325.

FLOWERING PLANTS AROUND THE HOLY SHRINE OF KEDARNATH

Myosotis sylvatica Hoffm.

Hirsute herb with light blue flowers. July,
1981. Semwal 7201.

Onosma emodi Wall.

Hispid herbs on rocks with pink tipped
flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7251.

Trigonotis rotundifolia (DC.) C. B. Clarke
Abundant in meadows. Herb with blue
flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7109 and 7202.

SCROPH U LARIACEAE

Euphrasia platyphylla Pennell
Small herbs with white flowers in terminal
spikes. July, 1981. Semwal 7252.

Hemiphragma heterophyllum Wall.

Spreading herb with dimorphic leaves, pink
flowers and red fruits. July, 1981. Semwal
7266.

Pedicuiaris hoffmeisteri Klotzsch
Glabrous herb with yellow flowers. July,
1981. Semwal 7253.

P. pectinata Wall, ex Benth.

Erect herb with purple flowers. July, 1981.
Semwal 7327.

P. punctata Decne

Ravine herb with purple-red flowers. July,
1981, Semwal 7322.

P. rhinanthoides Schr. ssp. [abellata (Jacq.)
Prain

In meadows. Herb with purple flowers. July,
1981. Semwal 7323.

Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth.

Glabrous prostrate herb with bluish flowers
and bladdery seeds. June, 1978. Semwal 7108.
Scrophularia calycina Benth.

Robust herb with green flowers. June, 1978.
Semwal 7115.

S. himalayensis Royle ex Benth.

Glandular herbs with greenish flowers. July,
1981. Semwal 7257.

Veronica cana Wall.

Erect herbs, flowers violet in terminal race-
mes. July, 1981. Semwal 7291.

V. macrostemon Bunge ex Ledeb.

Herb, flowers white in terminal clusters. July,
1981. Semwal 7321.

Lamiaceae

Ciinopodium umhrosum (M. Bieb.) Koch
Erect herbs with purple flowers. July, 1981.
Semwal 7296.

Nepeta nervosa Royle ex Benth.

Herbs with blue flowers. July, 1981. Semwal
7265.

N. govaniana Benth.

Aromatic herbs with yellow flowers. July.
1981. Semwal 7278.

Phlomis bracteosa Royle ex Benth.

Robust herbs with purple flowers. July. 1981.
Semwal 7299.

P. macrophyila Wall.

Hirsute herbs with purple flowers. July, 1981.
Semwal 7298.

Prunella vulgaris Linn.

Herbs with dimorphic purple flowers. July
1981. Semwal 7256.

Salvia hians Royle ex Hook.

Viscid herbs, flowers blue. July, 1981. Sem-
wal 7292.

Stadiys sericea Wall.

Aromatic herbs with pale-purple flowers.
July, 1981. Semwal 7300.

Plantaginaceae

Plantago himalaica Pilger
Scapose glabrous herbs with green flowers.
June, 1978. Semwal 7151.

POLYGONACEAE
Oxyria digyna Hill

Glabrous herbs in ravines, flowers pink or
greenish. July, 1981. Semwal 7267.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Polygonum affine D. Don

Tufted herbs with creeping woody rootstock
and red and pink flowers. July, 1981. Semwal
7326.

P. alpinum All.

Robust erect herbs with panicled white
flowers. July 1981, Semwal 7338.

P. aniplexicaule D. Don
Spreading herbs with crimson-red flowers.
July, 1981. Semwal 7297.

P. delicatulum Meissn.

Glabrous annual herbs, flowers pale-white.
July, 1981. Semwal 7287.

P. filicaule Wall, ex Meissn.

Strigose annual herbs with pink and white
flowers. July, 1981. Semwal 7347.

P. glaciale Hook. f.

Annual herbs, flowers green and pink. July,
1981. Semwal 7344.

P. macrophylluni D. Don

Scapose herbs with red flowers in dense
spikes, abundant in the marshy meadows.
July, 1981. Semwal 7284.

P. mmicifolium Royle ex Bab.

Herb with purple and green flowers. July,
1981. Semwal 7293.

P. sinuatum Royle

Creeping herbs, flowers pink in solitary glo-
bose heads. July, 1981. Semwal 7289.

P. vaccinifolium Wall, ex Meissn.

Shrubs with pink flowers on rocks. July,
1981. Semwal 7343.

P. viviparum Linn.

Herb with bulbils, flowers light pink in
spikes. July, 1981. Semwal 7329.

Rheum moorcroftianum Royle

On rocky slopes. Herb with large leaves, pink
flowers and trigonous fruits. July, 1981. Sem-
wal 7342.

R. emodi Wall, ex Meissn.

On rocks. Robust herbs with panicled white

flowers and winged fruits. July, 1981. Semwal
7283.

Rumex acetosa Linn.

Glabrous herbs with pink-purple flowers.
June, 1978. Semwal 7143.

R. nepalensis Spreng.

Erect herbs with greenish flowers. July, 1981.
Semwal 7269.

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia pilosa Linn.

Erect herbs with yellow or dull purplish
involucral leaves around the cyathia. July,
1981. Semwal 7328.

E. stracheyi Boiss.

Herbs with tuberous roots and green cyathia.
July, 1981. Semwal 7150.

Urticaceae

Parietaria debilis Forst.

Annual diffused herbs, flowers minute,
greenish. July, 1981. Semwal 7277.

Piiea wightii Weddel var. roylei Hook. f.

Small herbs, flowers pink in terminal
cymose clusters. July.

Betulaceae

Betula utilis D. Don

Deciduous tree with greenish spikes. July, 1981.
Semwal 7330.

Fagaceae

Quercus semecarpifolia Sm.

Large trees with green nuts. July, 1981.
Semwal 7268.

Salicaceae
Salix elegans Reichb.

Deciduous shrubs with catkins. June, 1978.
Semwal 7163.

FLOWERING PLANTS AROUND THE HOLY SHRINE OF KEDARNATH

S. fruticulosa Anderss.

Shrubs, catkins with seeds embedded in
white wool. June, 1978. Semwal 7131 and 7144.
S. karelinii Turez ex Stschez
Decumbent shrubs, catkins brownish-purple.
June, 1978. Semwal 7146.

S. fiindleyana Wall, ex Anderss.

Prostrate shrubs with yellow catkins. June,
1978. Semwal 7145.

MONOCOTYLEDONS

Orchidaceae

Cypripedium elegans Reichb. f.

Herb with a pair of leaves and nodding
solitary purple flower. June, 1978. Semwal
7166.

Goodyera fusca Hook. f.

Herbs, leaves mottled white, flowers white in
spikes. June, 1978. Semwal 7173.

Hemiinium lanceum (Thunb.) Vuijk

Small herbs with pale yellow spikes. In-
meadows. July, 1981. Semwal 7220.

H. monorchis (Linn.) R. Br.

Herb with green flowers. July, 1981. Semwal
7218.

H. pugioniforme Lindl. ex Hook. f.

Herbs with minute greenish flowers. July,
1981. Semwal 7216.

Malaxis muscifera (Lindl.) O. Ktze

On rocks. Herbs with yellowish flowers in
dense spikes. July, 1981. Semwal 7280.

M. acuminata D. Don
Beautiful herb with purple flowers. July,
1981. Semwal 7209.

Orchis chusua D. Don
Herb with purple flowers, very rare. July,
1981. Semwal 7331.

O. latifolia Linn.

Erect herb with palmate tubers and pink
flowers, rare. June, 1978. Semwal 7124.

SCITAMINACEAE

Roscoea alpina Royle

Herb on rocks with purple-violet flowers.
July, 1981. Semwal 7334.

Haemodoraceae

Aletris pauciflora (Klotzsch) Hand.-Mazz.

Small herbs with white flowers. July, 1981.
Semwal 7296.

Iridaceae

Iris kumaonensis Wall, ex G. Don

Attractive herbs with bright blue flowers.
June, 1978. Semwal 7129.

Liliaceae

Ointonia udensis Trautv. var. alpina (Kunth
ex Baker) Hara

Herbs with naked scapes and white flowers
in terminal umbellate corymbs. July, 1981.
Semwal 7276.

Fritillaria roylei Hook.

Herb with solitary terminal nodding greenish
or pale-purple flowers. June, 1978. Semwal
7137.

Gagea lutea Schultz, f.

Herb with yellow flowers. June, 1978 Sem-
wal 7140.

Nomocharis oxypetala (Royle) Balf. f. ex W.E.

Evans

Herb with nodding yellow flowers. July,
1981. Semwal 7271.

N. nana (Klotzsch) E. H. Wilson
Herbs with purple-blue flowers. July. 1981.
Semwal 7273.

Polygonatum multiflorum All.

Herb with alternate leaves and white flowers.
July, 1981. Semwal 7295.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

P. verticillatum All.

Herb with whorled leaves and white flowers.
July, 1981. Semwal 7288.

Smilacina purpurea Wall.

Herb with purple flowers. July 1981. Semwal
7275.

Smilax vagiuata Decne

Climber with small purplish flowers. July,
1981. Semwal 7335.

Trillium govanianum Wall, ex Royle
Herb with dark purple flowers. June, 1978.
Semwal 7134.

JUNCACEAE

Juucus himalensis klotzsch et Garcke

On rocks. Herb with dark brown flowers.
July, 1981. Semwal 7353.

J. membranaceous Royle ex D. Don
Herbs, flowers white in terminal heads. July,
1981. Semwal 7336.

Luzuia multiflora (Retz.) Lej
Herbs with brownish-grey flowers. July,
1981. Semwal 7285.

JUNCAGINACEAE

Triglochih palustre Linn.

Marsh herb with pale-green flowers. July,
1981. Semwal 7214.

Araceae

Arisaema jacquemontii Blume
Herbs, spa the green. July, 1981, Semwal
7282.

A. wallichianum Hook. f.

Herbs, spathe purple. July, 1981. Semwal
7286.

Cyperaceae
Carex nivalis Boott

Sedges, dark brown inflorescence. July, 1981.
Semwal 7205.

Kobresia nitens C. B. Clarke
Sedges, spikes green. July, 1981. Semwal
7332.

POACEAE

Agrostis canina Linn.

Erect grass on rocky slopes, spikelets pur-
plish. July, 1981. Semwal 7349.

A. niunroana Aitch. et Hemsl.

Grass in meadows and rocky slopes. July,
1981. Semwal 7362.

A. pilosuia Trin.

Grass with purple spikelets. July, 1981, Sem-
wal 7339.

Calamogrostis emodensis Griseb.

Grass in rocky slopes. July, 1981. Semwal
7340.

C. pseudopliragmites (Hall, f.) Koel.

Robust grass with brownish spikes. July,

1981. Semwal 7351.

Dantkonia cuminsii Hook. f.

Dominant alpine grass in steep slopes. July,
1981. Semwal 7333.

Deyeuxia holciformis (Jaub. et Spach.) Bor
Robust grass on rocks, July, 1981. Semwal
7361.

D. puldiella (Griseb.) Hook. f.

Tall grass with purplish spikes. July, 1981.
Semwal 7357.

Festuca kashmlriana Stapf
Grass in meadows with green spikes. July,
1981. Semwal 7345.

F. vaSesfaca Schleich. ex Gaud.

Grass in moist localities. July, 1981. Semwal
7274.

Phleum alpinum Linn.

Marsh grass, spikes green. June, 1978. Sem-
wal 7120.

Poa supina Schrad.

A common grass, spikes green. June, 1978.
Semwal 7112.

FLOWERING PLANTS AROUND THE HOLY SHRINE OF KEDARNATH

ACK NO WLEDGE ME NTS

I am grateful to Dr. A. N. Purohit, Director,
High Altitude Plant Physiology Research Cen-
tre, Garhwal University, for providing facilities
and encouragement. I am indebted to Dr. R.
D. Gaur for valuable guidance and to Mr. J.
K. Rawat for his help during plant collection.

Refer

Hutchinson, J. (1973) : The Families of Flower-
ing Plants (ed. III). Oxford.

Rau, M. A. (1961): Flowering plants and ferns

Note added in proof : The author, Dr. J. K.
Semwal, Scientist at the Central Institute of Medi-
cinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow was a promis-
ing young taxonomist who had made significant
contribution to the exploration of alpine flora of
the Garhwal Himalayas. Dr. Semwal died in the
field during a recent exploratory trip in the Garhwal
Himalayas — Editors.

Thanks are due to Dr. U. C. Bhattacharyya,
Deputy Director, B.S.I., Northern Circle, Dehra-
dun for providing herbarium facilities. I am
also thankful to Mr. A. K. Goel and Surinder
Singh of the same institution for their assist-
ance in plant identification. Financial assistance
from CSIR, New Delhi in the form of a Senior
Research Fellowship and Post Doctoral fellow-
ship is gratefully acknowledged.

e n c e s

of north Garhwal, Uttar Pradesh, India. Bull. Bot.
Surv. India, 3: 215-251.

Semwal, J. K. (1981): Taxonomical Survey of
Tungnath and Ecophysiological Studies of some
selected Plants of the Region. D. Phil, thesis, Uni-
versity of Garhwal (Unpublished).

Semwal, J. K,, Gaur, R. D. & Purohit, A. N.
(1981) : Floristic pattern of Tungnath — An alpine
zone in Garhwal Himalaya. Acta Bot. Indica, 9:
110-114.

Semwal, J. K. & Gaur, R. D. (1981): Alpine
flora of Tungnath in Garhwal Himalaya. /. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 78: 498-512.

OBSERVATIONS OF THE REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY
OF THE INDIAN CHAMELEON, CHAMAELEO
ZEYLANICUS (LAURENTI)1

L. A. K. Singh2, L. N. Acharjyo3 and
H. R. Bustard4

The Indian chameleon, Chamaeleo zeylanicus was studied in Orissa, in captivity and
in the wild. Captive specimens were housed in enclosures with ample vegetation, and
maintained on an insect diet. Smallest female with functional ova was 375 mm in
length. Mating occurred during the last week of August, and egg laying in October.
The shape and size of the nest depended on the suitability of the ground. On soft fine
sand the nest was an oblique hole, 22 cm in depth, 9 cm in diameter at the mouth.
The eggs were 15-22.5 mm x 9-12 mm x 1. 0-2.0 gm. There was indication of increase
in size and weight of the eggs during incubation. Hatching occurred after eight months
in June when small insects were available in large numbers. In three of the four cases
reported, the female died within 1-42 days after egg laying. Females move less and
are more territorial. Females are intolerant of close approach of other chameleons
of either sex except of suitor males during a period of a few days when they are
ready to mate. Mating is preceded by display by female and ‘chase and escape’ beha-
viour between the male and the female. Display by female and male (against other
males) included assumption of deep green body colouration with dark spots and
blotches, lateral flattening of the body, and hissing with open mouth.

Introduction

The Indian chameleon, Chamaeleo zeylani-
cus, an oviparous species, is distributed from
Punjab in the north to Sri Lanka in the south
(Boulenger 1890, Parshad 1914, Smith 1935,
Deraniyagala 1953). Knowledge of the species’
reproductive biology was based on Trench
(1912). Then considered to be Chamaeleon
calcar at us, Trench (1912) studied the beha-
viour of a male and female in captivity. Both

1 Accepted March 1983.

2 Gharial Research and Conservation Unit, Tiker-

pada, 759 122, Orissa. Present address: National

Chambal Sanctuary, Post Box 11, Morena 476 001
(M.P.).

3 Nandankanan Biological Park, Barang 754 005,
Orissa.

4 Present address: Airlie Brae, Alyth, Perthshire
PHI 1 8 AX, Scotland, U.K.

individuals were obtained from ‘Jubbulpore,
C. P.’ (= Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh). Derani-
yagala (1953) has provided preliminary data
on the habits, reproduction and dimensions of
male and female individuals. Biswas and
Acharjyo (1977), while giving a general ac-
count on the ecology and biology of some
reptiles occurring in and around the Nandan-
kanan Biological Park, Orissa gave the species’
distribution in Orissa, clutch sizes and egg
measurements.

The solitary habit, procryptic behaviour and
appearance make C. zeylanicus difficult to study
in the wild, and it is difficult to keep for long
periods in captivity without elaborate arrange-
ments. Observations made on aspects of the
reproductive biology in captivity and in the
wild are presented in this paper.

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE INDIAN CHAMELEON

Materials and Methods

Two of us (LAKS and HRB) observed the
species at and around the Gharial Research
and Conservation Unit, Tikerpada (GRACU)
within the Satkoshia Gorge Sanctuary situated
in 84°47'E longitude and 20°35'N latitude,
and LNA observed it at the Nandankanan
Wildlife Sanctuary, in 86.25°E longitude and
20.25°N latitude. All the observations were
made between 1975 and 1980.

Chameleons reared in captivity at GRACU
were kept in enclosures used for rearing croco-
dilians. One enclosure was 23.7 x 4.9 x 2.6m
and another 12x12x2.5m with ample vege-
tation cover inside. The chameleons reared at
NBP were in an enclosure measuring 4 x 3 x

2.5m. All specimens were maintained on an

insect diet, and were measured and sexed when
received. The base of the tail is somewhat
swollen in males due to the hemepenes, which
can be extruded by applying gentle pressure
from back to the front.

Captive observations are based on four
females — three at GRACU (CF1, CF3 and
CF4) and one at NBP (CF2), and three males
(CM1, CM2 and CM3) at GRACU. Obser-
vations in the wild are based on one male
(WM1) and two females (WF1 and WF2) at
Tikerpada.

Courtship observations were made from
WM1, WF1, CF1, CM1 and CM3. Data on
nesting are recorded from CF1, CF2, CF4 and
WF2, and on the clutch size and female-size
from WF2, CF3 and CF4. Egg biometrics and
information on changes of these during in-
cubation were obtained from clutches obtained
from WF2, CF2 and CF3. Eggs were incubat-
ed in sand, kept moist at approx. 7% water
by weight. No attempt was made to record the
nest temperatures although the ambient tempe-
rature in a standard Stevenson Screen fluctuat-

ed between 4.5°C and 46.0°C, since the dura-
tion of incubation included winter and summer
seasons. Observations on hatchlings were made
possible from the nest laid by CF4 the precise
location of which was not known until actual
hatching took place.

Courtship and Mating

Courtship behavious was observed during
the second week of August. During this period
CM1 became markedly territorial towards the
other males, CM2 and CM3, displaying a deep
green colour with black blotches and spots
and hissing loudly with laterally flattened body
as has been described for C. gracilis by Bustard
(1967). Frequently CM1 was also seen chasing
the other males trying, and actually biting
these, particularly on the flanks as reported
for C. gracilis (Bustard 1967).

Initially the female was not receptive to any
of the males and it moved away with vigorous
rocking movements or displayed hissing
with open mouth and laterally flattened body.
This ‘chase and escape’ behaviour between the
territory-holding male and CF1 persisted for
a week except during heavy showers and at
night when these chameleons used to perch
asleep on the same plant at a distance of at
least 15 cm.

Courting records from the wild included
observation of the ’chase and escape’ behavi-
our between WM1 and WF1 over two days.
On the morning of the third day, at 0600 hours
these had moved and could not be traced.

Mating was observed in captivity only once
in the morning at 1000 hours. It lasted about
three minutes. CM1 was partly over the back
of CF1, holding it with all four limbs. CM1
had also bent down its hind quarters down
below CF1. Both appeared motionless. After
mating CF1 confined itself to a large Butea

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

superb a and after a week it became territorial
and displayed at CM1 and the other males,
which kept away from the Butea.

During the period CM1 and CF1 were
courting they did not eat but later they fed
voraciously. The female, however, showed low
appetite after about a month, and completely
stopped feeding 55 days after mating.

Nesting

LNA observed CF2 on 3.10.75 at about
16.30 hours when it was unsuccessfully trying
to dig a nest hole inside the enclosure. After
several unsuccessful diggings, by 07.15 hours
on 5.10.75 it had already laid the eggs and
was covering the nest. Five eggs were still
partly visible. The female was deep green and
facing away from the nest with its tail held
in the air. Two different types of limb actions
were observed during covering the nest. In
one, both fore limbs, acting alternately, drag-
ged the soil close to the hind limbs, which,
also acting alternately, pushed the soil back
over the eggs. In the other type of limb action,
the limbs of only one side acted at a time —
the fore limb brought the soil near the hind
limb of its side which in turn shifted it over
the nest. During covering of the nest the female
often rested for short periods and changed to
the limbs of the other side. On a few occa-
sions it also attempted to collect soil from
stony areas on either side of the nest. When
the female was covering the nest it reacted to
any disturbance with puffed body and hissing
with open mouth, the display directed towards
the source of disturbance.

At about 11.30 hours covering of the nest
was complete. Thereafter the female appeared
tired and inactive and remained within 2 m of
the nest. At about 14.00 hours on 6.10.75,
the day after egg laying, it was found dead

near the nest. On autopsy no more eggs were
obtained from the body. On excavation of the
nest, 34 eggs were collected. The nest was
almost saucer shaped, 17 cm diameter and 5 cm
in depth.

CF1 was observed while nesting in captivity
on 20.10.75. About a week before this the
female was restlessly moving in the enclosure.
Suspecting that it was ready to lay eggs, a 25 cm
thick sand-bed was provided but CF1 con-
structed its nest 4 m away from this. The de-
tails of nest construction were not recorded.
However, after laying the eggs and covering
the nest it too appeared exhausted and refused
to eat. It was found dead on 2.11.75, 13 days
after egg laying.

At about 2200 hours on 14.10.77 a group
of fishermen of the Tikerpada village had
located WF2 on the sand of a nearby stream.
They kept the chameleon under a bucket and
brought it to GRACU on the next morning.
It had moist sand smeared all over the limbs
and head. On questioning, the fishermen in-
formed that “it had dug a hole in an attempt
to escape out of the bucket cover”. On an exa-
mination at the spot the hole was found to
be obliquely dug, 10 cm deep and 7 cm dia-
meter at the mouth. On digging it further 32
eggs were recovered within 15-20 cm depth
from the surface. About 20 m away on the
bank there was a ‘pit’, 12 cm deep and 9 cm
diameter at the mouth. Further away from this
another equal-size pit was located among the
bushes. Both these pits were dug oblique to
the ground and presented a superficial re-
semblance to the actual uncovered nest with
the eggs. However, these were not fresh and
it could not be ascertained if these were dug
by WF2.

Eggs collected from the nest by WF2 were
kept under incubation in an enclosure in two
divided batches. The female, also kept in the

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE INDIAN CHAMELEON

same enclosure, refused to accept any food and
died after 42 days, on 25.11. 77.

The nest of CF4, which was discovered after
the young hatched, was dug in sand and was
22 cm deep and 10.5-11.0 cm in diameter at
the bottom. Like other females which had
nested, CF4 also died in captivity. Since the
exact date of egg-laying was not known, the
date of the death cannot be related to nesting.

The Eggs

At an early stage of development the ova
are pinkish in colour. At postmortem on
4.6.77 a female, outside the present study
sample, contained over fifty developing ova, all
pinkish in colour and 1-3 mm in diameter.
The female measured 375 mm in total length,
175 mm in snout-vent length and 105 gm in
weight.

Gravid females had yellowish-red patches on
the lower half of the body and thus were
readily recognised. Such females also had a
skinny appearance with extended abdomens
where eggs could be felt when the abdomen
was gently palpated. CF3, a freshly killed
female received at GRACU on 3.10.75,
measured 200 mm for SV (snout-vent) and
weighed 153.5 gm. The tail was missing as
it had been removed for medicinal use. The

oviducts contained 40 eggs, weighing in total

43.0 gm (mean 1.075 gm). A sample of ten
eggs measured as below: 5 eggs were 19 x 12
mm, 2 eggs 19.5 x 12 mm, 1 egg each 20 x
12 mm, 21 x 11 mm and 22.5 x 11 mm. The
eggs were fully formed with white shell, clearly
on the point of deposition.

The eggs from the clutch laid by CF2 were
1 .0-1 . 1 gm in weight, 15-18 mm in length and
9-11 mm in breadth. The female was not
measured.

Of the 32 eggs collected from the clutch
of WF2 31 were normal — 18.15-20.0 mm
in length, 10.5-11.5 mm in breadth and 1.25-

2.0 gm in weight, and one was smaller than
the rest — 16.0 mm x 9.0 mm x 1.0 gm.

CF4, measuring 170 mm in SV, 380 mm in
total length and weighing 115 gm had laid a
clutch of 34 eggs. (Table 1).

Incubation and Development

Eggs of none of the clutches obtained from
CF1, CF2, CF3 and WF2 hatched. However,
measurements and weights of eggs from the
clutches of CF2, CF3 and WF2 showed slight
increase in size and weight during incubation
(Table 2). The study could not be pursued
since the eggs spoiled due to rotting or ant-
invasion.

Table 1

Size of three female Chamaeleo zeylanicus and their clutch size

Female

Chameleon

Date

measured

Total body
length (mm)

Snout-vent
length (mm)

Body- weight
(gm)

Clutch
size (no.)

CF3

3.10.75

—

200

153.5
(with eggs)

CF4

18.9.77

380

170

115

(with eggs)

WF2

14.10.77

365

170

(no eggs)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Table 2

Change in the egg size and weight of eggs of C. zeylanicus artificial incubation

Chameleon

no.

Stage of
incubation
(weeks)

No. of eggs
measured

Egg length
(mm)

Egg breadth
(mm)

Egg weight
(gm)

CF3

19.0-22.5

11.0-12.0

1.075 av.

19.0

12.0

2.0

CF2

15.0-18.0

9.0-11.0

1.0-1. 1

17.0-19.0

11.0-12.0

1.3-1. 5

19.0-21.0

12.0-13.0

2.0-2. 3

WF2

18.25-20.0

10.5-11.5

1. 2-2.0

21.5-22.75

12.2-13.2

1. 5-2.0

22.2-24.0

13.0-14.0

2. 5-3.0

Hatching

Between 21.6.78 and 23.6.78 nine living
and two dead chameleon hatchlings were found
close to the nest of CF4. Upon examination of
the nest the following information was record-
ed. At the surface the nest had two small open-
ings, through which the hatchlings had escap-
ed. The openings were approx. 1 . 5 cm in dia-
meter and 2.0 cm apart. Hatching had taken
place in the early morning of 21.6.78 because
inspite of a 29 mm rain during the previous
night the holes were not blocked with sand.

The nest contained a total of 34 eggs of
which white and empty shells numbered 15
(hatching of 44.1%), black empty shells indi-
cating early fungal attack in 7 eggs (20.5%),
eggs with early embryonic mortality 5 (14.7%)
and with late embryonic mortality 7 (20.5%).
Dead late- stage embryos were found in the
egg with limbs folded and directed forward and
tail coming forward almost to the neck and
twisted round it from its left. The tongue was
slightly protruded in all dead embryos.

The Hatchling

When discovered, the hatchlings were green
in colour, showing slow rocking movements
like the adults. Defensive behaviour was also
like the adult — laterally flattened body,
assumption of black blotches over the green
coloration and hissing with low noise from
open mouth. The hatchlings were different from
the adults in not possessing the casque although
the head at this presumptive area was slightly
convex. Four live hatchlings measured 70.0-
72.5 mm (total length), 33.0-34.5 mm (SV),
and seven hatchlings weighed 6.5 gm (mean
0.92 gm).

Discussion

Bustard (1965, 1966a) provided the details
of colour, body shape and behaviour in C.
hohnelii and C. bitaeniatus to distinguish the
sexes. There is, however, no noticeable sexual
dichromatism in C. zeylanicus , except that
gravid females exhibit yellowish-red blotches

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE INDIAN CHAMELEON

on the lower half of the abdomen. Trench
(1912) has also mentioned of a change in the
colour of his female chameleon during the
period following mating. But Deraniyagala
(1953) has not mentioned any such colour
difference in the sexes although he has noted
that males are larger than the females.

The gravid female colouration advertises the
condition of the female and is a direct parallel
to the dominant and non-dominant colour
patterns shown by C. hohnelii (Bustard 1965).
Presumably it has a similar function of pre-
venting unnecessary interaction /conflict situa-
tions by preventing males making unnecessary
mating attempts which could be rebuffed.

As described for C. hohnelii, C. bitaeniatus
and C. gracilis (Bustard 1965, 1966a, 1967),
in C. zeylanicus too, colour display plays an
important role in social behaviour.

Female C. zeylanicus, like most Chamaeleo
species, are intolerant of close approach of
other chameleons of either sex except for
suitor males during a period of a few days
when they are ready to mate. Actual mating
is preceded by a prolonged ‘chase and escape’
behaviour which is explicable in an analogy
to other vertebrates (Manning 1972) where
because of the solitary nature, the first response
of a potential mate to the other’s approach
may show elements of attack and escape Since
coloration has not been observed to be a sex-
advertising sign in C. zeylanicus at this stage
of the life, the immediate response of a terri-
tory-holding female to a male is of that to-
wards an intruder. This response results in
display. Later, following a male’s continued
attempt at contact, the response is escape.
Perhaps some chemical communication comes
into play at a still later stage to effect mating.

Bustard (1965) mentions for C. hohnelii
that the tendency for males to wander may be
important in increasing the probability of their

locating mates, since they are solitary animals.
Similar to the above observation, for C. zey-
lanicus too, we believe that the males wander
more than the females because during this study
and from our unpublished records we noticed
many more males than females — an obser-
vation also recorded by Biswas and Acharjyo
(1977).

Male displays are directed only to other
males competing or thought to be competing
to court a female. Such male displays include
close approach, pausing to inflate and hiss,
and attacks on the flanks. These male displays
have also been recorded by Bustard (1965)
in C. hohnelii.

Females on the other hand move less. The
post-mating male avoidance behaviour of the
female is highly pronounced. Trench (1912),
who had also noticed this, stated: after mating
the female “showed rage if the male came near
her, rocking her body to and fro and gaping
at him with faint hissings. He on the other
hand would fly in ludicrous terror falling head
long from his perch if she came near, as
though paralysed.”

Position taken during mating — male hold-
ing the female with all four limbs — is similar
to the description given earlier by Trench
(1912) for this species (C. zeylanicus) and
by Schreiber (1912) for C. chameleon. Bustard
(1963) for Microsaura pumila and Bustard
(1966a) for C. bitaeniatus.

Fully formed eggs were seen in autopsy of
females during the middle of September but
egg laying began only between the 1st and 3rd
weeks of October. Actual laying of eggs occur-
red after two days of digging — an observa-
tion also recorded by Trench, who, however,
mentioned egg-laying in November. The differ-
ence in this may be due to the difference in
latitude. (Trench made his observation at
Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh at approx. 23 °N

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

and 80°E.) Deraniyagala (1953) have mention-
ed of a female captured at Marichchukate in
November, 1933 that contained 22 eggs.

Deraniyagala (1953) have noted that the
gestation period is one month for C. zeylanicus.
In the present study the gap between mating
and egg laying is from six to eight weeks.

In the present study four females have been
noted as dying after egg laying. CF2 died after
the day of nesting, CF1 after 13 days, WF2
(caught from the wild) after 42 days, and for
CF4 the gap period is not known.

The shape and size of the nests depended
on the nature of the ground in which these
were dug. When the ground was of soft, fine,
sand the nest was an oblique hole up to 22 cm
deep and 9 cm diameter at the mouth, but
when the ground was hard the nest was wider
(17 cm) and shallower (5 cm). About two
days of unsuccessful digging may precede
actual completion of nest digging and egg lay-
ing.

Egg sizes provided for the species by Trench

Refe

Biswas, S. & Acharjyo, L. N. (1977): Notes
on ecology and biology of some reptiles occurring
in and around Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa.
Rec. Zool. Surv. India , 73 : 95-109.

Boulenger, G. A. (1890): The Fauna of British
India, including Ceylon and Burmah. Reptilia,
Batrachia. Taylor and Francis, London.

Bustard, H. R. (1965) : Observations on the life
history and behaviour of Chamaeleo hohnelii (Stein-
dachner). Copeia 7965(4): 401-410.

(1966a): Observations on the life

history and behaviour of Chameleo bitaeniatus
Fischer. Herpetologica, 22(1): 13-23.

(1966b) : Notes on the eggs, in-
cubation, and young of the Bearded Dragon, Amphi-
bolurus barbatus barbatus (Cuvier). Brit. J. Herpe-
tol. 5(10): 252-259.

(1967): The comparative behavi-
our of chameleons: fight behaviour in Chameleo

(1912) are 13 x 7 mm, by Smith (1935) 19 x
12 mm, by Deraniyagala (1953) 18-19 x 12-
12.5 mm, and by Biswas and Acharjyo (1977)
16-19 x 10-12 mm. In the present study the
measurements recorded were 15.0-22.5 x 9-12
mm x 1. 0-2.0 gm. From Table 2 it is noted
that during incubation the eggs tend to in-
crease in size and weight as is observed in
agamid eggs (Bustard 1966b). Since the
chameleonidae are considered to be a descen-
dant from agamid stock, certain behavioural
similarities as pointed out by Bustard (1965)
are expected.

The incubation period was eight months,
which is apparently timed so that the hatchlings
emerge when there is abundant small insect
food at the onset of the monsoon in June.

Ack nowledgement

We wish to record our gratitude to the staff
and villagers who helped immensly in obtain-
ing chameleons.

E N CES

gracilis Hallowell. Herpetologica, 25(1) : 44-50.

Deraniyagala, P. E. P. (1953): A colored atlas
of some vertebrates from Ceylon. Vol. II: Tetrapod
Reptilia. Ceylon National Museum Publication, The
Ceylon Government Press.

Manning, A. W. G. (1972): An Introduction to
Animal Behaviour. The English Language Book So-
ciety and Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd., London.

Parshad, B. (1914): Extension of range of the
chameleon. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 23: 370.

Schreiber, E. (1912): Herpetologica Europea.

Jena. G. Fischer, 960 pp.

Smith, M. (1935) : The Fauna of British India,
including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia.
II. Sauria. Taylor and Francis, London.

Trench, C. C. (1912): Notes on the Indian
chameleon (Chamaeleon calcaratus). J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc., 21: 687-689.

NEW RECORDS AND HOSTS OF APHID PARASXTOIDS
(HYMENOPTERA: APHIDIIDAE) FROM KASHMIR,

INDIA1, 2

R. C. Bhagat3

New records of Aphidiid parasitoids; reared from various aphid species together with
records of new host aphids of earlier recorded Aphidiid species in Kashmir are pre-
sented. 12 species of aphid parasitoids are new to India and 5 species new to Kashmir.
Host-Parasitoid list is added, showing 87 different couples of host/parasitoid.

Introduction

Aphidiid parasitoids are internal parasites
of aphids. Earlier the aphid parasitoid fauna of
Kashmir has been studied by Dharmadhikari &
Ramaseshia (1970); Rishi & Zutshi (1973 &
1979); Shuja Uddin (1973-1974, 1975 & 1978)
and Stary & Bhagat (1978). These papers record
a total of 19 Aphidiid species from the valley
of Kashmir. Additional Aphidiid parasitoids
are being recorded from this region in this
paper. 12 species which have been recorded as
new to India and are marked with an asterisk
and 5 species newly recorded from Kashmir are
marked with a double asterisk and a number
of additional new aphid hosts of some already
recorded parasitoids are marked with a dagger.
The total number of aphid parasitoids known
to occur in Kashmir is 36. The aphid parasi-
toid species have been obtained by random
collecting and breeding of parasitized aphid
samples from different localities and habitats
of Kashmir. The 87 different host/parasitoid

1 Accepted February 1981.

2 Part of Ph.D. thesis approved by the Kashmir
University for award of degree.

3 Entomology Section, Sericulture Research Cen-
tre, (J&K), Mirgund, Post Bag No. 30, Kashmir,
India. Present address'. Lecturer, P. G. Dept, of
Zoology, The University of Kashmir. Srinagar-
190006. India.

couples recognized for the first time in
India during the present study are incorpo-
rated in he Host-Parasitoid list. For the host
aphid nomenclature, Eastop & Hille Ris Lam-
bers (1976) has been followed.

Observations

*1. Aphidius areolatus Ashmead
Hosts : Periphyllus aesculi Hille Ris Lam-
bers, Lai Mandi, Srinagar, 30. v. 1976, from
Aesculus indica; Periphyllus vandenboschi
Hille Ris Lambers, Khilanmarg (Gulmarg),
28. vi. 1976, from Acer caesium.

*2. Aphidius avenae Haliday
Hosts : Chaetosiphon glaber David, Raja-
singha and Narayanan, Shankaracharya hill,
Srinagar, 26.x. 1975, from Rosa sp.; Macro -
siphum sp.. Peri Mahal, Srinagar, 7. v. 1977,
from Rosa macrophylla; Myzaphis turanica
Nevsky, Kangan, 28. v. 1978, from Rosa sp.
*3. Aphidius eglanteriae Haliday
Hosts : Chaetosiphon tetrarhodum (Walker),
Dachigam, 15.vi. 1976, from Rosa macrophylla ;
Myzaphis rosarum (Kaltenbach), Lai Mandi,
Srinagar, 5. v. 1977, from Rosa webbiana.

**4. Aphidius ervi Haliday
Hosts : Microlophium evansi Theobald, Ari-
zal, Beerwah, 12.vii.1977, from Urtica dioica;
Acrythosiphon sp., Hazratbal, Srinagar,
18.V.1978, from Vida sativa.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

*5. Aphidius gifuensis Ashmead
Hosts: Aphis affinis Del Guercio, Manasbal,
15.iv.1977, from Mentha longifolia ; Aphis
sp., Harvan, 21 .x. 1975, from Nepeta salvifolia;
Aphis sp., Hazratbal, Srinagar, 3.vi.l978,
from Veronica persicae; Aphis sp., Naseem
Bagh, Srinagar, 4.vi.l978, from Vicia sativa.
6. Aphidius matricariae Haliday

f Hosts: Aphis sp., Oberoi Palace, Srinagar,
3.xi.l978, from Cynoglossum glochidatum;
Microlophium car nosum Buckton, Srinagar,
3.xi.l978, from Urtica dioica; Capitophorus
elaeagni van der Goot, Peri Mahal, Srinagar
22. ix. 1975; from Carduus edelbergi.

*7. Aphidius salicis Haliday
Hosts: Aphis sp.. Peri Mahal, 16. v. 1976,
from Dioscorea deltoides ; Cavariella biswasi
Ghosh, Basu and Raychaudhuri, Zabervan,
Srinagar, 25. v. 1975. from Ferula jaeschkeana.
**8. Aphidius smithi Sharma & Subba Rao
Hosts: Acrythosiphon sp., Gulmarg, 8.vii.
1977, from Ranunculus muricatus; Acrythosi-
phon sp., Naseem Bagh, Srinagar, 28. v. 1978,
from Medicago sativa.

9. Aphidius uzbekistanicus Luzhetzki

t Host: Impatientinum impatiens dalhousi-
ensis Verma, Lolab Valley, 3.x. 1977, from
Impatiens. sp.

10. Aphidius spp.

Hosts: Aphis farinosa Gamelin, Khilanmarg,
28. vi. 1976, from Salix aegyptica; Capitopho-
rus sp., Chararisherief, 13.vi.1977, from Car-
duus sp.; Chaetosiphon sp., Dachigam, 25. v.
1977, from Rosa sp., Lachnus tropicalis (van
der Goot), Zabervan, Srinagar, 16. v. 1977,
from Pinus wallichiana; Rhopalosiphum nym-
phaeae Linneus, Hazratbal, Srinagar, 15 . v. 1977,
from Nymphaea alba.

11. Diaeretiella rapae (M* Intosh)

t Hosts: Brevicoryne brassicae (Linnaeus),
Srinagar, 23.x. 1975, from Brassica oleracea
var. acephala; Uroleucon sonchi (Linnaeus),

Srinagar, 30. v. 1976, from Sonchus oleraceous.

12. Ephedrus persicae Froggatt

t Hosts: Chaitophorus populeti (Panzer),

Peri Mahal, Srinagar, 25. v. 1975, from Popu -
lus caspica; Melanaphis donacis (Passerini),
Hazratbal, Srinagar, 25.x. 1976, from Arundo
donax; Tetraneura sp., Ducksum 17. vi. 1977,
from Ailantus altissma.

13. Ephedrus plagiator (Nees)

| Hosts: Prociphilus sp., Zabervan, Srinagar,
25. v. 1975, from Lonicera quinquelocularis;
Tetraneura sp., Ducksum, 17. v. 1975, from
Ailantus altissma.

*14. Ephedrus salicicola Takada
Hosts: Cavariella sp., Srinagar, 30. vi. 1975,
from Salix babylonica; Eumyzus sp., Kangan
near Prang, 28. v. 1977, from Nepeta cataria.
**15. Lipolexis gracilis Forster
Hosts: Acyrthosiphon rubi Narzikulov, Haz-
ratbal, Srinagar, 7.vii.l975, from Rubus fruti-
cosus; Aphis affinis Del Guercio, Bandipore,
4.viii.l975, from Mentha aquatica, and Hai-
gam, 3 . viii . 1977, from Mentha sylvestris;
Aphis gossypii Glover, Cheshamashi, Srinagar,
30. viii. 1975, from Zinnia elegans; Aphis crac-
civora Koch, Hazratbal, 6.vii.l975, from
Robinia pseudoacacia.

*16. Lysiphlebus (Phlebus) confusus
Tremblay & Eady

Hosts: Aphis nr. intybi (Koch), Harvan near
Dachigam, 30. vi. 1975, from Cichorium inty-
bus; Chaitophorus niger Mordvilko, Chitamar,
Bandipore, 4. viii. 1975, from Populus caspica;
Sipha ( Rungsia ) maydis Passerini, Hazratbal,
Srinagar, 15. viii. 1976, from Sorghum hale-
pense.

**17. Lysiphlebus (Phlebus) fabarum

(Marshall)

Hosts: Acyrthosiphum rubi Narzikulov,

Hazratbal, Srinagar, 7. viii. 1975, from Rubus
fruticosus; Aphis craccivora Koch; Srinagar,
7. viii. 1975, from Robinia pseudoacacia; Aphis

NEW RECORDS AND HOSTS OF APHID PARASITOIDS

fabae solanella Theobald, Zeetyer, Srinagar,
31 . viii . 1975, from Rumex nepalensis; Aphis
nr. salviae Walker, Shankaracharya hill, Sri-
nagar, 6.ix.l975, from Salvia moorcraftiana.
*18. Monoctonus crepidis (Haliday)

Hosts : Liosomaphis atra Hille Ris Lam-
bers, Kokernag, 23 .v. 1977, from Berberis pseu-
doumbellatus; Liosomphis sp., Cheshmashahi,
12.V.1976, from Berberis zebbiliana .

19. Praon abjectum (Haliday)

| Hosts: Aphis farinosa Gmelin, Srinagar,
28. iv. 1976, from Salix babylonica; Aphis gros-
sulariae nr. pollinosa Walker, Kokernag, 15.x.
1977, from Epilobium hirsutum; Aphis sp., Har-
van, 21.x. 1975, from Nepeta salvifolia; Mela -
naphis donacis (Passerini), Hazratbal, Srinagar,
14.x. 1976, from Arundo donax ; Myzaphis
rosarum (Kaltenbach), Kokernag, 23. v. 1977,
from Rosa sp.;

*20. Praon dorsale (Haliday)

Hosts: Amphicercidus tuberculatus David,
Narayanan & Rajasingha, Dachigam, 25 .v. 1977,
from Lonicera quinquelocularis; Macrosipho-
niella sanborni (Gillette), Cheshmashahi, Sri-
nagar, 18.V.1976, from Chrysanthemum mori-
folium.

**21. Praon nympheae Subba Rao and
Sharma

Hosts: Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae (Lin-
naeus), Nagin Lake, Srinagar, 15.V.1977,
from Nymphaea sp.

22. Praon volucre (Haliday)

f Hosts: Aphis sp., Cheshmashahi, Srinagar,
4.x. 1975, from Lespedeza sp.; Hyalopterus
arundinis (Fabricius), Srinagar, 26. v. 1975,
Prunus domestica; Hyalopterus pruni (Geof-
froy), Nagin Lake, Srinagar, 9.vii.l975, from
Phragmites communis; Hypermyzus lactucae
(Linnaeus), Srinagar, 5.vi.l976, from Son -
chus oleraceus; Macrosiphum sp., Srinagar,
30.V.1976, from Rosa sp.; Myzaphis turanica
Nevsky, Kangan, 28. v. 1978, from Rosa sp.;

Liosomaphis atra Hille Ris Lambers, Nishat
Garden, Srinagar, 23. v. 1976, from Berberis
pseudoumbellatus; Uroleucon sp., Verinag,
15 .viii. 1977, from Sonchus asper.

23. Toxares deltiger Westwood

|Hosts: Betacallis sp., Aharbal, 5. viii. 1975,
from Conium maculatum; Eumyzus sp., Kan-
gan, 28. v. 1977, from Nepeta cataria; Ovatus
nr. crataegarius Walker, Gulrnarg, 3.vii.
1975, from Mentha longifolia; Prociphilus sp.,
Aharbal, 5.vii.l977, from Lonicera quinque-
locularis.

24. Trioxys (Binodoxys) acalephae (Marshall)
f Hosts: Aphis affinis Del Guercio, Bruj-

homa, 13.ix.1975, from Mentha sylvestris;
Macrosiphum sp., Zabervan, Srinagar, 7.V.1977,
from Rosa sp.

25. Trioxys (Binodoxys) brevicornis (Haliday)
fHost: Chaitophorus pakistanicus Hille Ris

Lambers, Naseem Bagh, Srinagar, 28. iv. 1976,
from Salix babylonica.

26. Trioxys (Binodoxys) centaureae (Haliday)
t Hosts: Capitophorus elaeagni (Del Guer-
cio), Chararisharief, 13.vi.1977, from Macro -
siphoniella artimisae (Boyer de Fonscolombe),
Shankracharya, Srinagar, 6.ix.l975, from Arte-
misia indica; Macrosiphoniella sp., Chesha-
mashahi, Srinagar, 18.iv.1976, from Achillea
millefolium.

27. Trioxys (Binodoxys) indicus Subba Rao
and Sharma

t Hosts: Aphis affinis Del Guercio, Dachi-
gam, 25.V.1975, from Mentha sylvestris; Aphis
fabae solanella Theobald, Prang near Kangan,
20. v. 1977, from Rumex nepalensis; Aphis
gossypii Glover, Shopian, 5.vi.l977, from
Urtica dioica , and Hazratbal, Srinagar, 14. vi.
1977, from Melia azedarach; Aphis pomi De
Geer, Naseem Bagh, Srinagar, 14. vi. 1975,
from Pyrus malus; Eriosoma sp., Hazratbal,
Srinagar, 22. vi. 1975, from Cotoneaster aitkin-
sonii; Macrosiphoniella pseudoartemisiae

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Shinji, Shankracharya, Srinagar, l.v.1975,
from Artemisia absinthium; Macrosiphum sp.,
Srinagar, 8. v. 1975, from Rosa brunonii ; Min-
darus japonicus Takahashi, Khilanmarg 28. vi.
1976, from Abies pindrow; Paraphorodon sp.,
Hariparvat, Srinagar, 21.V.1976, from Punica
granata.

*28. Trioxys (Trioxys) compianatus Quilis

Hosts: Acyrthosiphum pisum Harris, Naseem
Bagh, Srinagar, 30. iv. 1978, from Lathyrus
aphaca; Therioaphis sp., Hazratbal, Srinagar,
30. iv. 1978, from Vida sativa.

*29. Trioxys (Trioxys) pannonicus Stary
Host: Macrosiphoniella nr. artemisiae Boyer
de Fonscolombe, Shankracharya, Srinagar,
6.ix.l975, from Artemisia absinthium.

30. Trioxys (Trioxys) rishii Stary and Bhagat
t Hosts'. Aphis craccivora Koch, Srinagar,
25. vi. 1975, from Robinia pseudoacacia; Aphis
pomi De Geer, Hariparvat, Srinagar, l.v.1976,
from Malus sylvestris; Capitophorus elaeagni
Shankracharya, Srinagar, 16.vi.1976, from Car-
duus sp,; Phorodon cannabis Passerini, Hand-
wara, 5.ix.l977; from Cannabis sativa.

*31. Trioxys (Trioxys) shivaphis Takada
Host: Shivaphis celti Das, Emporium Gar-
den, Srinagar, 15. v. 1978, from Celtis australis.

Aphid host — Parasitoid list

ACYRTHOSIPHON
A. pisum (Harris)

Trioxys ( T .) compianatus Quilis
A. rubi Narzikulov

Lipolexis gracilis Forster
Lysiphlebus (P.) fabarum (Marshall)
Acyrthosiphon sp.

Aphidius ervi Haliday

Aphidius smithi Sharma & Subba Rao

AMPHICERCIDUS
A. tuberculatus David et al.

Praon dorsale (Haliday)

APHIS

A. affinis Del Guercio
Aphidius gifuensis Ashmead
Lipolexis gracilis Forster
Trioxys ( B .) acalephae (Marshall)

Trioxys (B.) indicus Subba Rao & Sharma
A. craccivora Koch
Lipolexis gracilis Forster
Lysiphlebus (P.) fabarum (Marshall)

Trioxys (T.) rishii Stary & Bhagat
A. fabae solanella Theobald

Lysiphlebus (P.) fabarum (Marshall)

Trioxys ( B .) indicus Subba Rao & Sharma
A. farinosa Gamelin
Praon abjectum (Haliday)

Aphidius sp.

A. gossypii Glover

Lipolexis gracilis Forster
Trioxys (B.) indicus Subba Rao & Sharma
A. grossulariae Kaltenbach
Praon abjectum (Haliday)

A. nr. salviae Walker

Lysiphlebus (P.) fabarum (Marshall)

A. nr. intybi Koch

Lysiphlebus (P.) confusus Tremblay & Eady

A. pomi De Geer

Trioxys (B.) indicus Subba Rao & Sharma
Trioxys ( T .) rishii Stary 8c Bhagat
Aphis spp.

Aphidius gifuensis Ashmead
Aphidius matricariae Haliday
Aphidius salicis Haliday
Praon abjectum (Haliday)

Praon volucre (Haliday)

BETACALLIS
Betacallis sp.

Toxares deltiger Westwood

BREVICORYNE

B. brassicae (Linnaeus)

Diaeretiella rapae (M’Intosh)

CAPITOPHORUS

C. elaeagni (Del Guercio)

Aphidius matricariae Haliday
Trioxys (B.) centaureae (Haliday)

Trioxys (T.) rishii Stary & Bhagat

Capitophorus sp.

Aphidius sp.

NEW RECORDS AND HOSTS OF APHID PARASITOiDS

C A V ARIELLA

C. biswasi Ghosh. Basu & Raychaudhuri
Aphidius salicis Haliday

CavaricIIa sp.

Ephedrus salicicola Takada

CHAETOSIPHON

C. glaber David, Rajasingh & Narayanan
Aphidius avenae Haliday
C. tctrarhodmn (Walker)

Aphidius eglanteriae Haliday
Chaetosiphon sp.

Aphidius sp.

CHAITOPHORUS
C. niger Mordvilko

Lysiphlebus (P.) confusus Tremblay & Eady
C. pakistanicus Hille Ris Lambers
Trioxys (B.) brevicornis (Haliday)

C. populeti (Panzer)

Ephedrus persicae Froggatt

ERIOSOMA

Eriosoma sp.

Trioxys ( B .) indicus Subba Rao & Sharma

EUMYZUS
Eumyzus sp.

Ephedrus salicicola Takada
Toxares deitiger Westwood

HYALOPTERUS
H. arundinis (Fabricius)

Praon volucre (Haliday)

H. pruni (Geoffroy)

Praon volucre (Haliday)

HYPERMYZUS

H. lactucae (Linnaeus)

Praon volucre (Haliday)

I MP ATI ENTINUM

I. dalhousiensis Verma

Aphidius uzbekistanicus Luzhetzki

LACHNUS

L. tropical is van der Goot

Aphidius sp.

LIOSOMAPHIS

L, atra Hille Ris Lambers

Monoctonus crepidis (Haliday)

Lisomaphis sp.

Monoctonus crepidis (Haliday)

MACROSIPHONIELLA
M. artcmisiae (Boyer de Fonscolombe)
Trioxys ( B .) centaureae (Haliday)

M. nr. artemisiae (Boyer de Fonscolombe)
Trioxys (T.) pannonicus Stary
M. pseudoartcmisiae Shinji

Trioxys ( B .) indicus Subba Rao & Sharma
M. sanborni (Gillette)

Praon dorsale (Haliday)

Macrosiphoniella sp.

Trioxys (B.) centaureae (Haliday)

MACROSIPHUM
Macrosiphum sp.

Aphidius avenae Haliday
Praon volucre (Haliday)

Trioxys ( B .) acalephae (Marshall)

Trioxys (B.) indicus Subba Rao & Sharma

MELANAPHIS
M. donacis (Passerini)

Ephedrus persicae Froggatt
Praon abjectum (Haliday)

MICROLOPHIUM
M. carnosum (Buckton)

Aphidius matricariae Plaliday
M. evansi Theobald
Aphidius ervi Haliday

MINDARUS
M. japonicus Takahashi

Trioxys ( B .) indicus Subba Rao & Sharma

MYZAPHIS

M. rosarum (Kalenbach)

Aphidius eglanteriae Haliday
Praon abjectum (Haliday)

M. turanica Nevsky

Aphidius avenae Haliday
Praon volucre (Haliday)

OVATUS

O. nr. crataegarius (Walker)

Toxares deitiger Westwood

PERIPHYLLUS

P. aesculi Hille Ris Lambers
Aphidius are ol at us Ashmead

P. vandemboschi Hille Ris Lambers
Aphidius areolatus Ashmead

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 8/

PARAPH GRODON
Parapiiorodon sp.

Trioxys ( B .) indicus Subba Rao & Sharma

PHORODON
P. cannabis Passerini

Trioxys ( T .) rishii Stary & Bhagat

PROCIPHILUS
Prociphilus sp.

Ephedrus plagiator (Nees)

Toxares deltiger Westwood

RHOPALOSIPHUM

R. nympliacae (Linnaeus)

Aphidius sp.

Praon nympheae Subba Rao & Sharma

SHIV APHIS

S. celti Das

Trioxys (T.) shivaphis Takada

SIPHA

S. maydis Passerini

Lysiphlebus ( P .) confusus Tremblay & Eady

TETRANEURA
Tetraneura sp.

Ephedrus persicae Froggatt
Ephedrus plagiator (Nees)

Refer

Dharmadhikari, P. R. & Ramaseshia, G. (1970): .
Recent records of aphidiids (Hym. Aphidiidae) in
India. Tech. Bull. Commonw. Biol. Control. 13:
83-89.

Eastop, V. F. & Hille Ris Lambers, D. (1976):
Survey of world’s aphids. DR. W. Junk. b. v. The
Hague.

Rishi, N. D. & Zutshi, V. (1973): New records
of aphids and their parasitoids from Kashmir. Proc.
Sym. On Oriental Entomology, Calcutta, (Abstract).

(1979) : Records of

parasitoids of aphids from J & K with notices on
their bio-control potentials. Proc. of Sym. Recent
Trends in Aphidological Studies. 81: 45, Bhubane-
shwar. (Abstract).

Shuja-Uddin (1973): Three species of Trioxys

THERIOAPHIS
Therioaphis sp.

Trioxys (T.) complanatus Quilis

UROLEUCON
U. somclii (Linnaeus)

Diaeretiella rapae (M’ Intosh)

Uroleucon sp.

Praon vol acre (Haliday)

Ac.K NOWLEDGF.MENTS

I am indebted to Dr. D. N. Fotedar, Head,
P. G. Department of Zoology, University of
Kashmir, for providing the necessary working
facilities. Many thanks are due to Dr. P. Stary,
Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, Prague,
for confirming some aphid parasitoid speci-
mens. The help rendered by Dr. V. F. Eastop,
British Museum (Natural History) and Dr.
(Late) D. N. Raychaudhuri, Calcutta Univer-
sity in connection with identification of some
aphid specimens is gratefully acknowledged.
I am also thankful to Dr. A. R. Naqshi, Cura-
tor, Botany Department, University of Kashmir
for identification of plant specimens.

e n c e s

Haliday (Hymenoptera : Aphidiidae) recorded from
India. Indian J. Ent., 35: 9-14.

(1974) : Three species of the genus

Toxares Westwood (Aphidiidae: Hymenoptera) from
India with a note on the genus. Indian J. Ent., 36:
268-274.

(1975) : Two new species of Aphi-
diidae (Hymenoptera) from India. Rev. Zoo\. Surv.
India. 68: 415-420.

(1978): New record of Ephedrus

campestris Stary (Aphidiidae: Hymenoptera) from
India. Indian J. Zool. 6(1) : 60-61.

Stary, P. & Bhagat, R. C. (1978): Records and
description of aphid parasitoids from Kashmir, India
(Hymenoptera. Aphidiidae). Acta Ent. bohemoslov.
75: 387-393.

HOST PLANTS OF THE FRUIT FLIES (DIPTERA:
TEPHFJTID AE ) OF THE INDIAN SUB-CONTINENT,
EXCLUSIVE OF THE SUB-FAMILY DACINAE1

Mohammad Zaka-ur-Rab2

In the Indian sub-continent (including India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bangla-
desh), the Tephritidae are represented by 60 genera and 138 species, out of which
56 genera and 102 species belong to sub-families other than the Dadnae. Very little
work has been done on the biological aspects of the non-Dacine Tephritidae of the
region. This can be gauged from the fact that out of 102 species comprising this group,
host plants of only 21 species are known with any degree of certainty.

In the present paper, an attempt has been made to place on record the information
hitherto available about the known cultivated as well as wild host plants of the larvae
of non-Dacine Tephritidae of the region.

Introduction

The Tephritidae represent a family of rather
conspicuous looking flies whose larvae are
entirely phytophagous and show intricate ana-
tomical as well as behavioural adjustments for
successfully leading such a mode of life. The
only exception perhaps is the Australian teph-
ritid Rioxa termitoxena which breeds in the
burrows of the tree-dwelling termites, Masto-
termes darwiniensis and Calotermes irregularis,
the larvae subsisting on a foul smelling liquid
lying within the termite tunnels. Another close-
ly related example is that of Rioxa modestum
(Fab.) which was recorded by Bezzi (1913) as
having been bred from decaying wood at
Calcutta in West Bengal.

In the Indian sub-continent, the Tephritidae
are represented by 60 genera and 138 species
out of which 56 genera and 102 species belong
to sub-families other than Decinae.

1 Accepted August 1980.

2 Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim Univer-
sity. Aligarh. India.

Very little work has been done on the bio-
logy of the non-Dacine Tephritidae of the
region. This can be gauged from the fact that
out of 102 species comprising this group, host
plants of only 21 species are known with any
degree of certainty. Even where we know
something about the host plants of any parti-
cular species, it seems that the total range of
the latter has not been adequately explored.

Members of the sub-family Trypetinae are
mostly fruit feeders although some of them
also cause galls or damage seed pods etc. The
fruit feeders mostly live on the fleshy portions
of wild and cultivated fruits but do not damage
their seeds. However, those species which cause
galls considerably reduce the vigour of their
host plants and can be effectively utilised as
biological control agents for combating harm-
ful weeds. Use of Procecidochares udlis for
controlling the Crofton weed, Eupatorium
adenophorum, in Hawaii, Australia, New Zea-
land, India and Nepal, is one such example.

Members of the sub-family Tephritinae, on
the other hand, usually infest flower heads of
various plants and destroy the seeds develop-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

ing therein. While this may amount to serious
economic losses in cultivated crops by reduc-
ing the seed yields, a large proportion of these
species can serve as useful biological control
agents for keeping the reproductive potential
of noxious weeds under effective check by
destroying their seeds.

It is now widely known that a number of
plant pests are able to survive and multiply
on wild plants which serve as their alternative
hosts. For an effective control of such pests it
is obviously useful to have as much informa-
tion as possible about their wild alternative
hosts. This is also highly desirable in view of
the role played by such wild hosts in the multi-
plication and augmentation of populations of
parasites and predators of various economic
pests.

The following text is an attempt to place
on record the information hitherto available
about the cultivated as well as wild host plants
of the larvae of fruit flies (exclusive of sub-
family Dacinae) of the Indian sub-continent
comprising of India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka,
Nepal and Bangladesh.

Sub-family trypetinae
Anoplosnus flexosus Bezzi

Cultivated host: Morus sp.

(Misra 1920, Kumaon, U.P.; Mathur and
Singh 1959).

Wild host: Unknown

Carpomyia vesuviana Costa

Cultivated host: Zizyphus jujuba Lam.

(-Z. mauritiana Lam.)

(Batra 1953; Narayanan and Batra 1960;
Pruthi and Batra 1960; Usman and Putta-
rudraiah 1955; Fletcher 1920, 1917; Khare
1923; Basha 1952).

Wild host: Zizyphus nummulavia W. and A.

(Batra 1953; Narayanan and Batra 1960;
Pruthi and Batra 1960).

Z. vulgaris Lam. (=Z. sativa Gaertn., Z.
jujuba Mill.)

(I reared this fruit fly from infested fruits
of Z. vulgaris at Srinagar, Sopore, Bandipur
and Baramulla in Kashmir where these trees
grow wild. This is the first record of C. vesu-
viana from Kashmir, as well as from this host
in the Indian sub-continent).

Note: This fruit fly is widely distributed
throughout the sub-continent, and is found
where-ever Zizyphus trees grow.

Ceratitella asiatica Hardy

Cultivated host: Unknown

Wild host: Loranthus longiflorus Desv.

(Hardy 1967, at Kahuta, Pakistan, infesting
fruits).

Ceratitis capitata (Wied.)

Cultivated host: Prunus persica Stokes

(Munro 1938, bred from peach at Pusa,
Bihar in 1907 but not subsequently reported).

Wild host : Unknown

Ceratitis sp.

Cultivated host : Unknown

Wild host: Dendrocalamus giganteus Munro

(Mathur and Singh 1959, larvae boring in
new shoots).

Chaetellipsis paradoxa Bezzi
(= Poecilis judicauda Bezzi)

Cultivated host: Unknown

Wild host: Bambusa burmanica Gamble

(Bhasin, Roonwal and Singh 1958, breeding
in damaged shoots, larva tunnels on outside of
node between epidermis and culm sheath).

Chelyophora ceratitina (Bezzi)

(= Stictaspis ceratitina Bezzi)

Cultivated host: Unknown

Wild host: Dendrocalamus strictus Nees

100

HOST PLANTS OF THE FRUIT FLIES

(Mathur and Singh 1959, infesting shoots).

Bamboos

(Bhasin, Roonwal and Singh 1958, infesting
green shoots, larva completely eats out the
soft tissue leaving only the culm sheath; Flet-
cher 1920, at Pusa, Bihar).

Chelyophora striata (Froggatt)

Cultivated host : Unknown

Wild host: Bambusa vulgaris Schrad.

(Bhasin, Roonwal and Singh 1956, infest-
ing green shoots).

Dendrocalamus giganteus Munro

D. strictus Nees

(Mathur and Singh 1959, larvae boring in
shoots; Fletcher 1920, Sri Lanka, infesting
shoots).

Craspedoxantlia ocfopusictata Bezzi

Cultivated host: Centaur ea americana Nutt.

(Menon, Kapoor and Mahto 1968, Delhi,
breeding in flowers).

Wild host: Gonicaulon glabrum Cass.

(Senior- White 1922, Nagpur, infesting

flowers).

Gastrozona melanista Bezzi

Cultivated host: Unknown

Wild host: Ficus sp.

(Usman and Puttarudraiah 1955, Chikmag-
lur, infesting wild figs).

Myfopardalis pardalina (Bigot)

Cultivated host: Citrullus vulgaris Schrad.

Cucurbita maxima Duch.

C. pepo L.

Cucumis melo L.

C. sativus L.

(Janjua 1954; Janjua and Samuel 1941;
Pruthi and Batra, 1960; Narayanan and Batra
1960).

Wild host: Cucumis trigonus Roxb.

(Misra 1920, at Pusa, Bihar; Janjua 1954;
Pruthi and Batra 1960; Narayanan and Batra
1960).

Note: This fruit fly has been recorded from
all parts of Pakistan except Sind, and is a
very serious pest of cultivated melons parti-
cularly in Baluchistan. Reports of its occur-
rence in various parts of India, however, have
been rather few and far between. It appears
likely that such chance records were based on
infested fruits imported from Pakistan.

Phaeospilodes bambusae Hering

Cultivated host: Unknown

Wild host: Bamboo

(Hering 1940, Coimbatore, bamboo shoots).

Procecidochares utilis Stone

Cultivated host: Unknown

Wild host: Eupatorium adenophorum

Sprengel

(Kapoor and Malla 1978, at Kathmandu,
Nepal, causing gall formation at junction of
two leaves or leaf petiole; Kapoor, Malla and
Ghosh 1979).

Rhacochlaena cassiae Munro

Cultivated host: Cassia fistula L.

(Bhasin, Roonwal and Singh 1958, larvae
boring in pods).

Wild host: Unknown

Sub-family tephritinae
Acanthiophsles helianthi Rossi

Cultivated host: Carthamus tinctorius L.

(Bhatia and Singh 1939, Delhi, infesting
flowers; Narayanan and Batra 1960).

Centaurea americana Nutt.

(Menon, Kapoor and Mahto 1968, Delhi,
infesting flowers; I found it infesting these
flowers at Srinagar, Kashmir. This also hap-

101

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

pens to be the first report of this fruitfly from
Kashmir).

Wild host: Unknown

Isoconia bifaria Munro

Cultivated host: Unknown
Wild host: Barleria sp.

(Munro 1947, at Coimbatore, infesting
pods).

Stylia sororcula (Wied.)

Cultivated host: Dahlia sp. (D. Pinnata Cav.?)
Coreopsis drummondi Torr. and Gray
C. grandiflora Hogg

(I bred this fruitfly from the above flowers
at Aligarh, U.P.)

Wild host: Coreopsis sp.

Bidens sp., and other Compositae.

(Hardy 1964, Nepal, infesting seeds).

Tephritis cardualis Hardy

Cultivated host: Unknown

Wild host: Carduus edelbergii (= C. nutans)

(Hardy 1974, Swat Distt., N.W.F.P., Pakis-
tan, breeding in flower heads).

Tephritis tribuiicola Senior- White

Cultivated host : Unknown

Wild host: Thistle

(Senior- White 1922, Shillong and Mawph-
lang, Assam).

Trupanea amoena (Frfld.)

Cultivated host: Tagetes erectus L.

Chrysanthemum indicus L.

(Trehan 1946, at Lyallpur, Pakistan, infest-
ing flowers).

Wild host: Veronia cinarea Less.

(Tehran 1946, at Pusa, Bihar, infesting
flowers)

Trupanea stellata Fuessly

Cultivated host: Calendula officinalis L.

(Nirula 1942, at Delhi, infesting flowers).

Wild host: Unknown

Host plant — Fruit fly list

Species

Isoconia bifaria Munro

Host

ACANTHACEAE
Barleria sp.

BAMBUSEAE

Bambusa burmanica Gamble
B. vulgaris Schrad.

Bamboo

Dendrocalamus giganteus Munro
D. strictus Nees

Chaetellipsis paradoxa Bezzi
Chelyophora striata (Froggatt)
Chelyophora ceratitina (Bezzi)
Phaeospilodes bambusae Hering
Ceratitis sp.

Chelyophora striata (Froggatt)
Chelyophora ceratitina (Bezzi)
Chelyophora striata (Froggatt)

102

HOST PLANTS OF THE FRUIT FLIES

COMPOSITAE
Bidens sp.

Calendula officinalis L.

Carduus edelbergii
(= C. nutans L.)

Carthamus tinctorius L.

Centaurea americana Nutt.

Chrysanthemum indicus L.

Coreopsis drummondi Torr. & Gray
C. grandiflora Hogg
Coreopsis sp.

Dahlia sp. (D. pinnata Cav.?)
Eupatorium adenophorum Sprengel
Gonicaulon glabrum Cass.

Tagetes erect us L.

Veronia cinarea Less.

CUCURBITAE

Citrullus vulgaris Schrad.

Cucumis melo L.

C. sativus L.

C. trigonus Roxb.

Cucurbita maxima Duch.

C. pepo L.

LEGUMINOSEAE

Cassia fistula L.

LORANTHACEAE

Loranthus longiflorus Desv.

MORACEAE

Morus sp.

RHAMNACEAE

Zizyphus jujuba Lam.

(= Z. mauritiana Lam.)

Z. nummularia W. & A.

(= Z. rot undifolia Lam.)

(= Z. microphylla Roxb.)

Stylia sororcula (Wied.)

Trupanea stellata Fuessly
Tephritis cardualis Hardy

Acanthiophilus helianthi Rossi
— do —

Craspedoxantha octopunctata Bezzi
Trupanea amoena (Frfld.)

Stylia sororcula (Wied.)

— do —

Procecidochares utilis Stone
Craspedoxantha octopunctata Bezzi
Trupanea amoena (Frfld.)

— do —

Myiopardalis pardalina (Bigot)
— do —

— do —

—do —

Rhacochlaena cassiae Munro

Ceratitella asiatica Hardy

Anoplomus flexosus Bezzi

Carpomyia vesuviana Costa
— do —

103

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Z. vulgaris Lam.

(= Z. saliva Gaertn.)
(= Z. jujuba Mill.)

ROSACEAE

Prunus persica Stokes
UR TIC ACE AE
Ficus sp.

Carpomyia vesuviana Costa

Ceratitis capitata (Wied.)

Gastrozona melanista Bezzi
References

Bash a, J. M. G. (1952) : Experiments on the
control of fruit borers on jujuba. Indian J. Ent., 14:
227-238.

Batra, H. N. (1953) : Biology and control of
fruit-flies in India. Indian J. agric. Sci., 23: 87-112.

Bezzi, M. (1913): Indian Trypaneids (fruit-flies)
in the collection of the Indian Museum. Mem. In-
dian Mas., 3: 53-175.

Bhasin, G. D., Roonwal, M. L. & Singh, Bal-
want (1958) : A list of insect pests of forest plants
in India and the adjacent countries. Part 3. Indian
For. Bull. (N. S.), No. 171: 1-128.

Bhatia, H. L. & Singh, Mohan (1939) : Acan-
thiophilus helianthi Rossi a new pest of safflower in
Delhi. Indian J. Ent., 1: 110.

Fletcher, T. B. (1917) : Annotated list of the
Indian crop-pests. Proc. 2nd Ent. Meet., Pusa 18: 307.

(1920): 2. Annotated list of

Indian crop-pests. Proc. 3rd Ent. Meet., Pusa, 1:
33-314.

Hardy, D. E. (1964) : Diptera from Nepal. The
fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae). Bull. Brit. Mus.
( nat . Hist.) Entom, 15: 145-169.

(1967): Studies of fruitflies asso-
ciated with mistletoe in Australia and Pakistan with
notes and descriptions on genera related to Peril amp-
sis Bezzi. Beitr. Ent., 77(1/2): 127-149.

(1974): A new Tephritis from flower

heads of thistle in Pakistan (Diptera: Tephritidae).
Proc. Hawaiian ent. Soc., 27(3) : 373-375.

Hering, E. M. (1940) : Eine nueu fruchtfliegen als
Bambus schadling (Diptera). Ann. Mag. nat. Hist.,
5(11): 322-23.

Janjua, N. A. (1954) : Biology of the melon-fly
Myiopardalis pardalina Big. (Riptera, Trypetidae).
Indian J. Ent., 16: 227-229.

& Samuel, C. K. (1941): Fruit

pests of Baluchistan. ICAR Misc. Bull., No. 42: 1-41.

Kapoor, V. C. & Malla, Y. K. (1978): The in-
festation of the gall fruit-fly, Procecidochares utilis
(Stone) on Crofton weed, Eupatorium adenophorum
Sprengel in Kathmandu. Indian J. Ent., 40(3) : 337-
339.

Khare, J. L. (1923) : Ber fruit (Zizyphus jujuba)
and its fly pest. Bull. Agric. Res. Inst., Pusa, No. 143:
1-16.

Mathur, R. N. & Singh, Balwant (1959): A
list of insect pests of forest plants in India and the
adjacent countries. Part 5. Indian For. Bull. (N.S.),
No. 171(4) : 1-165.

Menon, M. G. R., Kapoor, V. C. & Mahto, Y.
(1968): Centaurea americana as a new host plant
record for the fruit flies, Acanthiophilus helianthi
Rossi and Craspedoxantha octopunctata Bezzi in
India. Indian J. Ent., 30(4) : 316.

Misra, C. S. (1920) : Index to Indian fruit pests.
Proc. 3rd Ent. Meet. Pusa, 2 : 564-595.

Munro, H. K. (1938): Studies on Indian Trype-
tidae. Rec. Indian Mus., 40: 21-37.

(1947) : African Trypetidae. Mem.

Ent. Soc. S. Africa, No. 1: p. 111.

Narayanan, E. S. & Batra, H. N. (1960): Fruit
flies and their control. ICAR, New Delhi: 68 pp.

Nirula, K. K. (1942): Trypanea stellata Fuessly.
a new pest of some Compositae in India. Indian J.
Ent., 4 : 90.

Pruthi, H. S. & Batra, H. N. (1960): Some im-
portant fruit pests of North-West India. ICAR Bull.,
No. 80: 1-113.

Senior-White, R. (1922) : Notes on Indian Trype-
tidae. Mem. Dept. Agric. (Ent. Ser.), 7: 97-98, 156-
164.

Trehan, K. N. (1946): Biological observations on
Trypanea amoena Frfld. Indian J. Ent., 8: 107-109.

Usman, S. & Puttarudraiah, M. (1965): A list
of the insects of Mysore including mites. Dept. Agric.
Mysore (Ent, Serf), Bull. 18: 1-194

104

OBSERVATIONS ON THE LENGTH-WEIGHT
RELATIONSHIP OF THE FISH RASBORA
DA NIC ONI U S (HAM.-BUCH.)1

V. Y. Thakre and S. S. Bap at2
( With two text-figures)

The present paper deals with the study of length-weight relationship in a cyprinid fish,
Rasbora daniconius. The equations expressing this relationship in both the sexes of
the adult fish are further studied to verify cube relationship (Le Cren 1951) between
these two measurements. To see whether the two regression equations obtained here,
one in the case of each of the females and the males, differ significantly from
each other, the test of analysis of covariance is performed.

Introduction

Since growth generally contributes to the in-
crease of both, length and weight of a
fish, the length-weight relationship is an inte-
resting aspect of study to establish the statistical
relationship between these two measurements.
This relationship was expressed by earlier wor-
kers by the cubic formula, W = aL3, wherein
it is suggested that the weight (W) of the fish
is equal to the product of the cube of the
length (L) and a constant (a). Crozier and
Hecht (1913) found this cubic law inadequate
to explain the length-weight relationship in
fishes. The general assumption that the weight
of the fish varies as the cube of its length did
not show accuracy in the empirical results.
Allen (1938) supported the cube law in case
of fish which maintain the same shape.
Therefore to be able to explain the varying
power value of L in case of fish
available in nature in general, many workers
adopted the parabolic equation of the form.

1 Accepted October 1981.

2 Department of Zoology, Marathwada University,

Aurangabad. 431 004, Maharashtra State, India.

vV = aLb. Mile (1936) and Martin (1949) in
this connection found that the power values
of b usually varied between 2.5 and 4 in
different fishes. Le Cren (1951) revealed that
as retaining either of the shape of the body
outline, or of the constant specific gravity of the
tissues is almost an impossible event, the rela-
tionship may depart from cube law proposed
for an ideal fish. Hence he admitted the use
of b power formula and also pointed out the
superiority of b power formula over cubic
formula for the reason that the former besides
being useful in finding out weight and length
measurements may also be used for indicating
the condition factor or ponderal index, spawning
season and the taxonomic differences and
events in the life history, such as, metamor-
phosis and the onset of maturity.

Materials and Methods

Adult specimens, freshly collected from river
Kham, near Aurangabad were brought to the
laboratory, cleaned under tap water and im-
mediately after removing the body moisture
with the help of blotting paper, their weight
and total length measurements were noted ac-

105

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

curately. The sex was recorded by opening
the abdomen. Thus 3085 adult specimens, com-
prising 2152 females in the range of 36-160 mm
and 933 males in the range of 36-123 mm were
considered in this study. The indeterminants
below 36 mm. being very rare in catch, could
not be obtained regularly and sufficiently and
therefore, they were not included in the pre-
sent study. The length-weight data of females
and the males were then analysed separately
and grouped into various length groups of
10 mm size interval. The mean values of
length and weight representing each length
group were then calculated in respect of the
number of specimens in each length group.
These mean values were used in the calculation
of length-weight relationship.

The general parabolic form of equation,
W = aLb was used to show the statistical rela-
tionship between length and weight. Since the
weight-length ratio is a power relationship,
logarithms were used, so that the exponential
relation could be expressed by a linear equa-
tion :

Log W = Log a + b Log L
which corresponds to the regression line equa-
tion,

Y - a’ + bX.

where, Y = Log W. X = Log L — are the two
variates and

a’ = Log a and b — are the constants.

Thus, the above equation with weight (W)
and length (L) in logarithmic form can be
treated as the equation of regression line,
Y = a’ + bX, wherein the values of constants,
a ’ and b are to be determined. The following
equations have been used for this purpose.

S xy H Y — b S X

b = and a' = —

"S x2 n

where X and y are the logarithmic forms of
length and weight respectively and n, the num-

ber of the group samples, x and y are the devia-
tion values of X and Y respectively from their

mean i.e. X — X = x and Y = Y = y.

The calculated value of Y for each size
group was then estimated by substituting the
values of X and the constants a' and b in the
equation, y = a' + bX. The equation, W =
aL\ showing exponential relationship between
length and weight was expressed, in females
and males, separately. W was calculated for
every mean total length (L) and the relation-

Fig. 1. Graph showing length-weight relationship in
female R. daniconius.

Fig. 2. Graph showing length-weight relationship in
male R. daniconius.

106

LENGTH-WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP OF RASBORA DANICONIUS

ship between these two measurements is shown
graphically for females and males in Figs. 1
and 2 respectively.

Results

The equations showing the relationship bet-
ween length and weight in females and males
are expressed as below:

ther the two regression equations obtained
above differed significantly from each other.
The test was performed by the method of
analysis of covariance (Snedecor 1961). Parti-
culars of the analysis of covariance are given
in Table 1. It is evident therefrom that the
length-weight relationships both in females and
males do not differ significantly at 5% and 1%
level of significance.

Table 1

Comparison of the regression lines of the length-weight relationship in R. damconius

TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE BY ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE

Sr.

No.

Source of
varia- D.F.

tion

S x2

S Y2

£ xy

Regres-

sion

coeffi-

cient

Deviation from
regression

D.F. S.S. M.S.

Calcu-

lated

Tabu-

lated

Remarks

Females 12

0.4022

4.1316

1.2679

3.1524

0.1347

Males 8

0. 1982

2.0577

0.6380

3.2190

0.0040

5% in

Deviation

between

from indi-

0.1387

0.0077

245.9

Fe-

vidual re-

(15 d.f.)

males

gressions

and

within

248.0

males

sexes.

15.4

(20 d.f.)

do not

Differences

differ

between re-

0.0005

1% in

signifi-

gressions.

between

cantly

Deviation 20

0.6004

6.1893

1.9059

3.1744

0.1392

6157

from total

(15 d.f.)

regression.

and

6209

(20 d.f.)

Females: W = 0.003980 L3,1524
Males : W = 0.003007 L3-2190
and in the linear form of regression line equa-
tion as:

Females: Log W = — 2.4002 + 3.1524 LogL
Males : Log W = — 2.5218 + 3.1290 LogL
The data of length-weight relationship for
females and males were analysed to test whe-

The extent of association between X and Y
values also was tested by estimating the co-
efficient of correlation (r). For females the r
was found to be 0.9836 (d. f. 12, r, 5% =
0.532 and r. 1% = 0.661) and for males
0.9991 (d. f. 8, r, 5% = 0.632 and r, 1% =
0.765). This showed that in both the sexes r
was perfectly significant indicating a good asso-

107

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81

elation between the two measurements of
length and weight.

The regression coefficient, b is 3.1524 in
case of females and 3.2190 in case of males.
Both the values of b are slightly greater than
3 and thus closely, if not perfectly, support
the cube law. With a view to see, whether
the regression coefficient b differed from 3, the
‘t’ test (Ostle 1966) was performed. In females
V was found to be 2.9308 (d. f. 11, t. 5% =
2.201) and in males 5.2771 (d. f. 7, ‘t’, 5% =
2.365). The ‘t’ test revealed significant differ-
ence of b from 3 at 5% level of significance
in both the sexes, thus showing thereby ‘b’
slightly higher than 3.

The calculated value of W for every mean
L has been graphically depicted in Figs. 1
and 2 in case of females and males respectively.
Both the graphs are curvilinear. The observed
values of weight for different size groups,
shown as encircled dots, are seen to lie close
to the respective calculated values of weight.

As can be seen from Figs. 1 and 2 both
females and males upto 80 mm in length in-
crease in weight at a lesser rate than in the
subsequent size groups. This may be attributed
to the slow gonadal growth generally found
in the first time breeders.

Discussion

The present results coincide with the obser-
vations of several workers. Prabhu (1955)
worked on length-weight relationship of Trichiu-
rus haumela and inferred that the weight in-
crease in proportion to its length showed
a normal pattern (the value of b was noted
as 3.0819). Bhatnagar (1963) worked on
Puntius kolus and found that the values of ‘b’
were slightly higher than 3 in males and females
but not so in juveniles. Misu (1964) and Nara-
simhan (1970) worked on the length-weight
relationship of Trichiurus lepturus, the former
from East China Seas and Yellow Sea and the
latter from Kakinada, India, and showed that
there was a deviation from the so called cube
law and weight of the fish increased at a rate
higher than the cube of the length. Chatterji
et al. (1977) worked on the length-weight rela-
tionship of a carp, Labeo bata and showed
that the fish did not strictly follow the cube
law and the weight increased at a rate more
than the cube of the length.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to Dr. R. Nagabhushanam,
Professor and Head, Department of Zoology,
Marathwada University, Aurangabad for his
constant encouragement and help.

References

Allen, K. R. (1938) : Some observations on the
biology of the trout (Salmo trutta ) in Windemere.
J. Anim. EcoJ. 7: 333-349.

Bhatnagar, G. K. (1963) : On some aspects of
biology of Puntius kolus (Sykes) of the Tungabhadra
reservoir. Indian J. Fish., 10(2) : 500-520.

Chatterji, A., Siddiqui, A. Q. & Khan, A. A.
(1977): Length-weight relationship of a carp, Labeo
hata (Ham.), Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., 86(3): 189-
194.

Crozier, W. J. & Hecht, S. (1913): Correlation
of weight, length and other body measurements of

the weak fish, Cynoscion regalis Bull. U. S. Bur.
Fish., 33.

Hille, R. (1936) : Age and growth of the cisco,
Leucichthys artedi (Le Sueur) in the lakes of the
north-eastern highlands, Wisconsin. Bull. U. S. Bur.
Fish., 48: 211-317.

Le Cren, C. D. (1951): The length- weight rela-
tionship and seasonal cycle in gonad weight and
condition in the perch (Perea fluviatilis ) J. Anim.
Ecol., 20: 201-219.

Martin, W. R. (1949) : The mechanics of envi-
ronmental control of body form in fishes. Univ,

108

LENGTH -WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP OF RASBORA DANICONIUS

Toronto Stud. Biol., 58, Publ. Ontario Fish. Res.
Lab., 70: 1-91.

Misu, H. (1964): Fisheries biology on the rib-
bon fish, Trichiurus lepturus in the East China and
Yellow Seas. Bull. Seikai. Reg. Fish. Res. Lab., 32:
1-58.

Narasimhan, K. A. (1970): On the length-weight
relationship and relative condition in Trichiurus lep-
turus Linneaus. Indian J. Fish., 77(1-2) : 90-96.

Ostle, Bernard (1966): Statistics in Research:

Basic concepts and Techniques for research work.
Oxford and I.B.M. Publishing Co., Calcutta, 16.

Prabhu, M. S. (1955) : Some aspects of the bio-
logy of the ribbon fish, Trichiurus haumela (Fors-
kal). Indian J. Fish., 2(1): 132-163.

Snedecor, G. W. (1961): Statistical methods ap-
plied to experiments in Agriculture and Biology.
(Indian Edition). Allied Pacific Private Ltd., Bom-
bay, India, pp. 534.

109

INFLUENCE OF ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE AND
HUMIDITY ON THE VARIATIONS IN SEASONAL
ABUNDANCE AND PHENOLOGY OF M1CRONECTA

STRIATA FIEBER1

T. C. Banerjee, A. S. Mondal and
T. K. Nayek2
( With seven text-figures)

Catches of Micronecta striata F. in a light trap surrounding the Crop Research Farm
were continually obtained at different seasons over twenty-one months. Numerical
abundance during the different seasons varied consistently, leading to the occurrence
of well-defined peaks in September 1978, and March, June and October 1979. The
data were compared with the prevailing conditions of atmospheric temperature and
humidity. Observed variations in local abundance and activity were fairly associated
with the seasonal changes in both the parameters. Annual simple correlations were
significantly negative (P ^ 0.05) with maximum temperature and indifferent with
minimum temperature. More of the variations (59.01%) in the activity of M. striata
were related to the changes in maximum relative humidity (P ^ 0.01) than that of
the minimum one. Variance analysis suggested that a little alteration in the moisture
content of the air during night might induce considerable changes in the activity of
the species population.

ecological conditions become favourable
(Banerjee and Choudhuri 1980).

The local status and phenology of Micro-
necta striata Fieber in relation to tropical
weather conditions are comparatively less
known. This paper, attempts to consider the
local abundance and phenology of the insect
species, by means of a light trap, in relation
to the tropical conditions of atmospheric tem-
perature and humidity.

Material and Methods

The material of this investigation comprised
the adults of a phototropic nocturnal insect,
M. striata Fieber (Hemiptera: Corixidae)

which was collected continually over twenty-
one months (April 1978-December 1979) by
a light trap in the Crop Research Farm, Uni-

Introduction

Seasonal variations in distribution and abun-
dance of the tropical insects are largely condi-
tioned by variations in the environmental para-
meters, particularly the weather that produces
profound influence on the phenology of the
species concerned (Dobzhansky and Pavan
1950, Andrewartha and Birch 1954, Williams
1961, Owen 1969, Gibbs and Leston 1970,
Bigger 1976, Wolda 1978b). In such areas with
six pronounced seasons, as most of eastern
India, the numerical strength of insects de-
creases during summer and winter but, it in-
creases during autumn and spring when the

1 Accepted September 1980.

2 Ecology Research Laboratory, Department of
Zoology, University of Burdwan, Burdwan 713 104.
West Bengal, India.

110

SEASONAL ABUNDANCE AND PHENOLOGY OF MICRONECTA STRIATA

Fig. 1. Seasonal variations in distribution and abundance of the captures of

M. striata in a light trap.

versify of Burdwan (23°16'N and 87°54'E).
The insect is widely distributed and one
of the most abundant species in the group.
It lives submerged in water clinging with its
hind legs to various objects (Popham 1943,
Pruthi 1969) but swarms in the air for various
biological activities.

Trapping covered the time between half-an-
hour before sunset and half-an-hour after
sunrise everyday. Certain unavoidable circum-
stances arising out of power failure, mechani-

cal defects, etc., however, caused interruptions
in the continuous trapping for 8 nights in 1978
and 14 nights in 1979. The numerical strength
of the catch (i.e. local abundance X activity)
differed from night to night probably due to
the prevalence of variable weather conditions
which produced occasionally considerably
large or small collections. The five-day run-
ning mean was adopted to avoid swamping
effects produced by the excess captures on the
small ones.

Ill

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. SI

The data on the seasonal variations in
abundance and activity of the species popula-
tion, as measured by the light trap catches,
were maintained in the laboratory in the fol-
lowing morning and expressed as mean log
catch ± 1 S.E. per night (Williams 1937,
Beall 1938). This logarithmic transformation
of the nightly capture made the assumed
linearity more plausible since each transforma-
tion reduced the range of the variable con-
cerned. In practice, one was added before

taking logarithm of each of the dependent
variable (i.e. log n+1) to mitigate any zero

catch.

The influencing atmospheric environmental
parameters considered for the study were the
maximum temperature and minimum relative
humidity of the day preceding the night of
capture, and the minimum temperature and
maximum relative humidity on the night of
capture. These were taken by the Meteorolo-
gical Branch at Burdwan under the Directo-

Fig. 2. Seasonal changes in abundance, as mean log catch per night, of M. striata
against the corresponding changes in atmospheric maximum and minimum temperature
(Vertical lines represent one standard error on either sides of the mean).

112

SEASONAL ABUNDANCE AND PHENOLOGY OF MICRONECTA STRIATA

rate of Agriculture, Government of West
Bengal, which operated a constantly recording
thermo-hygrograph.

The correlation and regression co-efficients
were worked out to enquire into the relations
between the dependent and independent varia-
bles (Bailey 1959). The annual ‘b’ values were
further employed to forecast the average
amount of change in each weather factor that
would precisely be required for a unit change
in the dependent variable. Since the interpre-
tation of such simple relationship was compli-
cated by simultaneous relations existing with-
in the matrix, the analysis of variance was
resorted to for examining the extent of con-
tribution made by each of the influencing
parameters, so as to account for the total sum
of squares of the deviations in the dependent
variables.

Results

Variations in seasonal abundance :

It was observed that a collection of 745211
adult individuals of M. striata was continually
caught over twenty-one months. The composi-
tion of the captures differed from 2 47 009 in
1978 to 4 98 202 in 1979. Figure 1 presents
the variations in the local abundance of the
insect, as indicated by the light trap captures,
for each month sampled. The proportional
capture shows the increase during September-
October (40.7%-33 .4%) in 1978 and Sept-
ember-November (16.9%-30.6%) in 1979.

Despite such increases, the numerical
strength of the species population varied con-
sistently, leading to the occurrence of well-
defined peaks in September 1978, and March,
June and October 1979. These peaks probably
represent the abundance contributed by the
cycling of life-processes of the species popu-
lation in the locality, and increased local acti-

vity induced by the prevailing circumstances
in which the catches occurred during those
months.

Variations in activity in relation to temperature :

The variations in the seasonal abundance,
as mean log catch per night, in relation to
recorded changes in temperature parameters,
have been presented in figure 2. The swamping
effects, produced by occasional excess cap-
tures resulting in substantial change in the
proportion on three and two nights in Sept-
ember 1978 and October 1979, respectively,
were reduced by the treatment of running loga-
rithmic mean. It would, thus, be noticed that
the peaks were shifted from September to
October 1978 and October to November 1979
(cf. Fig. 1).

The larger values in the curve during Octo-
ber 1978, and March, June and November
1979 indicated associations between the activity
of the insect species resulting in higher cap-
tures and the respective maxima and minima
of take-off temperature that ranged from
30.86°C to 23.68°C, 31.98°C to 18.64°C,
36.56°C to 25.91°C and 30.86°C to 19.22°C.
In spite of such associations, the seasonal varia-
tions in phenology ought not to be considered
as the only contribution of temperature para-
meters. Still, much of the variations in the
occurrence of such events might be ascribed
to the changing influence of ambient tempera-
ture conditions of the plots during certain
months.

The correlation and regression coefficients
between the temperature parameters and the
captures of M. striata have been presented
in table 1. The V values with maximum tem-
perature were significantly positive in August,
September and December 1978, and in Febru-
ary and December 1979. Similarly, the V
values with minimum temperature were signi-
ficantly positive in December 1978, and Febru-

113

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

ary, September and December 1979; and nega-
tive in July 1979. Besides, the average ‘r’ value
for 1978 was significantly negative (P 0.05)
with maximum temperature; whereas, two

years’ average correlations were insignificantly
positive with regard to both the parameters.

The linear relationship between the captures
of the insect and the temperature parameters

114

Fig. 3. Scatter diagram with regression lines showing relationship between the captures
of M. striata and atmospheric maximum temperature (for 1978, Y = 5.2833-0.115 x

and 1979, Y = 0.5936 + 0.0355 x).

SEASONAL ABUNDANCE AND PHENOLOGY OF MICRONECTA STRIATA

may also be shown graphically in the form respective regression constants for maximum
of scatter diagrams (Figs. 3 and 4). The slope temperature ( — 0.115 for 1978 and 0.0355
of the fitted lines in each diagram indicated for 1979) and minimum temperature ( — 0.012

Fig. 4. Scatter diagram with regression lines showing relationship between the captures
of M. striata and atmospheric minimum temperature (for 1978, Y = 1.8878 — 0.012 x

and 1979, Y = 1.0778 + 0.0304 x).

115

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Table 1

Correlation and regression coefficients between the captures (log n+1) of M. striata and the

ATMOSPHERIC MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM TEMPERATURES

Maximum temperature (°C)

Minimum temperature (°C)

1978

1979

1978

1979

Corr.

Reg.

Corr.

Reg.

Corr.

Reg.

Corr.

Reg.

January

—

0.5377

0.4593

—

— •

-0.1658

-0.0560

February

—

0.7191*

0.1327

—

0.9404***

0.3829

March

—

0.1395

0.0183

—

-0.0281

-0.0040

April

0.1278

0.0314

0.3869

0.2014

0.3160

0.0684

-0.1036

-0.0660

May

0.1942

0.0467

0.1762

0.0867

0.3010

0.1067

-0.3614

-0.4115

June

-0.3919

-0.0711

-0.6261

-0.1018

-0.1577

-0.2298

-0.4885

-0.4033

July

0.6983

0.6193

0.4875

0.4386

0.2237

0.3972

-0.7497*

1.1175

August

0.7091*

1 . 3989

0.6551

0.7598

-0.0464

-0.0761

-0.1179

-0.3288

September

0.8638**

0.6434

0.0420

0.0515

0.4873

0.7780

0.9632***

1.5825

October

0.6968

1.3882

-0.5818

-0.6406

-0.2030

-0.1007

-0.5670

-0.4719

November

0.288

0.2151

-0.0155

-0.0110

-0.1855

-0.0626

-0.0056

-0.005

December

0.9071**

0.7552

0.8601**

0.5376

0.7893*

0.4649

0.7420*

0.5496

Annual

-0.4062*

-0.1150

0.1890

0.0355

-0.0632

-0.0120

0.1777

0.0304

Average of 1978 and 1979; Corr. =

0.0061 Reg. =

: 0.0013

Corr. =

0.0787 Reg.

= 0.014

Significant

differences are

indicated by *(P ^

0.05), *=•

HP < 0.01) or *** (P 0.001).

Table 2

Correlation

AND REGRESSION COEFFICIENTS BETWEEN THE

CAPTURES (LOG

N+1) OF

M. striata and the

ATMOSPHERIC MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM

HUMIDITY PARAMETERS

Maximum Humidity (%)

Minimum Humidity (%)

1978

1979

1978

1979

Corr.

Reg.

Corr.

Reg.

Corr.

Reg.

Corr.

Reg.

January

—

-0.5363

-0.3825

—

-0. 3640

-0.0287

February

—

-0.0803

-0.0164

—

-0.7379*

-0.0320

March

—

-0.7354*

-0.0837

—

0.0236

0.0009

April

-0.3924

-0.0714

-0.1373

-0.0411

-0.2665

-0.0095

-0.3558

-0.0607

May

-0.3131

-0.0573

0.3567

0.0972

-0.4411

-0.0267

0.8498**

0.2123

June

0.271

0.0149

0.8084*

0.0689

0.4972

0.0154

0.5936

0.0301

July

0.3086

0.1332

-0.2733

-0.0692

-0.8891**

-0.2083

-0.0460

August

-0.5684

-0.4599

-0.1663

-0.1104

0.6098

0.1607

-0.5582

-0. 1478

September

-0.8020*

-0.4985

-0.6791

-0.5115

-0.9864***

-0.1380

-0.4632

October

-0.5435

-0.2769

—0. 9747* * *

-0.557

-0.7342*

-0.1011

0.0822

0.0233

November

0.7076*

0.1430

-0.7944*

-0.0664

-0.0339

-0.0016

-0.7443*

-0.0353

December

0.6872

0.3002

-0.3196

-0.0642

0.1084

0.0231

-0.6003

-0.0618

Annual

0.4781**

0.1871

0.0361

0.0105

0.3079

0.0160

-0.0622

-0.0038

Average of 1978 and 1979

: Corr. =

0.1806 Reg. =

= 0.0579

Corr. — 0.1006 Reg. = 0.0057

Significant differences are indicated by *(P ^0.05), **(P ^ 0.01) or ***(P ^0.001).

116

MEAN LOG CATCH PER NIGHT

SEASONAL ABUNDANCE AND PHENOLOGY OF MICRONECTA STRIATA

Fig. 5. Seasonal changes in abundance, as mean log catch per night, of M. striata
against the corresponding changes in atmospheric maximum and minimum relative
humidity (Vertical lines represent one standard error on either sides of the mean).

for 1978 and 0.0304 for 1979). The positive
‘b’ values for 1979 with both the parameters
suggested that the average change of 8.5°C or
9.9°C in the respective atmospheric maximum
and minimum temperatures would precisely
be required for a unit change in the activity
of the insect species.

Variations in activity in relation to relative
humidity :

Figure 5 shows the seasonal changes in
abundance of M. striata as mean log catch per
night, in relation to corresponding changes in
the moisture content of the air. It would be
noted from the figure that the average mini-

117

MEAN |»OG CATCH PER NIGHT

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

0—0

1978

1979

68 70 80 90 I

MAXIMUM R.H. C *7

118

Fig. 6. Scatter diagram with regression lines showing relationship between the captures
of M. striata and atmospheric maximum relative humidity (for 1978, Y = 0.1871 x

- 15.419 and 1979, Y = 0.8717 + 0.0105 x).

• O

MEAN LOG CATCH PER NIGHT

SEASONAL ABUNDANCE AND PHENOLOGY OF MICRONECTA STRIATA

Fig. 7. Scatter diagram with regression lines showing relationship between the captures
of M. striata and atmospheric minimum relative humidity (for 1978, Y = 0.6903 +

0.016 x and 1979, Y = 1.9246 - 0.0038 x).

119

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

mum relative humidity fluctuated violently
(34.52%-74.46%) in contrast with that of the
maximum one (82.55%-94.2 6%). Even then,
the increases in local activity and abundance of
the insect species during October 1978, and
March, June and November 1979 were asso-
ciated with the respective maxima and minima
of local humidity parameters ranging from
92.57 to 71.6%, 82.55 to 39.17%, 86.36 to
55.9% and 89.7 to 58.7%.

Simple correlations with the maximum rela-
tive humidity indicated that these were signi-
ficantly positive in November 1978, and June
1979; and negative in September 1978, and
March, October and November 1979 (Table
2). Similarly, the V values with minimum
relative humidity were significantly positive in
May 1979; and negative in July, September
and October 1978, and February and Novem-
ber 1979. Besides, the average V value for

1978 was significantly positive (P 0.01)
with maximum relative humidity; whereas, two
years’ average correlations were insignificantly
positive with regard to both the humidity
parameters.

Figures 6 and 7 indicate through scatter
diagrams the linear relationship between the
captures of the insect species and the humidity
parameters. The regression constants with the
humidity parameters indicated that the average
changes of 1 . 6% or 28 . 8% in the atmosphe-
ric maximum relative humidity during 1978
or 1979, respectively and 18.9% in the atmos-
pheric minimum relative humidity during
1979, would precisely be required for a unit
change in the activity of the species population.

It ought to be evident from the above that
the change in the activity of M. striata was
somewhat influenced by the seasonal changes
in temperature and humidity conditions of the

Table 3

Analysis of variance of the captures (log n+1) of M. striata against the environmental parameters
(Table values at 5% and 1% points are 4.35 and 8.10. with fx = 1 and f2 = 20, respectively)

Sources of
variation

Sum of
squares

Degrees of
freedom

Mean squares.

Variance
ratio (F)

Regression of
max. temp.

0.0177

0.0396

Residua]

13.5074

0.6749 = 98.8%
or 0.2% explained

Regression of
min. temp.

1.7346

Residual

11.7905

0.5895 = 87.18%
or 12.82% explained

2.942

Regression of
max. rh.

7.98

Residual

5.5451

0.2772 = 40.99%
or 59.01% explained

28.7878

Regression of
max. rh.

2.8509

Residual

10.6742

0.5337 = 78.93%
or 21.07% explained

5.3417

Total

13.5251

—

120

SEASONAL ABUNDANCE AND PHENOLOGY OF MICRONECTA STRIATA

air. From the analysis of variance (Table 3),
it may also be observed that a larger portion
(80.08%) of the variations in the insect’s acti-
vity was ascribed to the humidity parameters,
particularly to the maximum one (59.01%),
than that of the temperature parameters. The
unexplained portion of the variations is ascrib-
able to some other factors, such as rainfall,
wind, food, etc. which are excluded from this
purview.

Discussion

No matter what abundance and activity the
light trap catches reveal, much of the repre-
sentation of these catches in this paper is
speculative because variations in the capture
result from changes in the level of local abun-
dance, and from the nature and extent of local
activity induced by the prevailing environment
(Bowden and Gibbs 1973, Banerjee 1977).

It is, therefore, thought particularly useful to
study the phenology of the species population
that gives rise to the variations in seasonal
captures in relation to the climatic conditions
of the place.

Notwithstanding the source population, one
trap at a single location was used to record
events that involved variations in local abun-
dance and activity of the insect species. The
numerical change in abundance of the insect
species between different times, as reflected

Refer

Andrewartha, H. G. & Birch. L. C. (1954):
The Distribution and Abundance of Animals. Uni-
versity of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Bailey, N. T. J. (1959): Statistical methods in
biology. The English Universities Press Ltd. Loud.,

200 pp.

Banerjee, T. C. & Choudhuri, D. K. (1980) :
Studies on the seasonal variations of the swarming
of the males of Dorylus labiatus (Hymenoptera :
Formicidae) in relation to some environmental fac-

by the light trap samples for all the seasons
of the insect’s activity, suggest its range of
selective preference to the optimum environ-
mental conditions.

Seasonal fluctuations in abundance and
activity of insects depend on biotic as well
as on climatic factors. The periods of large
catches of the insect during September, Octo-
ber and November were related in some way
to the prevailing local conditions of tempera-
ture and humidity. Temperature differences
showed negative or indifferent correlation with
the observed variations in the activity. Much
of the variations (59.01%) in activity of M.
striata was associated with the changes in the
maximum relative humidity content of the air
even though both of the influencing humidity
parameters were considered for this study.
This suggests that the insect, which is primarily
an aquatic one, depends more on the moisture
content of the air during night for its activity
than on any weather factor; and slight altera-
tion in such a parameter may induce consider-
able change in the activity of the species popu-
lation.

Acknowledgement

We are thankful to Prof. D. K. Choudhuri
for providing facilities to one of us (ASM)
to work in the department.

E N C E S

tors. Rev. Ecol. Biol. Sol. 17: 217-227.

Beall, G. (1938) : Methods of estimating the
oopulation of insects in a field. Biometrika, 30:
422-439.

Bigger, M. (1976): Oscillations of tropical insect
population. Nature, Lond. 259: 207-209.

Dobzhansky, T. & Pavan, C. (1950): Local and
seasonal variations in relative frequencies of species
of Drosophila in Brazil. /. Ariim. Ecol. 19: 1-14.

Gibbs, D. G. & Leston, D. (1970): Insect pheno-

121

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 81

logy in a forest coca farm locality in West Africa.
/. Appl. Ecol. 7: 519-548.

Owen, D. F. (1969): Species diversity and sea-
sonal abundance in tropical Sphingidae (Lepidop-
tera). Proc. Roy. ent. Soc. Lond. (A) 44: 10-12.

Popham, E. J. (1943) : Ecological studies of the
commoner British Corixidae. /. Anim. Ecol. 12: 124-
136.

Pruthi, H. S. (1969): Text book on Agricultural
Entomology. ICAR publication, New Delhi, India,
977 pp.

Williams, C. B. (1937): The use of logarithms
in the interpretation of certain entomological pro-
blems. Ann. Appl. Biol. 34: 406-414.

(1961) : Studies on the effect of

weather conditions on the activity and abundance
of insect populations. Phil. Trans. 224: 331-378.

Wolda, H. (1978a) Seasonal fluctuations in rain-
fall, food and abundance of tropical insects. J. Anim.
Ecol. 47: 369-381.

(1978b) : Fluctuations in abundance of

tropical insects. Amer. Natur. 112: 1017-1045.

122

FURTHER CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF
BUXA FOREST DIVISION, JALPAIGURI DISTRICT

(WEST BENGAL)1

J. K. SlKDAR2 AND ROLLA S. RAO3
( With a text-figure )

The paper presents an enumeration of 500 taxa belonging to 109 families of Angio-
sperms. Of these 424 species of Dicotyledons are spread over 306 genera and 93
families and 76 species of Monocotyledons over 58 genera and 16 families. All the
taxa recorded here may be considered as further additions to sedges and grasses by
Chaudhuri (1959) and the species from Buxa Division given by Ghosh & Ghosh
(1977). In this paper a small number of collections made earlier but not worked
out and reported earlier from this Division, are added along with extensive collec-
tions by me (J. K. Sikdar) from Buxa Division in different seasons during the years
1974-77 while working out the ‘Flora of Jalpaiguri District’. Topography and general
features of Buxa Division (D), earlier work, with recent additions on new, interesting
and little known species, for India, Eastern India and West Bengal are given under
introduction.

In the systematic enumeration nomenclature, localities with reference to forest
ranges and field numbers are given.

Introduction

Of the four Forest Divisions in Jalpaiguri
District, Buxa Division (D) is situated at the
eastern-most part, 26°16'-26°41'N and 89°26 -
89°55'E, bounded by Assam state in the east,
Coochbehar forest division (in Jalpaiguri Dis-
trict) in the West, Bhutan in the north and
Coochbehar District in the South. The Forest
Division is mostly a plain land with the excep-
tion of Buxaduar hills under the Buxaduar
forest range (D5) with Sinchula (— 1917 m)
as the highest point.

1 Accepted February 1982.

2 Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey of
India, Howrah 711 103. Present address : Dept, of
Botany, Kakdwip Vidyasagar College, Post Nabad-
wip, Dist. Nadia (W.B.).

3 Formerly Jt. Director, Botanical Survey of India
and also Professor & Head of the Deptt. of Botany,
Andhra University, Waltair. Now Honorary Director,
CSIR & UGC Research Schemes and Principal In-
vestigator, D.S.T. Project on District Floras of
Andhra Pradesh.

The continuous stretch of reserve forest of
Buxa Division (D) is divided into 7 forest
ranges namely Nimati (Dl), Damanpur (D2),
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Jainti (D4), Buxaduar
(D5), Raidak (D6) and somewhat isolated
block Bholka (D7). The forest Divisional
Office is now at Rajabhatkhawa, a few kilo-
meters from Alipurduar town. The forests of
the Division cover an area of about 420.98 sq.
km., out of the total forest area of nearly 1087.5
sq. km. of Jalpaiguri District. Besides ‘Sal’
( Shorea robusta ) timber, the most important
industry in this Division is Tea plantation and
production of ‘tea’ ( Camellia sinensis ) by 27
Tea estates. In Jalpaiguri District, Buxa Forest
Division (D) is floristically rich and significant
when compared to the other three forest divi-
sions. With the Himalayan region as the north-
ern boundary and the high rainfall zone of
Assam along the eastern part, there is every
possibility of extension of distribution and

123

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

migration cf interesting plant species to the dis-
trict through Buxa Division (D). The Alipur-
duar-Buxa road also presents a picturesque view
with ‘Sal’, ‘Saj’, ‘Champ’, ‘Sida’ and other trees
growing high on both sides of the road. In the
Buxa and Sinchula forest areas, varieties of
Orchids and ferns grow well. Buxaduar hills
offer a splendid view all round. Numerous
rivers and streams intersect the extensive tracts
of ‘Sal’ and other forests reaching up to the
hills.

With its interesting topography and unique
geology and vegetation, Buxaduar range (D5)
forests harbour several interesting species. The
forests of this Division can be divided into (1)
Semi-evergreen forests, (2) Moist deciduous
forests, (3) Dry deciduous forests, (4) ‘Sal’
forests (Plantations), (5) Grasslands and (6)
Riverain forests, thus clarifying to some extent
the various forest types as presented by Cham-
pion and Seth (1968).

The Forest Division is made up of alluvium
with deposits of coarse-gravel near the hills on
the north, sandy clay and sand along the course
of rivers. The beds of Buxa hills consist of
variegated slates, quartzites and dolomites.

The average annual rainfall is 3925.1 mm
(154.33") in the Division with a slight increase
on the north-eastern part (towards Buxaduar
hills).

The floristic account and notes on the plants
of Buxa Forest Division (D) are quite limited.
They are (1) Gamble’s (1878) list with many
tree species of undivided Jalpaiguri district, (2)
Prain’s Bengal Plants (1903) from
North Bengal in general without any mention
of Jalpaiguri district, (3) a list without precise
localities by Cowan and Cowan (1929), (4)
notes on sedges and grasses by Chaudhuri
(1959), (5) a brief sketch on the vegetation
of Jalpaiguri district, based on limited collec-
tions during 1962 from Rajabhatkhawa Forest

Range (D3) of this Division and Apalchand
Forest Range of Baikunthapur Forest Division
by Mukerjee (1965) with an addition of a
few orchids and ferns from Buxa Division
(1972 a; 1972 b), (6) K. P. Biswas’ Book (upto
Ericaceae 1967) with a few species from Raja-
bhatkhawa (D3) and Buxaduar (D5), but
without any precise localities and (7) a list
of 145 species (collected by V. Narayanswamy
and party in 1949 and mostly identified by them
but not published) by Ghosh and Ghosh
(1977). Subsequently during 1974-77, Sikdar
under the guidance of Rolla Rao, carried out
careful field studies systematically, covering
forest Ranges of all the Forest Divisions of
Jalpaiguri district as Research Scholar of the
Botanical Survey of India and prepared a de-
tailed flora of the district (Ph.D. thesis, 1980).
While the major flora work is under prepara-
tion, Sikdar along with others published brief
notes on whatever interesting plants of the Divi-
sion and other neighbouring areas that have
been scrutinised earlier. They are Sikdar (1976;
1979; 1981a; 1981b; 1982), Sikdar & Ghosh
(1978; 1979; 1981a; 1981b), Sikdar & Maiti
(1979; 1981a; 1981b) and Sikdar & Maji
(1981). Besides, the other published notes on
the plants of the Division are by Ghosh &
Maiti (1978) and Krishna & Dutta (1979).

It is therefore evident that data on the plant
resources of the Buxa Forest Division (D) is
very meagre and hence an attempt is now be-
ing made to present a good account on the
plants of the Forest Division with specific loca-
lities etc. together with a map and other de-
tails, purely based on the collections made by
Sikdar during his field studies in 1974-77.

Several interesting taxa, not recorded earlier
from (1) West Bengal, (2) Eastern India and
even from (3) India, but collected from the
Division and published by Sikdar as new re-
cords for those areas are included in this work

124

FLORA OF BUXA FOREST DIVISION, JALPAIGURI DIST.

Fig. ].

125

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. SI

with special markings as **’ for (1), ***’ for
(2), ‘***’ for (3). The species described re-
cently from the Division are marked with V.
To mention a few interesting points of the geo-
graphical distribution of the so called ende-
mics: Amblyanthopsis bhotanica (C. B.

Clarke) Mez, an extremely rare and rather
endemic species supposed to be confined to
small patches in the sub-Himalayan foot hills
of the tropical semi-evergreen zone of Bhutan
with specific ecological habitat, is now collect-
ed after a span of nearly one and half cen-
turies after its type collection in 1838, from
very near to the type locality in the Buxaduar
Forest Range (D5) practically on the Indo-
Bhutanese border. Since type collection from
Bhutan in 1837-38, Senecio bhot C. B. Clarke
had been collected only twice from Bhutan.
Then in 1975, one of us (Sikdar) collected the
plant from Indian main land for the first time
in Buxaduar forest Range (D5) of Jalpaiguri
district. If it is assumed that S. bhot is a plant
of recent introduction to the Duars, it indi-
cates a gradual extension of its distribution
southwards from subtropical Bhutan into the
tropical sub-Himalayan foothills of North
Bengal. Acanthus carduaceous Griffith is a
scarcely known species once considered to be
endemic to Bhutan but now known on the
basis of recent collections by Sikdar to be
gradually extending westwards towards Dar-
jeeling district and also southwards along Jal-
paiguri district (Buxa Division) of North
Bengal. Aganosma gracilis Hook, f., an inte-
resting rare species said to be confined to
Sikkim, North Bengal (possibily Darjeeling
district) and Meghalaya (Khasi hills), has now
been collected from Buxaduar hills (D5) near-
ly fifty years after Cowan’s report (1929).
Sikdar (in press) made some critical observa-
tions on these little known species, Amblyan-

thopsis bhotanica, Senecio bhot and Aganosma
gracilis.

Besides these, two new species have recently
described from Buxa Division (D) i.e.. Dal -
bergia duarensis by K. Thothathri (1972) on
the basis of Heawood’s collection of 1891 from
Alipurduar (D3) and Ophiorrhiza seshagiriana
by Sikdar & Maiti (1981) based on Sikdar’s
own collection from Buxaduar Forest Range
(D5).

The present survey was conducted by one
of us (J. K. Sikdar) during different seasons
between the years 1974 to 1977 as a part of
the project work “Flora of Jalpaiguri District”
of Central National Herbarium, Howrah
(CAL). Thus in the present paper 388 species
(including varieties and subspecies) collected
by Sikdar during 1974-77 and also a few by
others which have not been worked and pub-
fished so far, excluding however the species
noted by Chaudhuri (1959) and Ghosh &
Ghosh (1977) from Buxa Division (D) (to
avoid repetition), are presented as additional
data covering 500 taxa of Angiosperms distri-
buted under 109 families (Dicotyledons 424
species under 306 genera and 93 families;
Monocotyledons 76 species under 58 genera
and 16 families).

In the enumeration below, the locality is
specifically indicated by a symbol in the brac-
ket which refers to the Forest Division (D)
and number of the Forest Range as given
in the map (Fig. 1). Each locality is however,
represented by a field number /numbers in
respective order.

All the collections noted in the paper are
available in the Central National Herbarium,
Botanical Survey of India, Howrah (CAL) ex-
cept B. Krishna’s collections which are depo-
sited in the Herbarium of Industrial Section,
Botanical Survey of India (BSIS).

126

FLORA OF BUXA FOREST DIVISION, JALPAIGURI DIST.

Systematic enumeration
DICOTYLEDONS
Ranunculaceae

Clematis gouriana Roxb. ex DC.

Chunabhati (D5), 900 m, Sikdar 993.
Naravelia zeylanica (Linn.) DC.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 806; Rajabhatkhawa
(D3), Sikdar 7077.

Ranunculus diffusus DC.

On way to Sinchu (D5), 1800 m, Sikdar
6955.

Magnoliaceae

Talauma hodgsoni Hook. f. & Thoms.

On way to Buxaduar (D5), 550 m, Sikdar
4607; Near Buxaduar range office (D5), 625 m,
Sikdar 943.

Annonaceae

*Desmos dumosus (Roxb.) Safford
On way to Tobgaon (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar
4632.

Miliusa roxburghiana (Wall, ex Griff.)

Hook. f. & Thoms.

On way to Buxaduar (D5), 500 m, Sikdar
4593.

Menispermaceae

Stephan ia japonica (Thunb.) Miers
Poro (Dl), Sikdar 923.

Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Hook. f. Thoms.

On way to Sinchu (D5), 1500 m, Sikdar
4686.

Papaveraceae

Araemone mexicana Linn.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7027 ; Raima-
tong (D5), Sikdar 7028.

Brassicaceae (=Cruciferae)

Brassica juncea (Linn.) Czern. & Coss.

Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4098; Balapara
(D7), Sikdar 4206.

Rorippa indica (Linn.) Hiern.

North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6984.

Capparidaceae

Capparis olacifolia Hook. f. & Thoms.

Way to Tobgaon (D5), 750 m, Sikdar 4634.
Cleome viscosa Linn.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7030.

Violaceae

Viola arcuata Bl.

Ramiti (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 4689.

Viola pilosa Bl.

Chapchikam, on way to Sinchula (D5),
1400 m, Sikdar 4613.

Bixaceae

Xylosma longifolium Clos
Poro (Dl), Sikdar 831.

Caryophyllaceae

Drymaria cordata (Linn.) Willd. ex Roem. &
Schult.

Damanpur (D2), Sikdar 781; South Raja-
bhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 904; Buxaduar (D5),
800 m, Sikdar 4627; Tashigaon (D5), 600 m,
Sikdar 4238.

Polycarpon prostratum (Forssk.) Asck. &
Schweinf.

South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6976;
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7036.

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol 81

Theaceae

Camellia kissi Wall.

Buxaduar (D5), 650 m, Sikdar 4052.

Schima wallschii (DC.) Korthals
Chunabhati (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 1000;
Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 4639.

Saurauiaceae

Saurauia fasciculata Wall.

Way to Sinchu (D5), 1700m, Sikdar 6953.

DlPTEROC AR P ACE AE

Shorea robusta Gaertn. f.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7049.

Vatsca lanceaefolia Bl.

Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 460

Malvaceae

Abutiion indicum (Linn.) Sweet
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7080.

Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn.

Moynabari, Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4142.
Malvasfrum coromandelimim (Linn.) Gracke
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7081.
Malvaviscus conzattii Greenman.

Garam (D2), Sikdar 883.

Sida acuta Burm. f.

Bhutanghat (D6), 300 m, Sikdar 4100.

S. cordifolia Linn.

Near Buxaduar (D5), 750 m, Sikdar 6929.
Tiliaceae

Grewia serrulata DC.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 901; North Bholka (D7),
Sikdar 4148.

Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 760; Garam (D2), Sikdar
894; North Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4175.

Elaeocarpaceae

Elaeocarpus sikkimensis Masters
Chapchikam, on way to Sinchu (D5), Sikdar
6913.

OxALIDACEAE

Biophytum sensitivum (Linn.) DC.

Tashigaon (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 4041; Way
to Buxaduar (D5), 700 m, Sikdar 7084.

Oxalis comiculata Linn.

Way to Tobgaon (D5), 900m, Sikdar 4620.

Balsaminaceae

Impatiens baisamina Linn.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7011; Tashi-
gaon (D4), 800 m, Sikdar 4005.

I. exilis Hook. f.

Buxa to Chunabhati (D5), 1000 m, V. Nara-
yanswami 2613.

I. trilobata Coleb.

Mahakalguri, Alipurduar (D3), E. A. Hea-
wood 65.

I. tripetaia Roxb.

Buxa road (D3), K. Biswas 1627; Buxa to
Chunabhati (D5), 850 m, V. Narayanswami
2613.

Rutaceae

Citrus auruntium Linn.

Lapchakhawa (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 950.
Ciausena excavata Burm. f.

North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6978.
Glycosmis arborea (Roxb.) Correa
Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4140; South Bholka
(D7), Sikdar 4211; South Rajabhatkhawa
(D3), Sikdar 4246; Buxaduar (D5), 650m,
Sikdar 6925.

Todalia asiatica (Linn.) Lamk.

Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 4643; Way
to Sinchula (D5), K. Biswas 2071.

128

FLORA OF BUXA FOREST DIVISION, JALPAIGURI DIST.

SlMAROUBACEAE
Picrasma javanica Bl.

North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6985;
Buxa to Jainti (D4), V. Narayanswami 3016.

Burseraceae

Garuga pinnata Roxb.

Way to Buxaduar (D5), 500 m, Sikdar 7085.

Meliaceae

Amoora wallichii King.

Poro rest house campus (Dl), B. Krishna
204.

Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) Parker
South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4248.
Azadirachta indica A. Juss.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7039.

Toona ciliata Roem.

Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 467; 475.

Walsura tubulata Hiern.

Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 6936; Chuna-
bhati (D5), 950 m, Sikdar 4652.

Celastraceaf.

CeSastrus paniculatus Willd.

Chikoh (D2), Sikdar 906.

Eunymus frigidus Heyne ex Wall.

Road to Murichom, 39th Mile (D5), 1600 m,
V. Narayanswami 2788.

Salacia roxburghii Wall, ex Hook. f.

Tobgaon, on way to Buxaduar (D5), 850 m,
Sikdar 4616.

Rhamnaceae

Rhamnus nepalensis Wall, ex Roxb.

South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 274;
Lapchakhawa (D5), 850 m, Sikdar 4061.
Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.

North Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4147.

Z. rugosa Lamk.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7086.

VlTACEAE

Ampelocissus barbatus (Wall.) Planch.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami
2445.

Cayratia japonica (Thunb.) Gagnep.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 801; Buxa-Bhutan road
(D5), 1200 m, V. Narayanswami 2586.

Cissus adnata Roxb.

Garam (D2), Sikdar 869; South Rajabhat-
khawa (D3), Sikdar 7091.

Tetrastigma dubium (Laws.) Planch.

Tobgaon (D5), 1400 m, V. Narayanswami
2677; 2679.

T. lanceolarium Planch.

South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4265.

T. mmispermum (Laws.) Planch.

Tobgaon (D5), 1400 m, V. Narayanswami ,
2674.

Leeaceae

Leea edgewarthii Santapau

Way to Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 4640.
L. indica (Burm. f.) Merr.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7093; Jainti
(D4), V. Narayanswami 3000.

L. macrophylla Roxb. ex Hornem.

North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6992.

Sapindaceae

Aphania rubra (Roxb.) Radik.

South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4213.
Dimocarpus longan Lour.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7095.

Sapindus laurifolia Vahl

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7094.

Hippocastanaceae

Aesculus assamica Griffith

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), C. R. Das 68; Poro
(Dl), B. Krishna 459.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Sabiaceae

*Sabia paniculata Edgew. ex Hook. f. &

Thoms.

North Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4178.

Anacardiaceae

Anacardium occidental Linn.

Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 447.

Mangifera indica Linn.

Buxaduar (D5), 600 m, Sikdar 7096.
Semecarpus anacardium Linn. f.
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7191.

Moringaceae

Moringa oSeifera Lamk.

Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 455.

Labaceae (=Papilionaceae)

CSItoria ternatea Linn.

Chengmari (D7), Sikdar 7041.

*Crota!aria huinifusa Grah.

Mahakalguri, Alipurduar (D3), E. A. Hea-
wood 113.

C. pallida Ait.

Moynabari (D6), Sikdar 4146; North Bholka
(D7), Sikdar 4150; Buxaduar (D5), 8000m,
Sikdar 4625.

*Dalbergia duarensis Thoth.

Mahakalguri, Alipurduar (D3), E. A. Elea-
wood 104.

Bo stipulacea Roxb.

Damanpur (D2), Sikdar 920; Bhutanghat
(D6), 310 m, Sikdar 4085.

Besmodium caudafum (Thunb.) DC.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 824; Garam (D2), Sikdar
881; South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4219.

Do gangeticum (Linn.) DC.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 809.

Bo heterocarpon (Linn.) DC.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 784; 800.

B, tiliaefolium (D. Don) Wall, ex G. Don

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 839.

D. triangulare (Retz.) Merr.

Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4075.

DoSichos biflorus Linn.

Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4239.

DysoSobium tetragonum Prain

Alipurduar (D3), E. A. Heawood 36.
Indigofera stachyoides Lindl.

Way to Sinchu (D5), 1600 m, Sikdar 6911;
Ramiti, on way to Sinchu (D5), 1400 m, Sikdar
4021.

Panchyrhizus angulatus Rich.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 608.

Pueraria subspicata Benth.

Garam (D2), Sikdar 873.

Uraria rufescens (DC.) Schindl.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 816.

Caesalpiniaceae

Bauhinia acuminata Linn.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 805.

Caesalpinia cucullata Roxb.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 844; Bhutanghat (D6),
Sikdar 4121.

Cassia siamea Lamk.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 918.

C. tora Linn.

South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4227.

Phanera purpurea (Linn.) Benth.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4243.
Piliostigma malabaricum (Roxb.) Benth.
Central Raidak (D6), Sikdar 4134.

Mimosaceae

Acacia chundra (Roxb. ex Rottler) Willd.

Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4097.

A. peimafa (Linn.) Willd.

Way to Santrabari (D5), 300 m, Sikdar 6922;
Buxa to Tobgaon (D5), 750 m, V. Narayan-
swami 2662; Tobgaon (D5), 800 m, K. Biswas
3221.

130

FLORA OF BUXA FOREST DIVISION, JALPAIGURI DIST.

A. sinuata (Lour.) Merr.

Road to Murichom, Buxaduar (D5), 1700 m,
V. Narayanswami 2801.

A. torta (Roxb.) Craib.

South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4247.
Mimosa intsia Linn.

Buxa (D), V. Narayanswami 2626.

M. pudica Linn.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 761; Garam (D2), Sikdar
895.

Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr.

North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6986.

Rosaceae

Duchesnea indica (Andr.) Focke
South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4197; Poro (Dl),

B. Krishna 468.

Potentilla sundaica (Bl.) O. Kuntze

Ramiti, Buxaduar (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar
6916.

Prunus persica (Linn.) Stokes

Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 4590.

Pyrus communis Linn.

Buxaduar (D5), 800m, Sikdar 6963.

Rubus ellipticus Smith
Way to Sinchu (D5), 1700 m, Sikdar 6958.

Philadelphaceae

Dichroa febrifuga Lour.

Sinchu (D5), 1800 m, Sikdar 4690; Way to
Sinchu (D5), 1700 m, Sikdar 6943.

Escalloniaceae

Itea macrophylla Wall.

On way to Sinchu (D5), 1350 m, Sikdar
4677.

Crassulaceae

Kalanchoe integra (Medik.) O. Kuntze
Lapchakhawa (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 967 ;
Chunabhati (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 4002.

Sedum multicaule Wall.

Chunabhati (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 4664.

COM BRET ACE AE

Combretum flagocarpum C. B. Clarke

Buxaduar (D5), 900 m, Sikdar 962; Way to
Tobgaon (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 4622.

Myrtaceae

Eugenia formosa Wall.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami
2472.

Syzygium cumini (Linn.) Skeels
Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 479.

S. obSatum (Roxb.) Wall, ex Cowan & Cowan.

Tashigaon (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 4020.

S. samarangense (Bl.) Merr.

Rajabhatkhawa ((D3), Sikdar 7106.

Melastomataceae

Medinilla rubicunda (Jack) Bl.

On way to Sinchu (D5), 1400m, Sikdar
4696.

Melastoma malabathricum Linn.

Garam (D2), Sikdar 851; Poro (Dl), Sikdar
766; Buxaduar (D5), 900 m, Sikdar 7107.

M. normale D. Don

Way to Tobgaon (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar
4637; way to Sinchu (D5), 1700m, Sikdar
4699.

Osbeckia crinita Benth. ex C. B. Clarke
Way to Sinchu (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 6942.
O. nepalensis Hook.

Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 453.

O. nutans Wall, ex C. B. Clarke
Buxaduar (D5), 900 m, Sikdar 4051.
Oxyspora paniculata (D. Don) DC.

Way to Sinchu (D5), 1700 m, Sikdar 4687.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Lythraceae

Ammannia baccifera Linn.

South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4203.
Lagerstroemia speciosa (Linn.) Pers.

North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6983;
Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 491.

Rotala indaca (Willd.) Koehne
South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4209.

Onagraceae

Ludwigia ociovalvis ssp. sessiiiflora
(Micheli) Raven

North Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4154; South
Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4226.

L. perennas Linn.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 830; Rajabhatkhawa
(D3), Sikdar 4244.

CUCURBITACEAE

Coccisiia grandis (Linn.) Voigt

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7112.

Ciscumis melo Linn.

Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4240.

Diplocydos palmatus (Linn.) Jeffrey
Tashigaon (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 4031.
Hodgsonia macrocarpa (Bl.) Cogn.

21 mile from Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Nara-
yanswami 2325.

Melothria leucocarpa (Bl.) Cogn.

Tashigaon (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 4023.
Momordica dioica Roxb. ex Willd.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7125.

Mukia maderaspatana (Linn.) M. Roem.

Damanpur (D2), Sikdar 911; North Bholka
(D7), Sikdar 4164.

ScehhiHi edule (Jacq.) Sw.

Buxaduar (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 957.

Solena heterophylla Lour.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 772.

Trichosanthes bracteata (Lamk.) Voigt

Buxa-Bhutan road (D5), 1700 m, V. Nara -
yanswami 2770.

T. truncata C. B. Clarke

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami
2420.

T. waMidiiana (Ser.) Wight

Buxa-Bhutan road (D5), 1400 m, V. Nara-
yanswami 2961.

Begoniaceae

Begonia nepaiensis (A. DC.) Warburg
On way to Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar
934; way to Buxaduar (D5), 1000 m, K. Biswas
1930.

B. palmata D. Don

On way to Sinchu (D5), 1800 m, Sikdar
4678; Buxa-Bhutan road (D5), 1300 m, V.
Narayanswami 2600; way to Sinchu (D5), 1400
m, K. Biswas 1985.

B. rubro-venia Hook. f.

Buxaduar (D5), 900 m, Sikdar 4050; Buxa-
Bhutan road (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 2576; Tob-
gaon (D5), 1150 m, V. Narayanswami 2692.

B. xanthina Hook.

On way to Sinchu (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 4018.

Cactaceae

Opontia elatior Mill.

Buxa to Chunabhati (D5), 1000 m, V. Nara-
yanswami 2654.

Molluginaceae

Glinus lotoides Linn.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7113.

Apiaceae (=Umbelliferae)

CenteSla asiatica (Linn.) Urban.

Lapchakhawa (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 945;
Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 484.

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FLORA OF BUXA FOREST DIVISION, JALPAIGUR1 DIST.

*Eryngium foetidum Linn.

North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6979;
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami 2364.
Hydrocotyle javanica Thunb.

Buxaduar (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 4671; On
way to Sinchu (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 6964;
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), K. Biswas 3069.
QenantSie javanica (Bl.) DC.

North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7005;
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami 2464;
Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 4 66

Caprifoliaceae

Viburnum colebrookianum Wall, ex C. B.

Clarke

Garam (D2), Sikdar 865; North Rajabhat-
khawa (D3), Sikdar 6998; Buxa road (D3),
K. Biswas 1711; 21 miles from Rajabhatkhawa
(D3), V. Narayanswami 2353.

Sambucaceae

Sambucus canadensis Linn.

Buxaduar (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 4029.

Rubiaceae

Borreria articularis (Linn, f.) F. N. Williams
Garam (D2), Sikdar 866; Poro (Dl), Sikdar
792; South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4273;
Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4184; Buxaduar (D5),
1000 m, Sikdar 947; Tashigaon (D5), 1100 m,
Sikdar 4057.

Hedy otis pinifolia var. caespitosa Wall, ex
G. Don

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), C. R. Das 31.

Ixora nigricans R. Br. ex Wt. & Arn.

Poro, 16km from Rajabhatkhawa (Dl), B.
Krishna 457.

Leptodermis lanceolata Wall.

On way to Sinchu (D5), 1600 m, K. Biswas
2017.

Meyna iaxiflora Robyns

Buxa, north-west & north-east (D5), 800 m,
V. Narayanswami 2722.

Morinda angustifolia Roxb.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 763; Garam (D2), Sikdar
864; South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4262;
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami 2382;
Buxa to Santrabari (D5), 650 m, V. Narayan-
swami 2860.

Neanotis wightiana (Wall, ex Wt. et Arn).

W. H. Lewis

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 802; Garam (D2), Sikdar
867; Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4118.
+Ophiorrhiza seshagirlana Sikdar et Maiti
Way to Sinchu (D5), 1800 m, Sikdar 4681.
Uncaria sessiSifmctus Roxb.

South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4208.

Vangueria spinosa Roxb.

Buxa (D5), 800 m, V. Narayanswami 2722.
WendSandia pendula DC.

Chunabhati (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 986; 987.
Xeromphis sninosa (Thunb.) Keay

Garam (D2), Sikdar 885; South Bholka
(D7), Sikdar 4194; Jainti (D4), V. Narayan-
swami 3009; Buxa road (D3), K. Biswas 1682;
Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 493.

Asteraceae (= Compositae)

Adenostemma lavenia (Linn.) O. Kuntze
Poro (Dl), Sikdar 822; Damanpur (D2),
Sikdar 915; Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4192;
Tashigaon (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 4014.
Ageratum conyzoides Linn.

South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4193; Tashigaon
(D5), 1000m, Sikdar 4055; Poro (Dl), B.
Krishna 214.

Artemisia nOagirica (C. B. Clarke) Pamp.

South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4225; Buxaduar
(D5), 900 m, Sikdar 952; Tashigaon (D5),
1100 m, Sikdar 4064.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 81

Bidens biternafa (Lour.) Merr. et Sherff ex
Sherff

Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4106; Buxaduar
(D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 951.

Blumea Sanceolaria (Roxb.) Druce
On way to Buxaduar (D5), 700m, K.
Biswas 1793.

Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S. Moore
Damanpur (D2), C. R. Das 41.

Edipta prostrata (Linn.) Linn.

Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4228; North Raja-
bhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6993.

Elephantopus scaber Linn.

Poro (Dl) Sikdar 817.

Emilia sonchifolia (Linn.) DC.

Garam (D2), Sikdar 856.

Erechtites valerianifolia (Wolf) DC.

North Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4167; 21 miles
from Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami
2309; Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 233.

Eupatorium odoratum Linn.

Garam (D2), Sikdar 869; Poro (Dl), Sikdar
787; Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4112; South
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4256; Tashigaon
(D5), 1250 m, Sikdar 4054; Near poro rest
house (Dl), B. Krishna 238.

Laetuca dolichophylla Kitamura
On way to Buxaduar (D5), 850m, Sikdar
7825.

Laggera aurita Sch.-Bip.

Near poro rest house (Dl), B. Krishna 495.
Mikania cordata (Burm. f.) Robinson var.
indica Kitamura

Garam (D2), Sikdar 861; Poro (Dl), Sikdar
812; Central Raidak (D6), Sikdar 4236, South
Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4186; Lapchakhawa
(D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 4046.

***Senecio bhot C. B. Clarke
Buxaduar (D5), 950m, Sikdar 973; Ramiti
(D5), 1400m, Sikdar 4017; Tashigaon (D5),
1200 m, Sikdar 4068.

Sigesbeckia orientalis Linn.

Lapchakhawa (D5), 1200m, Sikdar 958;
Buxaduar (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 4035; Tashi-
gaon (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 4060.

Sphaeranthus indicus Linn.

Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4237.

Spilanthes paniculata Wall.

South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4275;
Lapchakhawa (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 954;

Tashigaon (D4), 1100 m, Sikdar 4039.
Synedrella nodiflora (Linn.)) Gaertn.

South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 755;
Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4258; Tashigaon
(D5). 1100 m, Sikdar 4079; Buxaduar (D5),
1000 m, Sikdar 4629.

Tagetes erecta Linn.

Tashigaon (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 4012;

Tashigaon (D5), 1000m, Sikdar 4070.
*Thespis divaricata DC.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6977.

Tithonia diversifolia (Henusl.) A. Gray

Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4105; Buxaduar
(D5), 1100m. Sikdar 978.

Tridax procumbens Linn.

Garam (D2), Sikdar 882.

Vernonia cinerea (Linn.) Less.

Garam (D2), Sikdar 853; 860.

V. saligna DC.

Tashigaon (D4), 1000 m, Sikdar 4049;

Bhutanghat (D6), 300 m, Sikdar 4113.

Y. volkameriaefolia DC.

Way to Sinchu (D5), 1700 m, Sikdar 6949.
Wedelia wallichii Less.

Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4110; Balapara
(D7), Sikdar 4189; North Rajabhatkhawa
(D3), Sikdar 6982.

Xanthium strumarium Linn.

Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4094; Poro (Dl),
B. Krishna 495.

Youngia japonica (Linn.) DC.

Buxaduar (D5), 700m. Sikdar 6923.

134

FLORA OF BUXA FOREST DIVISION, JALPAIGURI DIST.

Lobeliaceae

Lobelia angulata Forst.

Lapchakhawa (D5), 1250 m, Sikdar 945;
Buxa-Bhutan road (D5), 900 m, V. Narayan-
swami 2502.

L. zeylanica Linn.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4263.

Vacciniaceae

Agapetes saligna (Hook, f.) Hook. f.

Way to Sinchu (D5), 1800 m, Sikdar 4691;
Tobgaon (D5), 1250 m, V. Narayanswami 2698.

Plumbaginaceae

Plumbago zeylanica Linn.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 813; Lapchakhawa (D5),
850 m, Sikdar 4661.

Primulaceae

Lysimachia decurrens Forst. f.

Buxa-Bhutan road (D5), 1250 m, K. Biswas
2592; Buxa northwest (D5), 900 m, V. Nara-
yanswami 2734.

Myrsinaceae

***Amblyanthopsis bhotanica (C. B. Clarke)
Mez

On way to Sinchu (D5), 1700 m, Sikdar
4683.

Ardisia crispa (Thunb.) A. DC.

Way to Sinchu (D5), 1700 m, Sikdar 4684.
Maesa chlsia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don
Way to Sinchu (D5), 1400 m, Sikdar 6941;
Sinchu (D5), 1700m, Sikdar 6952; Way to
Bhutan from Buxaduar (D5), 1500 m, Sikdar
6945.

M. indica (Roxb.) A. DC.

Garam (D2), Sikdar 892; South Bholka
(D7), Sikdar 4221; Rajabhatkhawa (D3), K.
Biswas 1555; Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 482.

Symplocaceae

Symplocos laurina (Retz.) Wall, ex G. Don
Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 472.

Oleaceae

Jasminum amplexicauSe Buch.-Ham. ex G. Don
South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4251;
Buxaduar (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 955.

J. dispermum Wall.

Way to Sinchu (D5), 1750 m, Sikdar 4682.
J. scandens Vahl.

Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 478.

Ligustrum rohustum Bl.

Way to Sinchu (D5), 1750 m, Sikdar 6940.

Apocyanaceae

*Aganosma gracilis Hook. f.

Chunabhati (D5), 1600m, Sikdar 4660.
Allamanda cathartica Linn.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 765; Chunabhati (D5),
1100m, Sikdar 4663; Poro (Dl), B. Krishna
449.

Alstonia scholaris (Linn.) R. Br.

Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 498.

*Anodendron paniculatum A. DC.

Around Poro forest (Dl), B. Krishna 464.
Catharantbus roseus (Linn.) G. Don.

Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4190.

Chonemorpha fragrans (Moon) Alston
Buxaduar (D5), 1100m, Sikdar 7042.
Holarrhena antidyseoterica (Roth) A. DC.

Way to Buxaduar (D5), 600m, Sikdar 4598.
Ichnocarpus frutescens (Linn.) R. Br.

South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4216.

Nerium indicum Mill.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7058.

Plumeria rubra Linn.

Buxaduar (D5), 100 m, Sikdar 6920.
Rauvolfia serpentina (Linn.) Benth. ex Kurz
Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4086.

135

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Tabernaemontana divaricata (Linn.) R. Br. ex
Roem. et Schult.

Santrabari (D5), Sikdar 924; Bhutanghat
(D6), 350 m, Sikdar 4119; South Rajabhat-
khawa (D3), Sikdar 4252.

Tracheiospermum lucidum (D. Don) K.
Schummann

Way to Sinchu (D5), 1700 m, Sikdar 6960.
Wrightia coccinea Sims

Way to Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 7167;
Buxa to Chunabhati (D5), 1000 m, V. Narayan-
swami 2612.

W. tomentosa (Roxb.) Roem. et Schult.

North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6989.

Asclepiadaceae

*Ceropegia anguistifolia Wight
Mahakalguri, Alipurduar (Dl), E. A. Hea-
wood 73.

Dischidia benghalensis Coleb.

Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 4668.

Hoya arnottiana Wight

Buxaduar (D5), 1200 m, K. Biswas 1738.
H. lanceolata Wall, ex D. Don

On way to Ramiti, Buxaduar (D5), 1200 m,
Sikdar 7166; on way to Sinchula (D5), 1700
m. K. Biswas 2024.

*H. obcordata Hook. f.

On way to Sinchula (D5), 1700 m, K. Bis-
was 2001.

Marsdenia tinctoria R. Br.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 807; South Rajabhat-
khawa (D3), Sikdar 4267; Buxa road (D3),
K. Biswas 1684.

Periplocaceae

Cryptolepis buchananii Roem. et Schult.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), K. Biswas 1717.

C. sinensis (Lour.) Merr.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), K. Biswas 1561; 1574;
Buxa road (D3), K. Biswas 1654; Buxa to

Chunabhati (D5), 1000 m, V. Narayanswami
2656; Alipurduar (D3), C. R. Das 73.

Menyanthaceae

Nymphoides cristata (Roxb.) O. Kuntze
Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4074.

H YDROP H YLLACE AE

Hydrolea zeylanica (Linn.) Vahl

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 770; Garam (D2), Sik-
dar 854.

Bor AGIN ACE AE

Cordia dichotoma Forst. f.

Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 470.

Heliotropium indieum Linn.

Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 497.

H. strigosum Willd.

Garam (D2), Sikdar 849.

CONVOLVULACEAE

Argyreia hookeri Clarke
Poro (Dl), Sikdar 838; Bhutanghat (D6),
Sikdar 4111.

Erycibe laevigata Wall, ex C. B. Clarke
Way to Sinchu (D5), 1800 m, Sikdar 6937.
Evolvulus nummularius (Linn.) Linn.

Way to Buxa (D3), C. R. Das 80.
Ipomoea batatas (Linn.) Lamk.

Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4195.

Merremia hederacea (Burm. f.) Hall. f.

Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4230.

M. umbellata (Linn.) Hall. f.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), C. R. Das 94.

Porana paniculata Roxb.

Buxaduar (D5), 1150 m, Sikdar 4040.

P. racemose Roxb.

Ramiti, Buxaduar (D5), 1250 m, Sikdar
4019.

136

FLORA OF BUXA FOREST DIVISION, JALPAIGURI DIST.

CUSCUTACEAE

Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 837; Balapara (D7),
Sikdar 4241; Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 471.

SOLANACEAE

Brugmasia suaveolens (Humb. & Bonpl. ex.
Willd.) Bercht. & Presl
Buxaduar (D5), 800m, K. Biswas 1922.
Capsicum frutescens Linn.

Bhutanghat (D6), 350m, Sikdar 4102.
Cestrum nocturnum Linn.

Chunabhati (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 997.
Datura metel Linn.

Way to Santrabari (D5), Sikdar 6928.
Nicotiana piumbaginifolia Viviani
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7059.

Physalis minima Linn.

Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4099; South Bholka
(D7), Sikdar 4174.

Solaniim erianthum D. Don

Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 4133.

S. khasianum C. B. Clarke

South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4182; North
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6991; on way
to Tobgaon (D5), 1200 m, K. Biswas 2046;
Alipurduar (D3), C. R. Das 75.

S. nigrum Linn.

South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4183.

S. torvum Sw.

Garam (D2), Sikdar 847; South Bholka
(D7), Sikdar 4149; Balapara (D7), Sikdar
4215.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Limnophila chinensis (Osbeck.) Merr.

Damanpur (D2), Sikdar 907.

L. sessiliflora (Vahl.) BI.

Cheko (D2), Sikdar 917; Poro (Dl), Sikdar
752 North Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4155; South
Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4229; Rajabhatkhawa
(D3), K. Biswas 1640.

*Lindenbergia hookeri C. B. Clarke ex Hook.

f. et Thoms.

Way to Buxaduar (D5), 650m, K. Biswas
1755.

L. indica (Linn.) Vatke

Buxaduar forest (D5), 750 m, Sikdar 969.
L. muraria (Roxb.) Bruhl
On way to Buxaduar forest (D5), 800 m,
Sikdar 946.

Lindernia ciiiata (Colsm.) Pennell
South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4279;
North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6995.

L. cordifoSia (Colsm.) Merr.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 777; South Bholka (D7),
Sikdar 4210; 4236.

L. procumbens (Krock.) Philcox
South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4235.

L. pusilla (Willd.) Boldingh

South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 428.

L. rueSlioides (Colsm.) Pennell
Poro (Dl), Sikdar 778.

Mazos pumihis (Burm. f.) Steenis
North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6981;
Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 4630.

M. surculosus D. Don

Way to Ramiti, Buxaduar (D5), 1200 m,
Sikdar 6951.

Scoparia dulcis Linn.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 793; South Bholka (D7),
Sikdar 4185; Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar
4037.

Torenia diffusa D. Don
Poro (Dl), Sikdar 788.

Gesneriaceae

Aeschynanthus hookeri C. B. Clarke
Tobgaon (D5), 1200 m, K. Biswas 205.

A. parviflora (D. Don) Spreng.

Lapchakhawa (D5), 1250 m, Sikdar 948;
Ramiti (D5), 1400 m, Sikdar 4700.

137

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 81

Lysionotus serrata D. Don
Lapchakhawa (D5), 1150m, Sikdar 979;
Tobgaon (D5), 1250 m, K. Biswas 2063.

Bignoniaceae

Jacarandra acutifolia Humb. & Bonpl.
Buxaduar (D5), 800m, Sikdar 4666.

Acanthaceae

* Acanthus carduaceous Griff.

Ramiti, Buxaduar (D5), 1400m, Sikdar
4034; Way to Sinchula (D5), 1450m, K. Bis-
was 2032.

Adhatoda zeylanica Medic.

Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 949.
Barleria strigosa Willd.

Bhutanghat (D6), 300 m, Sikdar 4096.
*Dianthera virgata (Wall, ex Nees) C. B.
Clarke

Lapchakhawa (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 972.
Dicliptera roxburghiana Nees
South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4250;
Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4080; North Bholka
(D7), Sikdar 4165; Buxaduar (D5), 700 m,
Sikdar 935; Ramiti (D5), 1600 m, Sikdar
4010; Tashigaon (D4); 1000 m, Sikdar 4065.
Eranthemum nervosum (Vahl) R. Br. ex Roem.
Sc Schult.

Bhutanghat (D6), 325 m, Sikdar 4116.

E. splendens (T. Anders.) Bremek. & Nanneng-
Bremk.

Buxaduar (D5), 1200m, Sikdar 990; Way
to Buxaduar (D5), 1000 m, K. Biswas 1914.
Hygrophila polysperma (Roxb.) T. Anders,
Poro (Dl), Sikdar 769; Bhutanghat 300 m,
Sikdar 4083; Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4173.

H. salicifolia (Vahl) Nees
Poro (Dl), Sikdar 758.

Lepidagathis incurva Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don
Poro (Dl), Sikdar 767; Garam (D2), Sikdar
871; Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4082; Bholka

(D7), Sikdar 4199; Tashigaon (D4), 1100m,
Sikdar 4048.

Mackaya macrocarpa (Nees) Das
South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4191.

Nelsonia canescens (Lamk.) Spreng.

Buxa-road (D3), K. Biswas 1600.
Phaulopsis dorsiflora (Retz.) Santapau
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4268.
Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus (Roxb.) Nees
Poro (Dl), Sikdar 776; South Rajabhat-
khawa (D3), Sikdar 4276.

Rungia pectinata (Linn.) Nees
Poro (Dl), Sikdar 818; Balapara (D7),
Sikdar 4157; Bhutanghat (D6), 400 m, Sikdar
4077; Buxaduar (D5), 900m, Sikdar 929;
Tashigaon (D4), 1100 m, Sikdar 4043.
*StrobiIanthes anisophyllus T. Anders.

Way to Buxaduar (D5), 900 m, Sikdar 932;
Buxaduar (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 966.

S. boerhavioides T. Andr.

Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar , 936.

S. coloratus (Nees) T. Andr.

Lapchakhawa (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 980;
Ramiti (D5), 1400 m, Sikdar 4013.

Thunbergiaceae

Thunbergia grandiflora (Roxb. ex Rottl.)
Roxb.

South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4278;
Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 4653.

Verbenaceae

Callicarpa macropbylla Vahl
Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4214.

Clerodendrum indicum (Linn.) O. Ktze.

South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4260.

*C. philippinum Schauer
Chunabhati (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 995; Buxa-
duar (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 4026; Chunabhati
(D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 4591.

138

FLORA OF BUXA FOREST DIVISION, JALPAIGURJ DIST.

C. serratum (Linn.) Moon
Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 451.

C. viscosum Vent.

Way to Buxaduar (D5), 650 m, Sikdar 4614.
C. wallichii Merr.

Buxaduar (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 981; Buxa-
to Chunabhati (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 989.
Gmeljfia arborea Roxb.

Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 450.

Holmskioldia sanguinea Retz.

Santrabari (D5), 500 m, Sikdar 933; Bhutan-
ghat (D6), 300 m, Sikdar 4114; Tashigaon
(D5), 850 m, Sikdar 4067.

Lantana camara Linn.

Way to Buxaduar (D5), 900 m, Sikdar 925;
Buxaduar (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 4611.

Premna coriacea C. B. Clarke
Way to Buxaduar (D5), 600 m, Sikdar 6934.
Vitex heterophylla Roxb.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7060.

Lamiaceae (=Labiatae)

Achyrospermum wallichianum (Benth.) Benth.

ex Hook. f.

South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4246;
Buxaduar (D5), 825 m, Sikdar 940; Buxa road
(D3), K. Biswas 1635.

Ajuga maerosperma Wall, ex Benth.

Buxaduar (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 984; Tashi-
gaon (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 4006; Ramiti (D5),
1500 m, Sikdar 4030.

A. macrospemia Wall, ex Benth. var. breviflora
Hook. f.

Way to Sinchula (D5), 1500 m, K. Biswas
2002.

Anisochilus pallidus Wall.

Buxaduar (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 974; Tashi-
gaon (D5), 1250 m, Sikdar 4015.

Anisomeles indica (Linn.) O. Ktze.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 819; Garam (D2), Sikdar
845; Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4081; Balapara

(D7), Sikdar 4169; Buxaduar (D5), 1000 m,
Sikdar 992.

Colebrookea oppositifolia J. E. Smith
Buxaduar (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 988.
ElshoStzia blanda Benth.

Lapchakhawa (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 971;
Chunabhati (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 999; Tashi-
gaon (D4), 1250 m, Sikdar 4069.

E. fruticosa (D. Don) Rehder
Tashigaon (D5), 1250m, Sikdar 6902.
Gomphostemma parviflontm Wall, ex Benth.

Buxa road (D3), K. Biswas 1612.

Hyptis suaveolens (Linn.) Poit.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 791; South Bholka (D7),
Sikdar 4168; Lapchakhawa (D5), 1050 m,

Sikdar 4045.

Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), C. R. Das 34.

L. lavandulaefolia J. E. Smith
Garam (D2), Sikdar 857; Moynabari (D6),
Sikdar 4144.

L, mollissima Wall, ex Benth
Poro (Dl), Sikdar 111.

Plectranthus japonicus (Burm. f.) Koidz
Ramiti (D5), 1600m, Sikdar 4011.

P. striatus Benth.

Ramiti (D5), 1600m, Sikdar 4008.
*Pogostemon auricularius (Linn.) Hassk.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 757; Alipurduar (D3),
E. A. Heawood 52.

P. benghalense (Burm. f.) O. Ktze.

Buxaduar (D5), 700 m. Sikdar 939.

*P. elsholtzioides Benth.

Buxaduar (D5), 950 m, Sikdar 926; Buxa-
duar (D5), Sikdar 970.

P. tuberculoses Benth.

Lapchakhawa (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 4062;
way to Buxaduar (D5), 1000 m, K. Biswas
1756.

Teucrium viscidum Bl.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7008.

139

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 81

Plantaginaceae
Plantago erosa Wall.

Way to Sinchu (D5), 1600 m, Sikdar 6914.

Nyctaginaceae

Boerhavia diffusa Linn.

Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4089.

Amaranthaceae

Achyranthes aspera Linn.

Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4090; South Raja-
bhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4272.

A. bidentata Bl.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 774.

Aerva sanguinolenta (Linn.) Bl.

Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4141; Tobgaon
(D5), 1200 m, K. Biswas 2045.

Alternanthera sessilis (Linn.) DC.

Cheko (D2), Sikdar 916; Poro (Dl), Sikdar
753; Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4095; Balapara
(D7), Sikdar 4156.

Amaranthus spinosus Linn.

Garam (D2), Sikdar 855.

Celosia argentea Linn.

Moynabari (D6), Sikdar 4145; Balapara
(D7), Sikdar 4231; 4234.

Cyathula prostrata (Linn.) Bl.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 773; Balapara (D7),
Sikdar 4188; Tobgaon (D5), 1200 m, K. Biswas
3240.

Deeringia amaranthoides (Lamk.) Merr.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 825; Tashigaon (D5),
1100 m, Sikdar 4024; Bhutanghat (D6), 250 m,
Sikdar 4107.

Basellaceae

Basella alba Linn.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7062.

POLYGONACEAE

Persicaria barbata (Linn.) Hara
North Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4152; Bhutan-
ghat (D6), V. Narayanswami 3077; 3083.

P. capitata (Buch.-Ham.) H. Gross
Buxaduar (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 956; 985;
way to Sinchu (D5), 1400 m, Sikdar 4698; Buxa-
Bhutan road (D5), 1200 m, V. Narayanswami
2541.

P. chinensis (Linn.) H. Gross
Poro (Dl), Sikdar 751; Garam (D2), Sikdar
889; Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4166; South Raja-
bhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4254; Lapchakhawa
(D5), Sikdar 965; Buxa to Bhutan-road (D5),
1000 m, V. Narayanswami 2495.

P. hydropiper (Linn.) Spach
South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4238; South
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4245; Poro (Dl),
Sikdar 890; Buxa road (D3), K. Biswas 1613.

P. kawagoeana (Makino) Nakai

Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4162; Rajabhatkhawa
(D3), Sikdar 7009; 21 miles from Rajabhat-
khawa (D3), V. Narayanswami 2354; 2307;
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), C. R. Das 10.

P. microcephala (D. Don) H. Gross
Buxa road (D3), K. Biswas 1687.

P. nepalensis (Meissn.) H. Gross
Poro (Dl), Sikdar 790; Buxaduar (D5),
1200 m, Sikdar 953; Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar
4078.

P. orientale (Linn.) Assenov.

Bhutanghat (D6), V. Narayanswami 3082.
P. posumbu (D. Don) H. Gross
Garam (D2), Sikdar 875; Poro (Dl), Sikdar
779; Buxa near station (D3), V. Narayanswami
2872; Buxa to Chunabhati (D5), 1000 m, V.
Narayanswami 2633; Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V.
Narayanswami 2399.

P. mibescens (Bl.) Hara var. acuminatum
(Franch. et Sav.) Hara
Poro (Dl), Sikdar 799; Rajabhatkhawa
(D3), C. R. Das 9.

140

FLORA OF BUXA FOREST DIVISION, JALPAIGURI DIST.

P. runcinata (Buch.-Ham.) H. Gross
Ramiti (D5), 1400 m, Sikdar 4007; way to
Ramiti (D5), 1250m, Sikdar 6915.

P. strigosa (R. Br.) Nakai
Garam (D2), Sikdar 862; Chikoh (D2),
Sikdar 914.

*P. viscosa (Ham. ex. D. Don) Nakai

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), C. R. Das 11; Poro
(Dl), B. Krishna 496.

Polygonum assamicum Meissn.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 786.

P. barfoatum Linn. var. gracile (Danser) Stewart
Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4088.

Rumex nepalensis Spreng.

Sinchu (D5), 1600 m, Sikdar 6939.

R. trisetifer Stokes

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7063; Raja-
bhatkhawa (D3), C. R. Das 12; Rajabhat-
khawa depot road (D3), V. Narayanswami
2401.

PlPERACEAE

Peperomia heyneana Miq.

Way to Sinchu (D5), 1800 m, Sikdar 6956;
Buxa to Chunabhati (D5), 1000 m, V. Nara-
yanswami 2637; Buxa to Bhutan border (D5),
1800 m, V. Narayanswami 2750.

Piper chaba Hunter

21 miles from Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V.
Narayanswami 2335.

P. diffusion Vahl

Buxa-Bhutan road (D5), 850 m, V. Nara-
yanswami 2490.

P. gamblei C. DC.

Buxa-Bhutan road (D5), 1400 m, V. Nara-
yanswami 2774.

P. griffithii C. DC.

Lapchakhawa (D5), Sikdar 949.

P. mullesua D. Don

Way to Sinchu (D5), 1500 m, Sikdar 4697.

P. pedicellosum Wall, ex C. DC.

Way to Raimatong (D5), 600 m, Sikdar
6931.

P. peepuloides Roxb.

Buxaduar (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 937; Buxa
to Tobgaon (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 938; Buxa-
duar (D5), 950 m, Sikdar 4058; Tobgaon
(D5), 1200 m, V. Narayanswami 2707.

P. trioicum Roxb.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 775; Garam (D2), Sikdar
897; Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7076.

Chloranthaceae

Chloranthus officinalis Bl.

Garam (D2), Sikdar 891; Poro (Dl), Sikdar
823; Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7014; Raja-
bhatkhawa (D3), K. Biswas 1556; 1569; 21
miles from Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayan-
swami 2345.

Myristicaceae

*Kneina erratica (Hook. f. et Thoms.) J.
Sinclair

Way to Buxaduar (D5), 600 m, Sikdar 4594.

K. linifolia (Roxb.) Warb.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 921.

Lauraceae

Cinnamomum glanduliferam (Wall.) Meissn.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), K. Biswas 2222.

Litsea chartacea (Wall, ex Nees) Hook. f.

Way to Sinchu (D5), 1750 m, Sikdar 6949.

L. nionopetala (Roxb.) Pers.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami

2450; Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 480.

Phoebe lanceolata (Wall, ex Nees) Nees
Tobgaon (D5), 1000 m to 1600 m. K. Biswas
2074.

Elaeagnaceae

Elaeagnus conferta Roxb.

North Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4179.

141

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

E. pyriformis Hook. f.

Buxaduar (D5), 800m, Sikdar 4658; Raja-
bhatkhawa (D3), K. Biswas 1558.

Lora NTH ACEAE

Helixanthera ligustrina (Wall.) Danser
Chunabhati (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 4654;

4664; Buxa N. W. (D5), 800m, V. Narayan-
swami 2730.

Macrosolen cochinchinensis (Lour.) van Tiegh.

On way to Buxaduar (D5), 600 m, K. Biswas
1710; 1910; Rajabhatkhawa (D3), C. R. Das
38; Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 483.

Santalaceae

Henslovia heterantha (Wall.) Hook. f. et Thoms,
ex A. DC.

Tobgaon (D5), 1400 m, V. Narayanswami
2697 ; Buxa to Bhutan road (D5), 1000 m, V.
Narayanswami 2762.

Euphorbiaceae

Baliospermum corymbiferum Hook. f.

Way to Buxaduar (D5), 700 m, Sikdar 4599.
B. montaiium (Willd.) Muell.-Arg.

Bhutanghat (D6), 325 m, Sikdar 4093.
Bischofia javanica Bl.

Mahakalguri, Alipurduar (D3), E. A. Hea-
wood, s.n.

Breynia rhamnoides (Retz.) Muell.-Arg.

South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4269.
Bridelia monoica (Lour.) Merr.

Poro (D2), Sikdar 836; Central Raidak
(D6), Sikdar 4139; South Rajabhatkhawa
(D3), Sikdar 4259.

B. stipularis (Linn.) Bl.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 797; Central Raidak
(D6), Sikdar 4138; North Bholka (D7), Sikdar
4170.

Claoxylon khasianum Hook. f.

Garopara, Rajabhatkhawa (D3), C. R. Das
90.

*C. longipetiolatum Kurz
North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6997.

C. polot (Burm. f.) Merr.

North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7015.
Croton bonplandianus Baill
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4585; Raja-
bhatkhawa towards Alipurduar (D3), C. R.
Das 74.

Endospermum chinense Benth.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami
2356.

Eriococcus hamiltonianus (Muell.-Arg.)

Hurusawa et Tanaka

Buxaduar (D5), 850 m, Sikdar 4606; North
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6994; Buxa-
Santrabari (D5), 700 m, V. Narayanswami
2932.

Euphorbia hirta Linn.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 780; Garam (D2), Sikdar
850.

E. pulcherrima Willd. ex Klotz.

Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 931.
Glochidion arborescens Bl.

Sinchu (D5), 1450 m, Sikdar 6904.

G. multiloculare Voigt
Poro (Dl), Sikdar 832.

Hemicicca glauca (Muell.-Arg.) Hurusawa et
Tanaka

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), C. R. Das 19.
Jatropha curcus Linn.

Buxaduar (D5), 850 m, Sikdar 4621.
Kirganelia reticulata (Poir.) Baill.

Buxaduar (D5), 650 m, K. Biswas 920.
Mallotus philippinensis (Lamk.) Muell.-Arg.

Damanpur (D2), Sikdar 919; Chunabhati
(D5), 1100m, Sikdar 4001; Balapara (D7),
Sikdar 4160.

Manihot esculenta Crantz.

Buxaduar (D5), 850 m, Sikdar 4032.

*Ostodes paniculata Bl.

Ramiti, Buxaduar (D5), 1400 m, Sikdar 467 6;
Buxa to Bhutan road (D5), 1200 m, V. Nora -
yanswami 2572.

142

FLORA OF BUXA FOREST DIVISION, JALPAJGURI DIST.

Phyllanthus urinaria Linn.

Garam (D2), Sikdar 872; Poro (Dl), Sikdar
759; South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4270,
Ricinus communis Linn.

Garam (D2), Sikdar 841.

Sauropus androgynus (Linn.) Merr.

Buxaduar (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 977; Raja-
bhatkhawa Depot road (D5), V. Narayanswami
2441.

S. pubescens Hook. f.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 756.

Urticaceae

Boehmeria hamiltoniana (Wall.) Wedd.

Lapchakhawa (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 975.

B. macrophyila D. Don
Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, K. Biswas 1923.

B. malabarica (Wall.) Wedd.

Tobgaon (D5), 1600 m, K. Biswas 2066.

B. platyphylla D. Don

On way to Buxa road (D3), 600 m, K. Biswas
1905.

B. scabrella (Roxb.) Gaud.

Garam (D2), Sikdar 898.

B. ternifolia D. Don

Way to Sinchu (D5), 1800 m, Sikdar 6908.
Elatostema hookerianum Wedd.

On way to Sinchula, Bhutan border (D5),
1700 m, K. Biswas 1986.

E. lineolatum Wight

Way to Tobgaon (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 4638;
Tobgaon (D5), 1200 m, K. Biswas 2056.

E. platyphyllum Wedd.

Way to Tobgaon (D5), 1100 m, Sikdar 4644.
Girardinia zeylanica Decaisne
Tobgaon (D5), 1250 m, K. Biswas 2069.
Pilea scripta (Ham.) Wedd.

Garam (D2), Sikdar 846.

Pouzolzia indica var. angustifolia Wedd.

North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7006.

P. zeylanica (Linn.) Benn.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 815; North Rajabhat-
khawa (D3), Sikdar 7007; Garopara, Raja-
bhatkhawa (D3), C. R. Das 94; Mahakalguri,
Alipurduar (D3), E. A. Heawood 6.

Urtica parviflora Roxb.

Buxaduar (D5), 750 m, K. Biswas 1921.

Ulmaceae

Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch.

Rajabhatkhawa, Jainti river beds (D3),
Sikdar 8115.

Cannabinaceae

Cannabis sativa Linn.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7012.

Moraceae

Artocarpus chaplasha Roxb.

Way to Buxaduar (D5), 1000 m, K. Biswas
1757.

A. lakoocha Roxb.

Buxa road (D3), K. Biswas 1636.

Ficus auriculata Lour.

Chunabhati (D5), 1000 m, Sikdar 4662.

F. benghalensis Linn.

Buxaduar (D5), 800m, Sikdar 6927.

F. curtipes Corner

Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4201; Buxa road
(D3), K . Biswas 1665.

F. hirta Vahl

Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 485.

F. prostrata Wall, ex Miq.

Buxaduar (D5), 800m, K. Biswas 1161.
Madura cochinchinensis (Lour.) Corner
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami
2404; Damanpur (D2), C. R. Das 54.

Streblus asper Lour.

Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 456.

143

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Fagaceae

Quercus lanceaefolia Roxb.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 835; Garam (D2), Sikdar
893.

Salicaceae

Salix tetrasperma Roxb.

Garam (D2), Sikdar 886; North Bholka
(D7), Sikdar 4176.

MONOCOTYLEDONS

Hydrocharitaceae

Nechamandra alternifolia (Roxb.) Thwait.
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7205.

Orchidaceae

*Ascocentrum micranthum (Lindl.) Holtt.

Buxaduar (D5), 850 m, Sikdar 4665; Buxa
to Bhutan road (D5), 1150 m, V. Narayan-
swami 2647.

Clenogyne dichotoma Salisb.

Near poro rest house (Dl), B. Krishna 493.
Coelogyne ochracea Lindl.

Way to Sinchu (D5), 1650 m, Sikdar 6919;
Buxa to Bhutan road (D5), 1600 m, V. Nara-
yanswami 2548; 2754.

Dendrobium formosum Roxb.

North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7221.

D. moschatum (Buch.-Ham.) Wall.

Way to Santrabari (D5), Sikdar 8112; Buxa
to Chunabhati (D5), 1100 m, V. Narayanswami
2618.

D. pierardi Roxb.

Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 499.

Eria flava Lindl.

Buxaduar (D5), 850 m, Sikdar 6906; Buxa
to Bhutan road (D5), 1200 m, V. Narayan-
swami 2529.

Luisia brachystachys Bl.

North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 6999.

*Pholidota articulata Lindl. var. griffithii

(Hook, f.) King & Pantl.

Way to Buxaduar (D5), 750 m, Sikdar 4615;
Buxa to Bhutan road (D5), 1200 m, V. Nara-
yanswami 2559; Tobgaon (D5), 1400 m, V.
Narayanswami 2709; 2731.

P. imbricata (Roxb.) Lindl.

Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 4669; Buxa
to Bhutan road (D5), 1100 m, V. Narayan-
swami 2539; 2753.

Rhynchostylis retusa (Linn.) Bl.

Tashigaon (D5), 1200 m, Sikdar 6905;

Buxaduar (D5), 1100m, Sikdar 1819.

ZlNGIBERACEAE

Alpinia malaccensis (Burm. f.) Rose.

North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7004;
21 miles from Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Nara-
yanswami 2359.

Musaceae

Musa paradisiaca Linn.

Raimatong (D5), 600 m, Sikdar 7091.

Amaryllidaceae

Zephyranthes tubispatha Herb.

Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 4617.

Hypoxidaceae

Curculigo orchioides Gaertn.

Bhutanghat (D6), V. Narayanswami 3107.

Liliaceae

Alium cepa Linn.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7085.
Asparagus racemosus Willd.

Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4092.

144

FLORA OF BUXA. FOREST DIVISION, JALPAIGURI D1ST.

PONTEDERXACEAF.

Monodioria hastata (Linn.) Soims.

Poro (Dl), B. Krishna 463.

Comm ELI N ACE AE

Floscopa scandens Lour.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 811; North Bholka (D7),
Sikdar 4153.

Arecaceae (=Palmae)

Calamus leptospadix Griff.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7239; Daman-
pur (D2), Sikdar 7217.

C. tenuis Roxb.

Damanpur (D2), Sikdar 7221.

C. viminalis Willd. var. fasciculata Becc. ex
Hook. f.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7154.

Caryota urens Linn.

Buxaduar forest (D5), 800 m, Sikdar 7189.
Wallichia densiflora Mart.

Raimatong (D5), S. K. Mukerjee 1395.

Pandanaceae

Pandanus furcatus Roxb.

Buxaduar to Santrabari (D5), 650 m, Sik-
dar 6933.

Araceae

AmorphophalStis campanulatus (Roxb.) Bl. ex

Decne

Bhutanghat (D6), Sikdar 4122.

Pothos scandens Linn.

North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7016;
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami 2407.

Smilacaceae

SmiSax lancaefolia Roxb.

Way to Sinchu (D5), 1650 m, Sikdar 6959;
Buxa to Santrabari (D5), 700 m, V. Narayan-
swami 2857.

POTAMOGETONACEAE

Potamogeton crispus Linn.

South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4212.

Cyperaceae

Carex stramentitla Boott ex Bockeler
Buxa road (D3), K. Biswas 1645 (5 sheets);
Near Buxaduar (D5), K. Biswas 2037 (5
sheets).

Cyperus ferevifolius (Rottbl.) Hassk.

North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7013.
C. iria Linn.

Way to Buxaduar (D5), 550 m, Sikdar 7025;
Buxa-Santrabari (D5), 300 m, V. Narayan-
swami 2908.

Fimforisfylis aestivalis (Retz.) Vahl

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami
2485; Rajabhatkhawa (D3), C. R. Das 5.

F. dichotoma (Linn.) VahL

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), C. R. Das 97.
*Pycreus sframineus C. B. Clarke
Near Buxaduar (D5), K. Biswas 2037.

POACEAE (- GRAMINEAE)

Acroceras zizanioides (H.B.K.) Dandy
Garam (D2), Sikdar 899.

Axonopus compressus (Sw.) P. Beauv.

Buxa-Santrabari (D5), 200 m, V. Narayan-
swami 2940.

Brachiada ramosa (Linn.) Stapf
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7187.

B. reptans (Linn.) Gard. et Hubbard

Bhutanghat (D6), V. Narayanswami 3094.
Capillipedium asslmile (Steud.) A. Camus
Bhutanghat (D6), V. Narayanswami 3068.
Chloris dolichostachya Lagasca
Bhutanghat (D6), V. Narayanswami 3018.
Cyrtococcum accrescens (Trin.) Stapf

Bhutanghat (D6), V. Narayanswami 3104.

145

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81

C. patens (Linn.) A. Camus
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7138; Buxa-

Santrabari (D5), 350 m, V. Narayanswami
2910.

Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.) Stapf
Buxa prison (D5), 800 m, V. Narayanswami
2980.

Digitaria longiflora (Retz.) Pers.

North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7073.

D. sanguinalis (Linn.) Scop.

Rajabhatkhawa Depot road (D3), V. Nara-
yanswami 2451; 2484.

Echinochioa colonum (Linn.) Link.

Balapara (D7), Sikdar 4181; Bhutanghat
(D6), V. Narayanswami 3111.

Eleusine coracaaia (Linn.) Gaertn.

Garam (D2), Sikdar 878; 879.

Eragrostis coarctata Stapf
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7048.

E. dianrhena (Schult.) Steud.

North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7071.

E. nigra Nees ex Steud.

Buxa-Bhutan road, 36th mile (D5), 1200 m,
V. Narayanswami 2562.

E. pilosa (Linn.) P. Beauv.

North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7072.

E. tenella (Linn.) P. Beauv. ex Roem.
et Schult.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7070.
Eriocfiloa procera (Retz.) C. E. Hubb.

Bhutanghat (D6), V. Narayanswami 3087.
Eulalia trispicata (Schult.) Henr.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), K. Biswas 1560.
Hemarthria compressa (Linn, f.) R. Br.

North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7000.
Microstegium vagans (Nees ex Steud.) A.
Camus

Garam (D2), Sikdar 863.

Neyraudia ansndinacea (Linn.) Hiern.

Buxa road (D3), K. Biswas 1679.

N. reynaudiana (Kunth) Keng ex Hitchc.
Bhutanghat (D6), 350 m, Sikdar 4120.

OpSismenus bunnanii (Retz.) P. Beauv.

Bhutanghat (D5), 300 m, Sikdar 4116.
Ottochloa nodosa (Kunth) Dandy
Bhutanghat (D6), V . Narayanswami 3108.
Panicum no tat um Retz.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 798; Rajabhatkhawa
(D3), K. Biswas 1562.

P. paludosum Roxb.

North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7074.
P. repens Linn.

Bhutanghat (D6), V. Narayanswami 3087.
Paspalum scrobiculatnm Linn.

Buxa-Bhutan road, 36th mile (D5), 1200m,
V. Narayanswami 2554; Bhutanghat (D6),
V. Narayanswami 3075.

Poa annua Linn.

Sinchu, near Bhutan (D5), 1800 m, Sikdar
6918.

Pogonatherum crinituin (Thunb.) Kunth
Jainti Dak bunglow (D4), V. Narayanswami
3004; Rajabhatkhawa (D3), C. R. Das 103.
Polytoca digitata (Linn, f.) Druce
Bhutanghat (D6), V. Narayanswami 3109.
Sacciolepis indica (Linn.) A. Chase

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), C. R . Das 7; 21 miles
from Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami
2365.

Setaria gSauca (Linn.) P. Beauv.

Santrabari (D5), 200 m, V. Narayanswami
2904; Buxa-Santrabari (D5), 250 m, V. Nara-
yanswami 2936.

Sorghum halepense (Linn.) Pers.

Poro (Dl), Sikdar 776.

Sporobolus diander (Retz.) P. Beauv.

South Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4271;
Alipurduar (D3), C. R. Das 78; Buxa-santra-
bari (D5), 200 m, V. Narayanswami 2917.

S. fertilis (Steud.) W.D. Calayton
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 7047; 21 miles
road from Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayan-
swami 2349.

146

FLORA OF BUXA FOREST DIVISION, JALPAIGURI D1ST.

Themeda caudata (Nees) A. Camus

South Bholka (D7), Sikdar 4198.

Zea mays Linn.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), Sikdar 4602; Raja-
bhatkhawa depot road (D3), V. N or ay an-
swami 2457.

Ack no wledge m e n ts

One of us (J. K. Sikdar) wishes to express
his deep sense of gratitude to Prof. R. S. Rao,

Andhra University, Waltair (ex Jt. Director-
in-Charge, Botanical Survey of India) for
his constant help and guidance during the
work at the Central National Herbarium,
Howrah. Sincere thanks are due to Director,
Botanical Survey of India for the award of
Junior Research Fellowship to one of us (J.
K. Sikdar) during the period of which this
work has been carried out and to Deputy
Director, Central National Herbarium, Howrah
for the facilities to work in the herbarium.

References

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Sikkim Himalayas, Vol. 1. Calcutta.

Champion, H. G. & Seth, S. K. (1968): A
revised survey of the Forest Types of India, Delhi.

Chaudhuri, A. B. (1959) : A short note on the
distribution of grasses and sedges of the Buxa Divi-
sion, West Bengal. Indian For. 85 : 468-472.

Cowan, A. M. and Cowan, J. M. (1929) : The
trees of Northern Bengal including shrubs, woody
climbers, bamboos, palms and tree ferns being a
revision of the list by Gamble, Calcutta.

Gamble, J. S. (1878) : List of trees, shrubs and
large climbers found in the Darjeeling District, Ben-
gal. Calcutta (2nd ed. 1896).

Ghosh, R. B. and Ghosh, Ajoy (1977): Some
additions to the Flora of Buxa Division of Jalpaiguri
district of West Bengal. Bull. bot. Soc. Bengal 31:
78-83.

Ghosh, B. and Maiti, G. G. (1978): Occurrence
of three taxa in West Bengal. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
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Krishna, B. and Dutta, Ratna (1979): New
plant record for West Bengal. Bull. bot. Surv. India
27(1-4): 211 (1981).

Mukerjee, S. K. (1965): A sketch of the vegeta-
tion of Jalpaiguri District of West Bengal, ibid. 7 :
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(1927a): Orchids of the plains

of north Bengal, ibid. 14: 92-103.

(1972b) : Fern flora of the plains

of North Bengal. J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal. 14: 111-131.

Prain, D. (1903): Bengal Plants. 2 Vols. London
(Rep. ed. 1963 — Botanical Survey of India).

Sikdar, J. K. (1976): A note on Amblyanthopsis
bhotanica (Myrsinaceae) from India. Bull. bot. Surv.
India 18: 244-246 (1979).

(1979) : Two plant records for West

Bengal. Geobios 6: 90-91.

— — (1980): Studies on the vegetation

and flora of Jalpaiguri District, West Bengal. Ph.D.
Thisis. Calcutta University, (Unpublished).

(1981a): Some new plant records

for West Bengal. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78( 1) :
103-106.

(1981b): Notes on some plant re-
cords for Bengal, ibid. 75(2) : 419-421.

(1982) : Notes on the occurrence of

some plants of West Bengal, ibid. 79(3) : 563-566.

(In Press) : Some observations on

three little known species endemic to Bhutan and
northeast India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

and Ghosh, R. B. (1978): Sene-

cio bhot Clarke — An interesting taxon for Indian
Flora. Geobios 5 : 86-88.

(1979): A little

known plant of West Bengal, ibid. 6: 287-288.

— (1981a): A note

on Sabia paniculata Edgew. ex Hook. f. & Thoms,
from West Bengal. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78(3) :
626-627.

(1981b): A taxono-
mic survey and systematic census of Tree Legumes
of North Bengal. Indian J. For. 4(3) : 224-229 (in
part) .

AND Maiti, G. G. (1979) : Two new

147

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 81

records of compositae from West Bengal. Bull. bot. plant from West Bengal, ibid. 78(3): 635-637.

Surv. India 27(1-4): 218-220 (1981). and Maji, S. (1981): Some note-

(1981a): A new worthy plants from West Bengal, ibid. 78(3): 628-

species of Ophiorrhiza (Rubiaceae) from India. J. 630.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78(1): 143-145. Thothathri, K. (1972): Studies in Leguminosae

(1981b) : Acanthus XIX — New Dalbergias from the Eastern Hima-

carduaccous Griff. — A scarcely known endemic layas. Bull. bot. Surv. India 14: 189-192.

148

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF SONCHUS L. (ASTERACEAE) FROM

SOUTH INDIA1

M. Chandrabose, V. Chandrasekaran and

N. C. Nair2

{With seven text-figures)

Sonchus jainii sp. nov.

Herbae erectae, 30-75 cm altae, glabrae;
radices at caules laticibus lacteis. Folia 2-16 x
1 . 0-4 . 5 cm, spiralia, approximata in parte
inferiore, remota in parte superiore; folia
infera anguste oblonga, sinuate lobata vel
pinnatificla segmentis ovato-acutis vel oblongo-
obtusis, interdum simplicia, glabra, re-
curvata secus margines, ad apices acuta, ad
bases auriculata; folia supera simplicia, ovato-
lanceolata, subintegra, recurvata secus margines,
glabra, ad apices acuta vel acuminata, ad
bases amplexicaulia auriculis acutis. Inflores-
centia terminalis capitulis racemose fasciculata
vel paniculata. Capitula ± 1 . 7-2 . 0 cm longa,
1 . 5-2 . 0 cm diametris, lutea, campanulata,
homogama floribus totis ligulatis, pedunculata;
torus parum depressum. Bracteae involucri
6-15 x 2. 5-4.0 mm, multiseriatae, coriaceae,
glabrae praeter apicem aliquot pilis, obtuse
acuminatae; bracteae involucri externae gra-
datim breviores, ovatae vel ovate-lanceolatae;
bracteae involucri interiores longiores, oblongo-
lanceolatae. Flores lutei, hermaphroditi. Tubus
corollae 6-7 mm longus, linearis, fauce extra
sparsim pubescenti; limbus 6-7 x 2 mm, anguste
oblongus, apice 5-dentato, dentes ± 0.5 x 0.3
mm. Antherae ± 2.5 mm longae, lineari-

1 Accepted October 1982.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore-641 003.

oblongae, connatae; ft la ± 1 mm longa,
libra, glabra. Ovarium ± 1.5 x 0.9 mm,
lineari-oblongum, costatum extremis umbabus
truncatis, glabrum; stylus ± 1 cm longus,
linearis, glaber praeter prope apicem; stigma
bifidus, brachia ± 1.7 mm longa

simplicia. Pappus 8-10 mm longus, can-
didus, leviter heteromorphus pilis crassis et
subtiliter capillaceis. Achenia ±5x1 mm,
brunnea, lineari-oblonga, compressa, valde 4-
costata nervis duabus longitudinalibus inter-
mediis inconspicuis, levia, glabra. (Figs. 1-7).

Holotypus Chandrabose 69015 (CAL) et
isotypi Chandrabose 69015 (MH. Acc. Nos.
117706, 117707, 117708, 117709, 117710,

117711) lecti apud Konalar, Anamalai, Dist.
Coimbatore in statu Tamil Nadu die 18-11-
1980.

Sonchus jainii sp. nov.

Erect herbs 30-75 cm high, glabrous; roots
and stems with milky latex. Leaves 2-16 x 1-4.5
cm, in spirals, close in the lower portion, dis-
tant above; lower ones narrowly oblong,
sinuately lobed or pinnatifid with ovate-acute
or oblong-obtuse segments, sometimes simple,
recurved along the margins, glabrous, acute at
apex, auricled at base; upper ones simple,
ovate-lanceolate, subentire, recurved along the
margins, glabrous, acute or acuminate at apex,
amplexicaul at base with acute auricles. Heads
± 1.7-2 cm long, 1.5-2 cm across, yellow.

149

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Figs. 1-7: Sonchus jainii sp. nov.

1. Plant. 2. L. S. of Head. 3. Involucral bracts. 4. Ligulate flower. 5 Androecium.
6. Gynoecium. 7. Achenes with pappus hairs.

150

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

campanulate, homogamous with all ligulate
flowers, pedunculate, in terminal fascicled race-
mes or panicles; torus slightly depressed. In-
volucral bracts 6-15 x 2.5-4 mm, many-seriate,
coriaceous, glabrous excepting a few hairs at
the tip, obtusely acuminate; outer ones gra-
dually shorter, ovate or ovate-lanceolate; inner
ones longer, oblong-lanceolate. Flowers yellow,
bisexual. Corolla tube 6-7 mm long, linear,
sparsely pubescent at throat without; limb
6-7 x 2 mm, narrowly oblong, 5-toothed at
apex, teeth ± 0.5 x 0.3 mm. Anthers ± 2.5
mm long, linear-oblong, connate; filaments ±
1 mm long, free, glabrous. Ovary ± 1 . 5 x 0 . 9
mm, linear-oblong, ribbed, truncate at both
ends, glabrous; style ± 1 cm long, linear,
glabrous except near the tip; stigma bifid,
arms ±1.7 mm long, simple. Pappus 8-10 mm
long, dull- white, smooth, faintly heteromorphic
with thick and finer capillaceous hairs. Ache-
nes ±5x1 mm, brown, linear-oblong, com-
pressed, strongly 4-ribbed with 2 faint longi-
tudinal nerves in between, smooth, glabrous.
(Figs. 1-7).

The holotype Chandrabose 69015 (CAL)
and isotypes Chandrabose 69015 (MF1. Acc.
Nos. 117706, 117707, 117708, 117709, 117710,
117711) were collected in Konalar, Anamalai,
Coimbatore District, Tamil Nadu on 18-11-
1980.

This interesting taxon obviously represents a
member of the tribe Lactuceae (Syn.: Cicho-
rieae), but we found it difficult to place our
new species in the appropriate genus, as this
perennial species exhibits: achenes longer,

narrowed at both ends; and pappus of finer
capillaceous smooth hairs intermixed with
thick smooth hairs. F. G. Davies after exa-
mining the specimen remarked, “ It does

seem to be near Sonchus, and at present I
would not be certain whether it belongs in this
genus or not. There are some rather odd pere-
nnial Sonchus species and it may be a new
one of these". We, however, treat it as a species
of Sonchus L. as suggested by F. G. Davies
of the Kew Herbarium.

This species grows on the grassy slopes at
an altitude of about 2050 m. This species is
named in honour of Dr. S. K. Jain, Director,
Botanical Survey of India, Howrah for his
contributions to the taxonomy of Indian plants.

Ack nowledgements

Our grateful thanks are due to Dr. F. G.
Davies, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England
for his expert opinion on the specimen and
to Dr. V. J. Nair, Systematic Botanist, Bota-
nical Survey of India, Coimbatore for render-
ing Latin translation.

DESCRIPTION OF TWO NEW SPECIES AND ONE NEW RECORD
OF CRYPTOSTIGMAT1D MITES (ACARI: ORIBATEI)

FROM MAHARASHTRA. INDIA1

A. K. Sanyal2
(With four text-figures)

Introduction

1 Accepted December 1982.

2 Zoological Survey of India, 14, Madan Street, During the course Of studies on the oribatid

Calcutta-700 072, India. mite fauna, of Maharashtra two new species

151

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

namely, Haplacarus bhadurii and H. maha-
rashtraensis and one species namely Javacarus
kuhnelti as new for the state were recorded
and are described in this paper. The specimens
were collected by me and are deposited in the
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Family Lohmaniidae
Haplacarus bhadurii sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-2)

Colour of the body and legs yellowish

brown; length of the body 667 [x, width 333
ix. The body is covered with a fine transparent
cerotegument ornamented with a microsculp-
ture of knob -like refractive papillae arranged
in rows. These papillae are absent from the
prodorsum, from the ventral plates and from
dorsal surfaces of the legs. The integument
beneath the cerotegument bears a fine micro-
sculpture of regular punctations; this is clearly
seen on parts of the body where the papillate
microsculpture is lacking on the cerotegument.

Dorsum. Fig. 2. Venter.

(Length 667

152

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Dorsal and ventral views of the holotype are
given in Figs. 1 and 2.

Prodorsum : Prodorsum finely foveolated;

rostral tectum is entire, not incised. Lateral
margins of prodorsum have an angular con-
tour. Rostral setae inserted close together on
dorsal surface of rostrum, 2-3 times longer
than their mutual distance. All prodorsal setae
markedly foliate, smooth; rostral, lamellar,
interlamellar and posterior exo-pseudostigmatic
setae measure 69-86 g long; anterior exo-
pseudostigmatic setae slightly longer, measuring
103 g. Sensillus pectinate with 7 branches.
Slightly broad prodorsal transverse band pos-
terior to the pseudostigmatic region.

Notogaster : Notogaster bears 9 rows of
papillae, interpapillar region of notogaster
covered by fine microsculpture of punctations.
The arrangement of these papillae shows a
striking resemblance to the description of
Javacarus kuhnelti Ralogh, 1961. There are 32
notogastral setae, neotrichy absent, all setae
markedly foliate and smooth. The setae mea-
sure 69-103 g\ tips of the setae ps1 strongly
curved inwards.

Gnathosoma : Infracapitulum with 4 pairs
of setae comprising a, mlf m2 and h\ smooth,
not markedly foliate.

Ventral region of podosoma : Coxisternal
setal formula 3- 1-3-4, setae smooth, not mark-
edly foliate, arranged in usual manner as
shown in Fig. 2.

Genito-anal region : Distinct aggenital plate,
triangular, located at the anterolateral margins
of the genital plates; genital plates undivided,
no transverse suture, each v/ith 10 setae com-
prising 4 antiaxial and 6 paraxial. Broadly
rectangular pre-anal plate, much wider than
long. Adanal-anal plates fused, no longitudinal
suture, adanal-anal setal formula: 4-1, adanal
setae slightly foliate, anal setae shorter and
more slender than adanals; posterior adanal

seta longer and tips not curved inward; fissures
ia, ip and ill seen on ventral view as narrow
slits.

Leg : All tarsi monodactyle.

Holotype : Adult $ India: Maharashtra,
Buldana, Rajur, 8. i. 1982, ex soil with decom-
posed leaves.

Paratype : 1 $ same data as for holotype.

Remarks : The new species is closely related
to Haplacarus foliatus Wallwork, 1962 but
strongly differs from it in the arrangement of
the knob like papillae on notogaster, having
sensilla with less number of branches, shorter
in, micro-punctations and also in having
straight tips of posterior adanal seta.

The species is named in honour of Dr. A.
K. Bhaduri, an oribatologist.

HapSacamis maharashtraensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 3-4)

Colour of the body and legs yellowish
brown; length of the body 632 g, width 316
ju,. The body is covered with a fine transparent
cerotegument beautifully ornamented with a
microsculpture of regularly arranged knob-like
refractive papillae. The microsculpture is ab-
sent from the prodorsal and notogastral trans-
verse bands, from antiaxial margins of ventral
plates and from dorsal surfaces of the legs.
The integument beneath the cerotegument
bears a fine microsculpture of regular puncta-
tions, this punctation is clear where the re-
fractive papillae are absent. Dorsal and ventral
views of the holotype are given in Figs. 3 and 4.

Prodorsum: Rostral tectum is entire not
incised. Lateral margins of prodorsum have
an angular contour. Rostral setae inserted
close together on dorsal surface of rostrum,
about 3 times longer than their mutual dis-
tance. All prodorsal setae are markedly foliate
and bear small barbs except anterior exo-
pseudostigmatic and posterior exo-pseudostig-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

matic setae; length of the prodorsal setae
varies from 57-92 sensillus is pectinate with
7 branches; broad prodorsal transverse band
posterior to the pseudostigmatic region.

Notogaster : There are 32 notogastral setae;
neotrichy absent; all setae markedly foliate.

h2, h3, pslf ps2 and ps3 with fine barbs, other
setae smooth. The setae measure 60-115 /a;
setae pst rather thicker than the remaining.
Notogaster bears 10 transverse bands, which
are represented by clear bands of the cerote-
gument devoid of papillae.

Haplacarus maharashtraensis sp. nov. Fig. 3. Dorsum. Fig. 4. Venter.

(Length 632

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Gnathosoma : Infracapitulum with 2 pairs
of setae, short, not moderately foliate, finely
barbed.

Ventral region of podosoma : Coxistemal
setal formula: 3- 1-3-4, finely barbed, not

markedly foliate, arranged in usual manner as
shown in Fig. 4.

Genito-anal region : Aggenital plates distinct,
triangular, located at the anterolateral margins
of the genital plates, genital plates undivided,
no transverse suture, each with 10 setae com-
prising 4 antiaxial and 6 paraxial. Preanal
plate rectangular, much wider than long. Ada-
nal-anal plates fused, no longitudinal suture,
adanal-anal setal formula: 4-1, adanal setae
long, finely barbed; anal setae more slender
and shorter than adanals; posterior adanal
setae longer and with strongly incurved tip;
fissures ia, ip, and ih seen on ventral view as
narrow slits.

Leg\ All tarsi monodactyle.

Holotype : Adult 9, India: Maharashtra,
Buldana, Rajur, 8. i. 1982, ex soil with decom-
posed leaves.

Paratype : 1 9 , same data as for holotype.

Remarks'. The species is closely related to
Haplacarus foliatus Wallwork, 1962 but differs
sharply in the presence of barbed setae on
notogaster and ventral plate, sensilla with less
number of branches, difference in the shape
of the notogastral bands and 2 pairs of barb-
ed setae on infracapitulum.

Refer

Balogh, J. (1961): An outline of the family
Lohmaniidae Berl. 1916. (Acari: Oribatei). Acta.
Zool. Acad. Sci. Hungarici, 7: 19-44.

Bhattacharya, T., Bhaduri, A. K. and Ray-
chaudhuri, D. N. (1974) : Soil Oribatid mites from
Santiniketan, Birbhum. West Bengal — I (Acarina:
Lohmaniidae). Oriental Ins., 8( 3): 281-289.

Key to the Indian species of Haplacarus

1 . Notogastral papillae arranged in rows; all setae

smooth; posterior adanal setae without incurv-
ed tips bhadurii sp. nov.

— Notogastral papillae regularly distributed and

form distinct bands; setae smooth or
barbed; posterior adanal setae with strongly
curved inward tips 2

2. Setae barbed maharashtraensis sp. nov.

— Setae smooth

foliatus bengalensis Bhattacharya et al.

Javacaras kuhnelti Balogh

Javacarus kuhnelti Balogh, 1961. Acta. Zool. Acad.
Sci. Hungarici, 7: 19-44.

Javacarus kuhnelti, Bhattacharya et al., 1974, Orien-
tal Ins., 8(3 ) : 286.

Javacarus kuhnelti, Mishra et al., 1980, Sci. &
Cult., 46: 225.

Material examined : 3 adult 9 9 , India :
Maharashtra, Buldana, Gondhankhera, 10. i.
1982, ex soil with decomposed leaves.

Remarks'. The material from Maharashtra
agrees with the drawings and descriptions of
Javacarus kuhnelti Balogh, 1961 except in the
length of the body which is slightly larger in
the present specimens.

Ack no wledge m e n ts

I am grateful to Dr. B. K. Tikader, Director,
Zoological Survey of India, for facilities.
Sincere thanks are also due to Dr. S. K. Bhatta-
charyya and Dr. S. K. Gupta, Arachnology
Division, Zoological Survey of India, for
encouragement.

EN CES

Mishra, S., Bhaduri, A. K. and Raychaudhuri,
D. N. (1980): New records of soil oribatid mites
(Acari, Oribatei) from Orissa, India. Sci. & Cult.,
46: 225-227.

Wallwork, J. A. (1962): Some Oribatid from
Ghana X. The family Lohmaniidae. Acarologia, 4
(3): 457-487.

155

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81

A NEW SPECIES OF OPHIORRHIZA (RUBIACEAE) FROM

ANDHRA PRADESH1

G. V. Subba Rao and G. R. Kumari2
(With six text-figures)

Ophiorrhiza chandrasekharanii sp. nov.

Ophiorrhiza fasciculata D. Don affinis, sed
foliis parvioribus; pagina supera folii sparsim
scabra; petiolis brevioribus; stipulis brevioribus
et angustioribus; pedunculis brevioribus, ful-
votomentosis; bracteolis paucioribus, multo
brevioribus, sparsim pubentibus, differt.

This species is allied to Ophiorrhiza fasci-
culata D. Don but differs from it in having
smaller leaves; sparsely scabrous upper leaf
surface; much shorter petioles; shorter and
narrower stipules; shorter fulvous tomentose
peduncles; fewer, much shorter and sparsely
pubescent bracteoles.

Herbs up to 32 cm tall; stems pubescent,
more so towards upper region. Leaves up to
11.2 x 4.6 cm, oblong, oblong-lanceolate or
ovate, membranous, scabrous above, glaucous
beneath, pubescent on nerves, shortly acumi-
nate, narrowed at base, margins shortly ciliate;
petioles up to 1 . 5 cm long, tomentose; stipules
up to 11x3 mm, narrowly deltoid, acuminate,
pubescent. Flowers white, yellow on drying,
faintly scented, in axillary and terminal ful-
vous tomentose corymbs or subcorymbs up
to 5 cm across; peduncles up to 4.5 cm long,
fulvous tomentose; bracteoles up to 4 mm
long, few, persistent, narrow, acute, pubescent,
ciliate, midrib obscure. Calyx: tube up to 2
mm long, fulvous tomentose; lobes up to
1 . 5 mm long, narrow, acute, pubescent, per-
sistent. Corolla ribbed, pubescent without,

1 Accepted December 1982.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore-461 003.

glabrous within up to 1 mm from base, the
rest crispate pubescent within with a row of
long white hairs bordering the glabrous por-
tion; tube up to 9 mm long; lobes up to 2 mm
long, acute. Stamens 5, epipetalous, included,
attached at about the middle of the glabrous
portion of corolla tube; anthers up to 2 mm
long; filaments 1.5 mm long, glabrous. Disc
epigynous, of 2 large lobes, minutely glan-
dular. Ovary 2 loculed, ovules many on basal
ascending placentas; style 2 mm long; stigma
1 . 5 mm long, narrowly lanceolate, acute, 2
lobed; lobes connate. Capsules up to 8x3
mm, obcordate, compressed, patently pubes-
cent, girt by calyx limb. Seeds many, minute,
angled.

The holotype Subba rao 30049 (CAL), iso-
types Subba rao 30049 (MH) were collected
at Vankachinta, Visakhapatnam District,
Andhra Pradesh on 1st June, 1968.

The specific epithet is in honour of Dr. N.
Chandrasekharan Nair, Joint Director, Bota-
nical Survey of India, Southern Circle, Coim-
batore for his keen interest in the work on
Flora of Visakhapatnam District and his con-
tribution to the taxonomy of Indian plants.

Ack nowledgements

We are grateful to A. P. Forest Department
for their help for visiting their forest areas,
to the authorities of Central National Herba-
rium (CAL) and Sri D. C. Mondal for scru-
tiny of the specimen, to Dr. V. J. Nair for
latin translation, to Dr. N. C. Nair, Joint
Director, Southern Circle, Botanical Survey of
India, Coimbatore for his help and encourage-

156

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs 1-6. Ophiorrhiza Chandrasekhar anii sp. nov.

1. Plant. 2, A part of the inflorescence. 3. Flower. 4. Corolla split open.

5. Gynoecium. 6. Fruit.

157

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

ment and to Dr. A. N. Henry, Regional Bota- India, Coimbatore for helpful suggestions and
nist. Southern Circle, Botanical Survey of discussion.

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW GENUS AND SOME NEW SPECIES OF
TORRENTICOLE DIPTERA OF THE NORTHWEST HIMALAYA1

B. K. Kaul2

( With thirty -jour text -figures)

Beasomia sexdecima, gen. et sp. nov. (Diptera: Psychodidae) and Blepharocera
alhnicota sp. nov. and B. rahlaea sp. nov. (Diptera: Blepharoceridae) are described.
The type specimens are deposited in the collection of the School of Entomology,
St. John’s College, Agra, U.P. India for onward transmission to Zoological Survey of

India, Calcutta.

Genus Beasomia gen. nov.
male: Head transverse oval; antenna with

15 segments; first segment cordately oval with
dense lamellae of long setae, third segment
with a ventral pectinal brush of short conspi-
cuous row of setae and two modified apical
spines; flagellar segments without ‘S’ shaped
chaetae. Palpus four segmented nearly equal
to the length of antenna. Third longitudinal
vein ending below wing tip; tip of wing pointed.
Rs with four branches; distal part of Cu elon-
gate. Sc reduced, wing base normal not dis-
proportionately rounded or distended. Genitalia
with three pairs of appendages. Female antenna

16 segmented. The affinity of this new genus
to other known genera is shown in the follow-
ing key.

Subfamily Psychodinae
Key to genera modified from Brunetti

(Brunetti 1912)

1. The third longitudinal vein ending exactly at
the wing tip . . 2

1 Accepted April 1983.

£ Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishva Vidyalaya,
Regional Research Station, Kukumseri, Palampur-
176 062, India.

The third longitudinal vein ending just below
the wing tip 3

2. Membrane of wing never considerably covered

with scales, these being confined to small wing
spots. Flagellar joints of antennae without con-
spicuous ‘S’ shaped chaetae. Male genitalia with
two pairs of appendages Psychoda Latr.

Membrane of wing with considerable areas cover-
ed with scales. Flagellar joints of antennae with
distinct ‘S' shaped chaetae. Male genitalia with

three pairs of appendages

Parabrunettia Bran.

3. Anterior basal angle of wing not abnormally

extended, flagellar joints of antennae without
or inconspicuous ‘S’ shaped chaetae. Male geni-
talia with two pairs of appendages

Pericoma Walk.

‘S’ shaped chaetae on flagellar joints of antennae
present or absent. Male genitalia with three
pairs of appendages 4

4. Anterior basal angle of wing very dispropor-

tionately rounded and distended, so that the
auxiliary and first longitudinal veins are very
much removed from the costal margin. Mem-
brane of wing wholly covered with scales.
Flagellar joints of antennae with conspicuous
‘S’ shaped chaetae Brunettia Ann.

158

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs, 1-12. Beasomia sexdecima gen. et sp. nov. $ $ : Length 2.60 nun $ : 3 mm $ .

1. 9 wing; 2. $ wing; 3. $ hind leg; 4. $ middle leg; 5, $ foreleg;

6. $ antenna; 7. $ genitalia; 8. $ antenna; 9. $ hindleg; 10. $ middle leg;

11. $ foreleg; 12. $ palpus.

159

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Anterior basal angle of wing normal; ‘S’ shaped
chaetae on the flagellar joints absent, instead
first antennal segment clothed with dense lame-
llae of long setae above, the third segment
bears ventraily a pectinal brush of short, con-
spicuous setae and apically with two elongated,
flattened spines, of which one is long and other

about half the first in length

Beasomyia gen. nov.

Type species: Beasoinia sexdecima sp. nov.

Beasomia sexdecima sp. nov. (Figs. 1-12)

male: Length of body, including genitalia,
2.60 mm; brown, abdomen and legs yellowish-
brown, head brown, transverse oval, 1 . 60 times
as wide as long. Antennae (Fig. 6), 2.30 as
long as head and nearly equal to palpus, 15
segmented; first segment very stout, cordately
oval, nearly 1.30 as long as thick, clothed with
dense lamellae of long setae above; the second
nearly oval 1.70 as long as thick, 0.40 times
the length of the first; the third elongate, cor-
date, wider basally than apically, 0.90 times
the second, bears ventraily a pectinate brush
of short conspicuous row of setae, apically
with two elongate, flattened, modified spines,
of which one is long and other about 0.50 its
length; fourth segment oval, 0.60 the third;
segments 5 to 13 more or less oval, but gra-
dually becoming shorter and more slender;
fourteenth subglobose; terminal segment flask-
shaped, with a neck as long as the enlarge-
ment. Palpus (Fig. 12), four segmented; first
segment short, nearly 3 times as long as thick,
second long, uniformly cylindrical, about 1.70
the first, third uniformly cylindrical, distinctly
longer than the second, fourth equals the third
but more slender. Legs densely setose; fore
leg (Fig. 5) : femur about 7 as long as thick,
tibia 1 . 25 the femur, tip of tibia dentate and
with long subacute spines; tarsus nearly equal
to tibia, first tarsal segment nearly 0.50 the

tibia and 0 . 50 the total length of tarsus; second
0.30 the first; third 0.75 the second; fourth
0.6 the third; fifth 1.50 the fourth; claw sim-
ple, almost straight, empodium small. Middle
leg (Fig. 4) : femur similar to fore femur;
tibia 1 . 25 the femur, tip of tibia dentate and
with long subacute spines; tarsus nearly equal
to tibia, first tarsal segment distinctly more
than half the tibia, and nearly 0.60 the total
lensth of tarsus; second 0.30 the first; third
nearly 0.60 the second; fourth 0.80 the third,
fifth equal to third and 1 . 25 the fourth; claw
simple, almost straight, empodium small. Hind
leg (Fig. 3): femur similar to mid femur, tibia
1 . 40 the femur, tip of tibia dentate and with
subacute spines; tarsus 0.80 the tibia; first
tarsal segment nearly 0.50 the tibia and near-
ly 0.60 the total length of tarsus; second 0.30
the first, third nearly 0.60 the second; fourth
0.80 the third; fifth equal to third and 1.25
the fourth; claw simple, almost straight, empo-
dium minute. Wing (Fig. 2): 3.1 mm; 2.20
as long as wide; anterior branch of second
longitudinal fork nearly at the middle; fourth
longitudinal fork a little before the middle, as
in figure. Genitalia (Fig. 7): with three pairs
of appendages as in figure.

female: Length of body including oviposi-
tor 3 mm. Antenna (Fig. 8), 16 segments; first
segments 1.40 as long as thick, the second
uniformly cylindrical, about 2 as long as thick,
the third a little over half the second, the
fourth 0.6 the third, fourth to fifteen almost
similar, moniliform, sixteenth flask shaped,
neck 0.75 the enlargement. Wing (Fig. 1):
3.8 mm; 2.7 as long as wide, rest as in male.
Fore leg (Fig. 11): femur cylindrical, 7.5 as
long as thick; tibia little longer than femur;
tarsus a little longer than tibia, first tarsal
segment about 0.50 the tibia, the second 0.36
the first, the third 0.75 the second, the fourth
0 . 66 the third, fifth 1 . 40 the fourth. Middle

160

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

leg (Fig. 10) : femur a little longer than the
fore femur, uniformly cylindrical, 8.0 as long
as thick; tibia 1.25 femur; tarsus subequal to
the tibia; first tarsal segment half the tarsus,
the second about 0.40 the first, the third 0.55
the second, the fourth 0.8 the third, the fifth

1.50 the fourth. Hind leg (Fig. 9): femur
distinctly longer than the midfemur, tibia 1 . 40
the femur; tarsus 0.85 the tibia; first tarsal
segment 0.40 the tibia, the second 0.33 the
first, the third 0.66 the second, the fourth
0 . 66 the third, the fifth 1 . 50 the fourth. Claw
in all the legs simple and curved. Ovipositor
simple, 0.33 the abdomen;

Holotype , allotype $ , dissected on slides.
India: Himachal Pradesh : Palchan (Kulu

Valley), 2900 m, 4.x. 1970, B. K. Kaul.

Family: Blepharoceridae

Blepharocera alhiticola sp. nov. (Figs. 13-23)

female: 5.70 mm. Body dark brown dor-
sally, yellowish brown ventrally, legs predomi-
nately brown, venation brown. Head viewed
in front (Fig. 17) width nearly 1.15 the height
(excluding rostrum) with a bunch of stout
bristles between the root of antenna and the
border of the ventral eye. Antenna (Fig. 18)
filiform, length 1 . 30 times the head width,
15 segmented, first segment 1.60 as thick as
long, second 0.80 the first and 1.20 as thick
as long, third 1 . 40 the second and 2 . 00 as long
as thick, fourth 0.70 the third, fifth 0.80 the
fourth, fifth to fourteenth subequal, fifteenth
1 . 60 the fourteenth. Eyes densely pubescent,
contiguous, transversely bisected by a mode-
rately narrow band, dorsal eye orange, width

2.50 times the length and almost equal to
the length of the ventral eye; ventral eye black,
nearly 1.70 as long as wide, with more and
smaller ommatidia than on the dorsal eye.
Rostrum 0.83 the height of head, labrum
elongate and serrate, mandibles well developed

and serrate mesially; hypopharynx serrate at
the distal half; palpus (Fig. 17) clothed with
spines as in figure, 5 segmented, first and second
segment subequal, third 1 . 60 the second,
fourth 1 . 20 the third, fifth a little longer than
the fourth. Wing (Fig. 13) 6.70 mm; 2.60 as
long as wide, Ri+2+3 ending at 0.80 of the
wing length, R1+2+3-R4 cross vein almost equal
to Rg-Mj cross-vein, R* and R5 starting at
basal 0.43 of the wing length; M3 incomplete,
0.20 the length of Mp, Cu-An space nearly
0.40 the Mi-Cu space; anal lobe as far as
5 . 40 times the Cu-An space from An. Halteres
nearly equal to the first two abdominal seg-
ments, stalk yellow, knob brown. Legs long
and slender. Fore leg (Fig. 16): femur long;
tibia 0 . 80 the femur; tarsus a little longer than
tibia; first tarsal segment about 0.50 the tibia,
second 0.50 the first, third 0.50 the second,
fourth a little shorter than the third, fifth sub-
equal to the fourth; claw (Fig. 19) slightly
curved. Middle leg (Fig. 15); coxa (Fig. 20)
with a spur; femur equal to forefemur; tibia
0.80 the femur; tarsus slightly longer than
tibia; first tarsal segment 0 . 50 the tibia, second
about 0.50 the first, third 0.60 the second,
fourth 0.60 the third, fifth a little longer
than the fourth; claw (Fig. 23) simple and
slightly curved. Hind leg (Fig. 14) : femur
1.33 the midfemur; tibia 0.90 the femur, tar-
sus a little shorter than 0.80 the tibia; first
tarsal segment about 0.4 the tibia, second 0.33
the first, third 0.6 the second, fourth and
fifth subequal, each a little shorter than the
third; claw (Fig. 22) simple, slightly curved.
Abdomen nearly 0.70 the body, ovipositor
(Fig. 21) with a pair of appendages as in
figure.

Holotype $ on slide, India: Himachal
Pradesh : Parini (Kulu valley), 2000 m, 15.vi.
1972, B. K. Kaul.

This species can be differentiated from

161

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL LUST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Figs. 13-23. Blepharocera alhnicola so. nov. $ : Length 5.70 mm.

13. Wing; 14. hind leg; 15. middle leg; 16. fore leg; 17. head viewed in front;
18. antenna; 19. fore claw; 20. middle coxa; 21. ovipositor; 22. hind claw;

23. middle claw.

162

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 24-34. Blepharocera rahlaea sp. nov. S : Length 6 mm.

24. wing; 25. hind leg; 26. middle leg; 27. fore leg; 28. hind claw; 29. antenna;
30. head viewed infront; 31. middle claw; 32. genitalia; 33. middle coxal spur;

34. fore claw.

163

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

B. autumnalis Kaul (Kaul 1971) by the absence
of stout bristles on the frons, different pro-
portions of antennal and palpal segments and
in the structure of genitalia. The species also
differs from B. tertia Kaul (Kaul 1971) in the
proportions of the antennal and palpal seg-
ments and different structure of genitalia.

Blepharocera rahlaea sp. nov. (Figs. 24-34)
male: 6.00 mm. Body blackish-brown, legs
dark brown, wings hyaline, veins brown, hal-
teres stalk pale brown, knob dark brown. Head
viewed infront (Fig. 30) oval, width 1.33 the
height (excluding the mouthparts). Antenna
(Fig. 29) 1.25 the head width, filiform, 15
segments, first segment short, length 0.60 the
thickness, the second about 1 . 70 the first and
a little longer than thickness, the third subequal
to the second but more slender, the fourth
0.70 the third and as long as thick, fifth to
seventh subequal, each a little longer than the
fourth, eighth to eleven segments subequal
each a little longer than the seventh, the
twelfth and the thirteenth subequal to the
seventh, the fourteenth subequal to the fourth
but more slender, the fifteenth longest, twice
the fourteenth. Eyes contiguous, transversely
bisected by a narrow band; the dorsal eye
orange, width 1 . 24 the length, the ventral eye
black, oval 1.60 as long as wide, with the
ommatidia smaller than on dorsal eye. Rostrum
about 0.70 the height of head; labrum nar-
rowly elongate, mandibles absent, palpus
clothed with small spines, 5 segmented, first
segment stout, as long as thick, second 1 . 80
the first and twice the thickness, third thrice
the second, fourth equal to the third, fifth
longest 2.70 the fourth. Wing (Fig. 24): 5.80
mm, 2.75 as long as wide, Ri+o+s ending at
0.90 the wing length; R1+2+3-R4 cross-vein
slightly longer than R5-Mi cross-vein; M3 in-
complete 0.22 the length of Mx; Cu-An space
0.40 the M4-Cu space; anal lobe as far as 6

times the Cu-An space from An. Halteres long
reaching the second abdominal segment. Legs
long and slender. Fore leg (Fig. 27): femur
long and slender, tibia 0.87 the femur, tarsus
about 1 . 20 the tibia, first tarsal segment about
0.50 the tarsus, the second 0.40 the third and
subequal to the fifth, claw (Fig. 34) simple
evenly slightly curved about 0.75 the fifth
tarsal segment. Middle leg (Fig. 26) : coxal
spur (Fig. 33) present; femur 1.10 the fore
femur; tibia about 0.70 the femur; tarsus
about 1 . 30 the tibia, first tarsal segment a
little less than 0.50 the tarsus, the second 0.50
the first, the third 0.60 the second, the fourth
0.50 the third and subequal to the fifth; claw
(Fig. 31) simple curved and 0.60 the fifth
tarsal segment. Hind leg (Fig. 25) : longest,
femur relatively stout, 1.35 the midfemur;
tibia 0.88 the femur; tarsus 0.70 the tibia, first
tarsal segment 0 . 6 the tarsus, the second
about 0.3 the first, the third 0.55 the second,
the fourth 0.6 the third and subequal to the
fifth; claw (Fig. 28) stout, simple, evenly
curved. Abdomen 0.7 the body; genitalia (Fig.
32) claspers stout, terminal segments emargi-
nate throughout, clothed with long spines, rest
as in figure.

Holotype on slide, India: Himachal Pra-
desh: Rhala (Kulu valley), 3200 m, 5.vi.l972,
B. K. Kaul.

This species comes close to Blepharocera
tertia Kaul (Kaul 1971) but differs in its larger
size, different proportions of antennal and
palpal segments, and in the structure of geni-
talia.

Acknowledgements

I am thankful to Dr. M. S. Mani, Emeritus
Professor of Entomology, School of Entomo-
logy, St. John’s College, Agra, India, for his
valuable advice and guidance. I am grateful
to Dr. Tashi Dawa, Officer in-charge, H. P.

164

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Krishi Vishva Vidyalaya, Regional Research viding the facilities for the preparation of this
Station, Kukumseri (Lahaul valley) for pro- paper and to Mr. Hans Raj Saini for his help.

References

Brunetti, E. (1912): Diptera: Nematocera Fauna Himalaya V. Description of some new Diptera:
British India, 155-157. Psychodidae and Blepharoceridae. Oriental Ins. 5

Kaul, B. K. (1971): Torrenticole Insects of the (3): 401-434.

THREE NEW SPECIES OF GENUS ISOETES L. FROM RAJASTHAN,

INDIA1

C. B. Gena and T. N. Bhardwaja2
(With a plate)

Seven species of the genus Isoetes have been
recorded from India (Pant & Srivastava 1962,
Goswami & Arya 1970). The genus is well
represented in Rajasthan (Mital 1969, Gena
et al. 1976, Mishra & Bhardwaja 1978). Taxo-
nomic comparison of Rajasthan material of
this genus with the known Indian material and
descriptions of species reported since the publi-
cation of Pfeiffer’s monograph in 1922 (Sven-
son 1944, Morton 1945, Taylor et al. 1975,
Rury 1978) has indicated that at least three
of the taxa in Rajasthan could be accorded
status of new species. The morphological fea-
tures of these new species are now being
described :

Isoetes rajasthanensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-4)

Planta terrestris; rhizomorpha typica 2-lobata;
folia 7.5-12 cm longa, filis peripheralibus
nullis; labium nullum velum tres-quadranti ad
totum sporangium tegens. Megasporae trimor-
phicae, reticulationibus, 330-350 pm, 250-280

1 Accepted December 1982.

2 Pteridophyte Biology Lab.. Department of
Botany, Government College, Ajmer 305 001, Rajas-
than, India.

pm, 180-210 pm diam.; megasporae articulatae/
connatae plerumque; microsporae dimorphicae,
laeves, 25-30 pm, 18-22 pm diam.

Plants terrestrial, 7.5 to 12 cm in height
(Fig. 1), growing near the margins of streams
and on moist soil. Rhizomorph typically 2
lobed (Fig. 2). Leaves 15-39, limb cylindrical,
base expanded showing membranous margins,
peripheral strands absent. Ligule elliptic with
mucilaginous hairs on margins and apex.
Labium absent. Velum covering three fourths
or almost entire sporangium. Megasporangia
elongate (4 x 2 mm) or ovate (3 x 2 mm);
sterile cells absent. Megaspores trimorphic,
dark brown when wet and white when dry.
Megaspores ranging between 330 to 350 pm
in diameter. Exine with branched ridges (Fig.
3). Bodily fused megaspores are of common
occurrence. Microsporangia rare, elongated (3 x
1 .5 mm), microspores dimorphic (Fig. 4), dark
brown when wet and creamy white when dry;
large microspores 25-30 pm in diameter, small
18-22 pm in diameter, exine smooth.

Fertile : July to September.

Type : Anadera point. Mount Abu, Rajas-
than, India, growing on moist ground near the
margins of streams. Collector, C. B. Gena
(CBG/T-6, Oct., 1976). Deposited at the her-

165

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81

barium. Botany Department, Punjabi Univer-
sity, Patiala, India (PUN. 3241).

Isotypes : Herbarium, Pteridophyte Biology
Lab., Department of Botany, Government
College, Ajmer, India (No. PBL/75/I-9/727),
CAL & US.

Paratypes : Mainal (Chittorgarh), Rajas-

than, India growing near the margins of a
stream during rainy season.

Of the Indian species /. rajasthanensis is
comparable to /. sampathkumaranii Rao in
size, absence of peripheral strands and velum
characters but differs from the latter in the
characters of mega- and microspores. More-
over, /. rajasthanensis happens to be the only
small sized species with a velum covering three
fourths of the sporangium and possessing
trimorphic megaspores.

According to Pfeiffer’s (1922) scheme /.
rajasthanensis falls under reticulatae section
with affinities to /. engelmanii A.Br. but can
be distinguished from the latter by its habit
(terrestrial Vs. submerged), ligule (elliptic Vs.
cordate), velum (almost complete Vs. very
narrow), nature of megaspores (polymorphic
Vs. dimorphic), megaspore exine (reticulated
Vs. honey combed) and microspores (dimor-
phic Vs. monomorphic) .

Isoetes reticulata sp. nov.

(Figs. 5-7)

Planta terrestris; rhizomorpha 2-lobata; folia
4-10 cm longa, fills peripheralibus nullis;
labium nullum, velum fere totam sporangium
tegens. Megasporae dimorphicae, reticulation-
bius ramosissimis, 230-245 pm, 170-180 ^m
diam; megasporae articulatae/connatae omnino
nullae.

Plants terrestrial, 4-10 cm in height (Fig. 5)
growing on moist soil. Rhizomorph 2 lobed
rarely 4 lobed (Fig. 6). Leaves 6-24, limb
cylindrical, base expanded, peripheral strands

absent. Ligule elliptic with straight mucilage-
nous hairs on margins and apex. Labium
absent. Velum almost covers entire sporangium,
except for a basal arched slit. Megasporangia
circular (1.5 x 1.5 mm). Sterile cells absent.
Megaspores dimorphic; black when wet and
white when dry. Megaspores ranging between
230 to 245 in diameter, Exine with richly
branched reticulations (Fig. 7). Joined or fused
megaspores are totally absent. Microsporangia
not observed.

Fertile : July to September.

Type : Atru (Kota), Rajasthan, India grow-
ing on wet gravelly soil during the monsoon.
Collector, C. B. Gena (CBG/I-12, Sept., 1975).
Deposited at the herbarium. Botany Depart-
ment, Punjabi University, Patiala, India (PUN.
3243).

Isotypes : Deposited at Herbarium, Pterido-
phyte Biology Lab., Department of Botany,
Government College, Ajmer, India (PBL/75/
1-9/732), CAL & US.

Paratypes: Jhalawar, Rajasthan, India, near
the margins of a stream.

This species resembles /. panchananii Pant
& Sriv. in having dimorphic megaspores with
reticulations but differs from the latter in size
(upto 10 Vs. 24 cm), velum length (complete
Vs. half) and megasporagium shape (circular
Vs. oval). Moreover, the sporangial wall of
/. panchananii is typically brown spotted while
that of I. reticulata is plain. /. reticulata is the
only Indian species of this genus with well
defined reticulations on megaspores and hence
derives its specific name.

/. reticulata falls under the section Reticu-
latae of Pfeiffer (1922) and may be compared
with /. tuckermanii A. Br. but differs signi-
ficantly from the latter in features of habitat
(terrestrial Vs. submerged), ligule (elliptic Vs.
triangular), velum (complete Vs. one-third),
sporangia (circular Vs. oblong) and megaspore

166

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Plate

Gena & Bhardwaja: New sp. of Genus Isoetes

Figs. 1-11. Morphological features of three new Indian species of Isoetes.

Figs. 1-4. /. rajasthanensis sp. nov. 1. Habit; 2. Bilobed rhizomorph; 3. Megaspores
showing branched rides and bodily fused megaspores, x 400; 4. Dimorphic microspores.

x 300.

Figs. 5-7. I. reticulata sp. nov. 5. Habit; 6. bi-and tetra-lobed rhizomorph; 7. Mega-
spores showing branched reticulations, x 400.

Figs. 8-11. I. tuberculata sp. nov. 8. Habit; 9. bi-and tri-lobed rhizomorph; 10. Mega-
spores showing round tubercles, x 400; 11. Dimorphic microspores, x 400.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

wall ornamentation (branched reticulations Vs.
parallel ridges).

Isoetes tuberculata sp. nov.

(Figs. 8-11)

Planta aquatica; rhizomorpha 2-3-lobata;
folia 30-45 cm longa, filis peripheralibus; labium
veil bene evolutum, velum nullis. Megasporae
trimorphicae, 525-550 /im, 460-470 /xm, 339-
345 /xm diam.; tuberculis rotundatis, megasporae
articulatae/connatae rarenter; microsporae di-
morphicae et laeves, 21-24 jam, 16-18 diam.

Plants aquatic; 30-45 cm in height (Fig. 8)
growing in ponds and ditches; rhizomorph 2
or 3 lobed (Fig. 9). Leaves 9-33, cylindrical
but upper side flattened, base expanded show-
ing membranous unequal margins reaching up-
wards upto one-third of the leaf length, possess-
ing 4 main and 28 accessory peripheral strands.
Many simple or branched tricho-sclereids
present in the air cavities; Ligule cordate with
curved mucilagenous hairs on margins and
apex. Labium well developed with fringed
margin and covering lower half of the ligule.
Velum absent. Megasporangia circular (5x5
mm) or obovate (9x7 mm). Sterile cells absent;
megaspores trimorphic, ash coloured when wet
and white when dry; ranging between 338-550
pm in diameter, exine with large round tuber-
cles (Fig. 10). Joined and fused megaspores
rare. Microsporangia obovate (9x7 mm)
microspores dimorphic, dark brown when wet
and light brown when dry; ranging between
16-24 jam in diameter, monolete, exine psilate,
smaller microspores with a papillate structure
on one side (Fig. 11).

Fertile : July to October.

Type : Atru (Kota), Rajasthan, India, grow-
ing in temporary ponds and ditches during the
monsoon period. Collector, C. B. Gena (CBG/
1-2, Sept., 1973). Deposited at the Flerbarium,

Botany Department, Punjabi University,
Patiala, India (PUN. 3242).

Isotypes : Herbarium, Pteridophyte Biology
Lab., Department of Botany, Government
College, Ajmer, India (PBL/74/I-9j720), CAL
& US.

Paratypes : Salpura, Bhanwargarh (Kota),
Dausa (Jaipur) and Ghana (Bharatpur),
Rajasthan, India growing in ponds and ditches
during rainy season.

Isoetes tuberculata resembles /. indica Pant
& Sriv. in size, number of leaves and poly-
morphic nature of megaspores but differs from
the latter in the ornamentation of megaspores
(round tubercles Vs. pointed tubercles) and
triradiate rays (simple Vs. bifurcated).

According to Pfeiffer’s (1922) scheme /.
tuberculoma falls under Tuberculatae section
and shows affinities with /. coromandelina Linn,
f. in having round tubercles on megaspores but
can be easily distinguished from this species
in being smaller in size (30-45 cm Vs. 60-80
cm), ligule (cordate with curved mucilagenous
hair on margin Vs. elliptic and devoid of
marginal hairs), nature of megaspores (poly-
morphic Vs. dimorphic), exine ornamentations
(tuber culated Vs. Cobwebby) and microspore
nature (dimorphic Vs. monomorphic) .

An artificial key for the identification of all
the Indian species of genus Isoetes including
the new species is given below:

Key

A. Adult plants more than 25 cm long, labium well

developed, velum absent, peripheral strands and

tricho-sclereids present :

B. Megaspore exine with round tubercles

C. Megaspores dimorphic

Exine tubercles closely packed, microspores
monomorphic with smooth exine
/. coromandelina Linn. f.

CC. Megaspores trimorphic

Exine tubercles even sized & rounded micro-
spores dimorphic with smooth exine and

167

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

the smaller microspares with a large

Papilla on one side

I. tuberculata sp. nov.

BB. Megaspore exine with pointed tubercles
Megaspores trimorphic, triradiate rays
branched, microspores trimorphic with tuber-

culate exine

I. pantii Goswami & Arya

AA. Adult plants less than 25 cm long, labium
absent, velum present, peripheral strands and
tricho-sclereids absent :

E. Megaspores tuberculated

F. Megaspores monomorphic

Mature megaspores dark brown, velum
complete, microspores monomorphic and

spiny I. sahyadrii Mahabale

FF. Megaspores dimorphic

Mature megaspores ash coloured, velum
rudimentary, microspores monomorphic

and muricate I. dixitei Shende

EE. Megaspores reticulated

G. Megaspores dimorphic

H. Velum partial.

I. Mature megaspores black, exine with

branched ridges

I. panchananii Pant & & Sriv.

II. Mature megaspores ash coloured,

Refer

Gena, C. B., Mital, P. L. & Bhardwaja, T. N.
(1976): Isoetes in Rajasthan. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 73: 559-562.

Goswami, FI. K. & Arya, B. S. (1970): A new
species of Isoetes from Narsinghgarh, Madhya Pra-
desh. J. Indian bot. Soc. 49: 32-37.

Mishra, S. & Bhardwaja, T. N. (1978): Isoetes
in Rajasthan, India. Fern. Gaz. 11: 429-430.

Mital, P. L. (1969): Ferns and Fern-allies of
Rajasthan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 66: 31-42.

Morton, C. V. (1945) : A new species of Isoetes
from Columbia. Amer. Fern. J. 35: 48-49,

exine with a net work of ridges

I. sampathkumaranii Rao

HH. Velum complete

Mature megaspores black, exine with

branched reticulations

I. reticulata sp. nov.

GG. Megaspores trimorphic

Velum almost complete, mature mega-
spores dark brown, exine with branched
ridges I. rajasthancnsis sp. nov.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to Prof. N. P. Vadehra,
Principal, Government College, Ajmer for pro-
viding laboratory facilities. Prof. K. M.
Matthew of St. Joseph’s College, Tiruchirapalli,
India rendered the latin description. Dr. Eric
E. Karrfalt of Brooklyn College, New York,
U.S.A. was kind enough to forward some
material of American species of this genus for
comparison. The University Grants Commis-
sion, New Delhi, India provided financial
assistance for this survey.

e n c e s

Pant, D. D. & Srivastava, G. K. (1962): The
genus Isoetes in India. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India.
28- B: 242-280.

Pfeiffer, N. E. (1922) : Monograph of the Iso-
etaceae. Ann. Missouri Bot. Garden. 9: 79-232.

Rury, P. M. (1978) : A new and unique, mat form-
ing Merlin's grass ( Isoetes ) from Georgia. Amer.
Fern. J. 68: 99-108.

Svenson, H. K. (1944): A new Isoetes from
Ecuador. Amer. Fern. J. 34: 121-125.

Taylor, W. C., Mohlenbrock, R. H. & Murphy,

J. A. (1975): The spores and taxonomy of Isoetes
butleri and 7. melanopoda. Amer. Fern. J. 65: 33-38.

168

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SIMPLOCOS JACQ. (SYMPLOCACEAE) FROM SOUTHERN

INDIA1

A. N. Henry, R. Gopalan and
M. S. SWAMINATHAN2
( With seven text-figures )

Symplocos nairii sp. nov.

Symplocos cordifolia Thw. affinis, sed foliis
parvioribus; floribus parvioribus, solitariis vel
in racemos fasciculatis (racemis usque ad 2 cm
longis); axe racemi glabro et staminibus 30-35,
differ!.

Holotypus ( Henry 68830, CAL) et isotypi
{Henry 68830, MH-num. ace. 118671-118679)
in Muthukuzhivayal in ditione Kanniyakumari
in statu Tamilnadensi, India, ad altitudinem
c. 1400 m, die 27-9-1980 lecti. Paratypi {Henry
70370, MH-num. acc. 118680-118691) in Upper
Kodayar, versus viam ad Muthukuzhivayal, die
21-3-1981 lecti.

Allied to S. cordifolia Thw. but differs in:
leaves smaller; flowers smaller, solitary, or
clustered in racemes up to 2 cm long; axis of
racemes glabrous; and stamens 30-35.

Shrubs or trees up to 8 m tall; branches
terete, glabrous, terminal end of young shoots
often angled. Leaves up to 12x7 cm, alter-
nate, elliptic to oblong or ovate, glabrous,
recurved and minutely glandular-dentate along
margin, obtuse to acute at apex, cordate or
somewhat obliquely cordate at base; midrib
grooved above, prominent beneath; nerves
8-12 pairs, faintly prominent beneath; petioles
2-4 mm long, grooved above, swollen at base.
Flowers axillary, solitary or clustered in race-
mes up to 2 cm long; axis of racemes glabrous;
bracts and bracteoles up to 11x4 mm, persis-

1 Accepted January 1983.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore-641 003.

tent, ovate to cordate, appressedly hairy with-
out, glabrous within, acute to acuminate at
apex. Calyx tube 1-2 mm long, glabrous; lobes
5, each 2-4 x 1 . 5-2 mm, imbricate, subequal,
ovate, rounded, appressedly hairy without,
glabrous within. Corolla lobes 5, white, each
3-4.5 x 1-2 mm, connate at very base, glabrous.
Stamens 30-35, in five alternipetalous groups;
filaments 2-5 mm long, connate towards the
base; anthers globose, bilocular, introrse, de-
hiscing longitudinally. Disc 5-glandular, gla-
brous, surrounding the conical sericeous style
base. Ovary inferior; style 4 mm long; stigma
capitate, punctiform. Drupes 8-20 x 5-6 mm,
cylindrical to ellipsoid, smooth, crowned by
the persistent calyx-lobes.

Holotype {Henry 68830, CAL) and isotypes
{Henry 68830, MH — acc. nos. 118671-
118679) were collected at Muthukuzhivayal
in Kanniyakumari Dt., Tamil Nadu, India, at
an altitude of about 1400 m on 27-9-1980,
Paratypes {Henry 70370, HM — acc. nos.
118680-118691) were collected from Upper
Kodayar, on the way to Muthukuzhivayal, on
21-3-1981.

In evergreen forests; rather rare.

We are pleased to dedicate this species to
Dr. N. C. Nair, Joint Director, Botanical
Survey of India, Coimbatore for his significant
contributions to Indian Botany.

Ack no wledge m e n ts

We are thankful to Dr. V. J. Nair, Systematic
Botanist for rendering the latin translation and
Dr. J. L. Ellis. Systematic Botanist for kindly

169

JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 81

Figs. 1-7. Symplocos nairii sp. nov. 1. Flowering twig; 2. Leaf; 3. Flower; 4. Flower-Corolla and Stamens removed;

5. Corolla split opened; 6. Gynoecium; 7. Drupe.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

verifying the sheets of Symplocos spp. in CAL.
The valuable publications of Dr. H. P. Noote-
boom, Rijksherbarium, Leiden, viz. , “Revision
of Symplocaceae of the Old World (1975)”

and Symplocaceae in “A revised handbook to
the Flora of Ceylon” (edited by M. D. Dassa-
nayake — 1981) were used to advantage by
us for identifying this species.

171

REVIEWS

1 . SUNLIGHT AND SHADOWS. An Indian Wildlife Photographer’s
Diary. By M. Y. Ghorpade. pp. 158 (30x25 cm), with 87 Black-and-
White photographs. London, 1983. Victor Gollancz Ltd. Special Indian
Price Rs. 175/-.

At the turn of the century Africa saw
Cherry Kearton’s trail blazing “Land of the
Lion” which put wildlife photography on a
permanent and sound footing. We did not have
to wait long. F. W. Champion burst upon the
Indian scene with two books “With a camera
in Tigerland” and “Jungle in Sunlight and
Shadow” of remarkable quality published half
a century ago. They have endured the test of
time and can justly be claimed as the begin-
ning of wildlife photography in the sub-
continent. The equipment used was primitive:
Plate cameras, trip wires and electrically fired
flash lamps using flash powders are all echoes
from a distant past. Yet the range of his work
has remained a standard for all to emulate.
After 50 years his photographs appear to be
almost contemporary.

The subsequent period however has not
produced books of abiding quality on wildlife
photography except perhaps for Yella Kolfler
whose work was left unfinished as a result of
an unfortunate and fatal accident which took
her away in her prime. We now have Ghor-
pade’s work which bears an unmistakable
Championesque title and quality.

The book has 87 black and white photo-
graphs and its text is a narrative of the
author’s experiences primarily in 8 sanctuaries
and National Parks of the country. His style
is direct, simple and it amply shows his will-
ingness to share his technique and experience

with the reader. But its value lies by far in the
photographs it contains.

The author has purposely chosen the medium
of black and white photography because it
gives a greater scope for self-expression and
it is indeed a more difficult medium to work
with than colour. Yet he has succeeded in
producing photographs of ‘top’ quality, his
manifest goal. His basic equipment is medium
format Hasselblad camera (unlike most wild-
life photographer’s 35 mm equipment) which
enables him to enlarge his pictures without
attendant loss of quality expected with 35 mm
negatives.

Unlike some of the photographers of today
Ghorpade did not have access to sophisticated
equipment such as electronic beams, photo-
electric shutters, and custom built cameras.
Yet he has succeeded in taking bird pictures
of a rare quality. Brahminy mynah (p. 26)
and spotted owlet in flight (p. 31, photograph-
ed by the author’s son) are both works of
patience and systematic approach which have
paid off. Indian great horned owl with a mouse
hanging from its beak and its three young in
the background (pp. 28-29) is the best bird
picture in the book. It has retained depth and
detail rarely found in a flash light picture.

The photograph of Narshimhaswamy Gorge
of Sandur (p. 32) has an Ansel Adams like
conception except of course, the human figure
and it has not quite the grand master’s touch.

172

REVIEWS

“Panther approaching the hide” (p. 33) is the
only mammal picture in the book taken with
a flash and it reminds one of F. W. Champion’s
photographs though most of the latter’s pic-
tures have a frontal view because of the trip
wire method.

Elephants are rather strongly represented in
the book. “Mother elephants scrubbing babies”
(p. 40) is an interesting and uncommon re-
cord. By far the best photograph in the book
is “Tusker in the rain” (p. 42). The author’s
description of the circumstances in which this
photograph was made is instructive in the
sense that some of the finest wildlife pictures
are taken in totally unexpected and unplanned
situations. Here you have an elephant, a good
tusker, obviously enjoying the rain and yet so
statuesque in its bearing that it reminds one
of a Konarak sculpture. This picture has ably
caught a brief, fleeting moment of perfection.

Tiger, as is usual in books on Indian Wild-
life, takes the largest share. Out of 87 photo-
graphs, 14 go to this cat ! “Tiger on the rock”
(p. 71) is a study in serenity. The bush in the
background sending out branches at the back
of the animal’s head gives the picture a regal
bearing quite unique. A Tigress and her cub
frolicking in the water with their prey (pp. 82-
83, 84, 86 photographed by the author’s son)
is a rare record of animal behaviour.

The big male lion at Gir (pp. 94-95) photo-
graphed in the evening light makes a superb
picture. The angle of light throws sunlight and
shadows on the animal’s body and the picture
springs to life. Every whisker on the lion’s
face stands out in slanting light. Its hair of
the mane and ears are equally sharp. Quite
simply, it is a study in majesty. The big male
rhino (p. 112) stands out beautifully against
the background of water and vegetation. The
picture is crisp, every fold of the animal’s skin
and wrinkles on its nose stand out. This ani-

mal’s horn is about the largest I have seen on
an Indian rhino.

Our time appears to be that of transition
for Indian wildlife photographers. We are
slowly opting out of Shikar while wanton
destruction of habitat and of animals by
poachers still goes on. Our photographers
have taken over from where the hunters and
shikaris have left off. Consequently, more often
than not, they tend to photograph animals
which would have been hunted earlier. Ghor-
pade is no exception, for the animals portray-
ed in his book fall squarely in this category.
The book does not have a single picture for
example, of lesser cats or rodents not to men-
tion snakes, butterflies etc. I suppose transi-
tion from wildlife photography to Nature
photography will take its own time.

The author has selected photographs from
a span of over 20 years of photography and
yet the number of species represented are in-
deed few. The section on Bharatpur could
surely have had a much larger representation,
he has not included a single bird of prey. Deer
and Antelope though represented (and there
is only one picture of a Gazelle) are not quite
what one would have expected. After all they
are far easier to photograph than say tigers.

The book consists of the author’s experiences
in the various sanctuaries and its chapters are
so titled. One would have thought that in
order to give an ocular account of the jungles
and topography some photographs of these
should surely have been included. Their ab-
sence has made the book singularly uni-
dimensional.

“Sunlight and Shadows” is elegantly pro-
duced and as costs go these days it is reason-
ably priced. Each and every photograph
selected for it is indeed of ‘top’ quality. If
anyone has trapped’ the range of light’ effec-

173

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

tively in Indian wildlife photography, it is
Ghorpade.

His work will long remain unsurpassed. In
fact, with the ever increasing thrust towards
colour photography, this book may well be the

last of its kind. It is said, “sight is a faculty;
seeing, an art”. Few are blessed with the capa-
city to see and Ghorpade is one of them.

DIVYABH AN U SI N H CHAVDA

2. THE IUCN AMPHIBIA-REPTILIA DATA BOOK — Part 1 Com-
piled by Brian Groombridge. pp. xliii + 426 (24x 16 cm), Switzerland,
1982. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources (IUCN), Price £ 12.00.

This book is on endangered threatened and
inadequately known species of turtles and
crocodiles of the world and the Tuatara Lizard
of New Zealand area. This is the first volume
of a fresh Red Data Book series on Reptiles
and Amphibia. The earlier work of Rene
Honegger (1979) had become out of date due
to extensive data gathered at the Conservation
Monitoring Centre of IUCN during the past
few years. The book under review is the result
of an admirable attempt at evaluation and
compilation of data in works published upto
early 1982.

Of the 83 taxa dealt with in this book, 12
species (5 Sea turtles, all 3 species of Indian
crocodiles, 2 terrapins and 2 tortoises) occur
in India. The sea turtles have a very wide
distribution. The Gharial and the Marsh croco-
diles are limited to India and a few adjacent
countries. Of the remaining 4 testudenes the
Travancore Tortoise ( Geochelone travancorica)
and Kavalai Forest Turtle ( Heosemys silvatica )
are known only from the hilly forests of
south-west corner of India viz . Kerala.

Baiagur baska, the estuarine turtle is known
from Flooghly River, Bangladesh, Burma, Thai-
land, Malaya and Indonesia. This is said to
breed on some islands in Sunderbans, which is
possibly its only breeding ground in India.

Geochelone emys is a South east Asiatic
tortoise of hill forests perhaps the largest form

of this genus in Asia and arguably the most
threatened species. The compiler has listed in
the first few pages, the 83 taxa he deals with
under (i) Systematic Order (ii) Red Data
Book survival status category (endangered,
vulnerable, rare, inadequately known etc.) and
iii) Zoogeographical and country-wise distri-
bution. These lists have obviously been pre-
pared after a very thorough and painstaking
compilation and evaluation of all available
data and have added to the value of this
work. Separate accounts on each of the 83
taxa are given under clear subheadings such
as distribution, survival status of populations
(this often in the form of a country wise re-
view), habitat and ecology, threats to survival,
conservation measures already taken and pro-
posed, captive breeding etc. which have faci-
litated a very clear and highly readable pre-
sentation. The pride of place in these reviews
is given to marine turtles, most of which are
on the endangered list and which have attract-
ed considerable world- wide attention during the
past few years. The Compiler’s ‘Remarks’ in
the concluding part of these reviews are main-
ly on taxonomic position of the species, mostly
non-committal and nowhere definitive, which
could have been easily left out from these
otherwise excellent reviews.

Mr. Groombridge has undoubtedly achieved
much more than preparing an “expanded

174

REVIEWS

treatment of taxa in this volume to

reach and influence readers outside the con-
servationist and environmentalist World”. His
effort has resulted in an admirable source of
material for all who may be interested in
reptiles in one way or another. It is hoped that

this book would induce further worldwide in-
terest in reptiles which remain, inspite of the
recent spurt in publications concerning them,
much less known than mammals and birds.

P. KANNAN

3. SYMBIOSIS IN THE MANGO-HOPPER: A STUDY IN COMPA-
RATIVE CYTOPATHOLOGY. By Syed Mahdihassan. pp. iv + 40
(21x14 cm), with 13 colour plates, Karachi, 1978. Published by the
Author. Price US $20.

A result of ‘no less than ten years’, the
booklet on the symbiotes of a cicadellid
(jassid) insect, with its beautiful and meticu-
lously drawn coloured figures of the cellular
structures, is indeed an outcome of devoted
research. The insect, commonly called a mango-
hopper, has been studied from a different
perspective and the phenomenon of symbiosis
has been discussed at length with other homo-
pterous insects. The insect is known to carry
two symbiotes, one a thick rod-shaped bacte-
rium and other a micrococcus. Then all sorts
of cell-inclusions, and nuclear and protoplasmic
debris, exposed with selected stains, have been
described and illustrated in detail. Isolation of
symbiotes and their metabolic roles; specificity
of host-plants of the insect to the symbiosis;
cellular structures and the types etc. have been
elaborated, to substantiate various inter-
connected aspects of the subject.

The study also touches upon author’s
thoughts on some other insects, thus (i) the
relationship of the pigment lac-dye with the
presence of yeast symbiotes in the lac insect
Kerria lacca ; (ii) production of beta-carotene
and the melanin formation in the fulgorid
Oliarus cuspidatus ; (iii) the high cytochrome
content of the pink coloured tympannal muscle
of the common ‘sing cicada’; and (iv) the
isolation of a bacterium which is not self-

luminescent, but a mutant of which produces
luciferin when the firefly offers luciferase, for
emitting light to signal the female; etc. are
some of the very interesting aspects of the
book.

Dr. Mahdihassan, now about 90 years of
age, is well known for his more than 100 re-
search papers (albeit many controversial) on
different aspects of the lac insects, the first of
which appeared in 1919. Inspite of his
‘hobby’ of research in lac-entomology, however
one cannot ignore his professional achieve-
ments — that he is a former fellow of the
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore; D. Phil,
from Giessen (Germany); Diploma-holder in
Agriculture from Oxford; and one who retired
as the Head of Biochemistry Division of the
Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research, Karachi.

Symbiosis in the insect pathology has been
a major field of specialization for Mahdihassan
and in the present book he has been able to
discuss his findings vis-a-vis the works of P.
Buchner, K. Sulc and H. J. Muller etc. We
checked from elsewhere that even as early as
1947, Mahdihassan researched C. viridis and
its symbiotes ( Curr . Sci., 16: 58-59).

A word about the name and distribution of
the subject-insect. Mahdihassan has called it
Cicadella viridis. However, a search through

175

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo /. 81

the taxonomic catalogues of this group by one
of us (RKV) revealed that the valid name of
this species is Tettigella viridis (Linnaeus,
1758) which belongs to the Family Tettigel-
lidae (Cicadelloidea, Homoptera). A typical
jassid of faded yellowish colour and of about
1 cm length, this species is very common in
Europe and many other countries like Japan
(where Esaki reported it to be injurious to
the rice plants). However, it has been rarely
reported from the Indian region earlier. Thus,
Mahdihassan’s discovery of it from all over
Pakistan, India and Bangladesh is interesting.
The National collections of the Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta, possess specimens
from Kyusha Is. (Japan) and Minsk (U.S.S.R.).

Another word about the 13 colour plates
(with 3-20 figs, each), which have been ex-
plained in the text with meticulous details of
description, and which speak of the book as
a useful reference to research workers, specially
those interested in the study of micro-organisms,
biochemistry, stain technology, cell inclusions
and their relationship with insect pathology.
The lean book covers elaborate descriptions
of different kinds of cell inclusions seen in the
insect body and the author has presented the
work in his own specialized way ! The printing
of colour plates (the author reports that
drawings were made with camera lucida and
later painted with water colour), is evidently a
costly and technological hurdle. However, it
is to the credit of Mahdihassan that he has

even earlier published papers (on symbiosis in
the membracid Tricentrus assamensis, etc.)
with coloured plates, in journals like Archiv
fur Protistenkunde and Pakistan J. Sci. Indus.
Res. He has discussed therein the importance
of coloured plates, comparing it with the black
& white plates, though he had to wait for
several years to get the former published. The
huge cost of printing the coloured plates of this
booklet has been borne by the sons and
daughter-in-laws (all medicos) of the author,
and in lieu he has happily dedicated the mono-
graph to them ! Colour plate Nos. 4, 6, 7, 8
have come out very nicely, but plate No. 2
has not synchronized well in our copy.

There are errors of proof-reading here and
there, and some references are incomplete,
which could have been avoided. However,
‘symbionts’ have been called ‘symbiotes’
throughout by the author.

The conclusions drawn by the author in this
study may be debatable, yet it goes without
saying that it is an interesting book describing
various facets of symbiosis and intricacies. The
senior scientist of this subcontinent, hence,
deserves appreciation for producing this mono-
graph, which should find a place in the scien-
tific libraries and on the study table of students
and research workers.

T. S. S. DIKSHITH
AND

R. K. VARSHNEY

4. SUPPLEMENT TO DUTHIE’S FLORA OF THE UPPER GANGE-
TIC PLAIN AND OF THE ADJACENT SIWALIK AND SUB-
HIMALAYAN TRACTS. By M. B. Raizada, pp. 355 (21 x 15 cm).

Dehra Dun, 1976. M/s. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh. Price not
stated.

Duthie’s Flora of the Upper Gangetic Plain yan Tracts was originally published in three
and of the Adjacent Siwalik and Sub-Himala- volumes between the years 1903 & 1920, and

176

REVIEWS

reprinted in two volumes in 1960 by the
Botanical Survey of India. The area dealt with
in this flora encompasses approximately 1,96,000
sq. miles. It is a heterogeneous area, both topo-
graphically and climatically, including such
diverse regions as the whole of the Upper
Gangetic Plain upto the boundary of Bengal in
the east, the Siwalik Hills, the sub-Himalayan
tracts from the Jamuna to the Gandat, Malwa
Plateau, Eastern Rajputana and a part of
Punjab in the neighbourhood of Delhi.

As explained in the introduction, the pre-
sent author has written a supplement to this
flora because countless new genera and species
have been collected and described from this
area since the completion of the older flora.

The supplement includes a total of 585
species from 105 families. Most of these are
new additions whereas a few are nomenclatural
changes from Duthie’s Flora. Sources of the
supplement comprise specimens collected from
the area by the author over a period of 40
years, specimens extant in the Herbarium of
the Forest Research Institute (DD), the
Herbarium of the Northern Circle of the Bota-
nical survey of India, Dehra Dun (BSD), and
the Central National Herbarium (CAL); and
recent papers published by the Forest Research
Institute, Dehra Dun, and the Botanical Survey
of India. The supplement covers plants culti-
vated in gardens and public parks as well as
introduced weeds. The family Gramineae is
not included.

The names of the families and their sequence
have been retained as in Duthie’s Flora. How-
ever, the delimitation of the families is accord-
ing to Hutchinson and the spellings of the
taxa are according to the International Codes

of Botanical Nomenclature (1966 & 1972).

Under the families, genera and species are
arranged alphabetically. Each species contains
first the nomenclature and synonymy, a brief
description, list of exsiccatae, flowering and
fruiting times and world distribution. Unlike
Duthie’s Flora, vernacular names have not
been provided in the supplement. In the case
of some species, the author has given critical
notes on the distribution as well as affinities
with other taxa.

Dr. Raizada’s supplement contains three
new species and 34 new combinations. Further,
three new names have been proposed. The
nomenclature has been worked out in meti-
culous detail and in each case, he has ex-
plained and justified the nomenclatural change.

A detailed bibliography, an index of Latin
names and a short list of corrigenda and
addenda complete the work.

The book has some minor drawbacks in
the list of specimens examined for each
species, the author has not made clear where
the specimen is deposited. In many instances,
no herbarium has been mentioned. In others,
reference is made to Dehra Dun Herbarium
and it is left to the reader to decide between
DD and BSD. There are also a number of
spelling errors, both technical and non-techni-
cal. A map of the area covered by the Flora
and the supplement would have been a wel-
come addition.

In conclusion. Dr. Raizada’s book is of his
usual high standard and it will prove most
useful to persons and institutions interested
in floristic studies.

A. R. DARU WALLA

177

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. RECORD OF THE FULVOUS FRUIT BAT, ROUSETTUS
LESCHENAULT 1 (DESMAREST, 1820) FROM SIKKIM, WITH
NOTES ON ITS INTERESTING FEEDING HABIT AND STATUS

In Indian limits, the Fulvous Fruit Bat,
Rousettus leschenaulti (Desmarest, 1820), is
known from the Himalayan foothills of north-
eastern India and Uttar Pradesh to the
southern Peninsula (Blanford 1891, Ellerman
and Morrison-Scott 1951, Brosset 1962, Khaju-
ria and Ghose 1970, Khajuria 1979, Rook-
maaker and Bergmans 1981). According to
Prater (1965, p. 179), though this habitual
cave-dwelling species of the tropical region is
found as high as 2150 m. in the temperate zone
of the Himalayas, the extant literature does
not record its occurrence in Sikkim. However,
during a recent field survey in the northern
part of that State, two specimens of the Ful-
vous Fruit Bat were collected in a mist-net,
and they constitute the first authentic record
of its occurrence in Sikkim.

The specimens were collected at Teen-ku-
Pokhari which is a hill stream pool in the Hee
Gyathang reserve forest on the western slope
of the Tista Valley, about 17 km. WSW of
Mangan, the District Headquarters of North
Sikkim. The lower parts of the valley here has
extensive cultivation. The higher slope, hold-
ing the reserve forest, sustains luxuriant middle
hill montane forest.

The weather as recorded in the field on col-
lection date are: Temperature: Max. 19°C;
Min. 11°C. Relative Humidity (%): Max.
80; Min. 47.

Data on their size together with their in-
teresting feeding habit and status, are given
below :

Material: Id, 1$ (subad.): Teen-ku-

Pokhari, c. 1829 m, Hee Gyathang, North
Sikkim; 9 January 1982; R. K. Ghose coll.

Measurements’. External: 1 cf : Forearm:

84.7. Skull: Occipitopremaxillary length : 37.6;
postmolar length: 23.2; cranial width: 15.5,
zygomatic width: 24.1; bulla: 4.5; m2-m2: 12;
O-C1: 8.3; M3: 1.6x1; O-M2: 14.5.

These bats, in hundreds, were noticed to
fly and dive repeatedly over the water surface
of the hill stream pool, which was full of small
fish and tadpole, during evening and night.
With night scope and spot light they were
observed to be scooping up something from
the water. It was believed that they were catch-
ing fish. This is corroborated by the gut con-
tent of the male specimen netted which showed
the presence of undigested bone pieces and
muscle fibres of fish, and some muscle fibres
of fish were collected from the teeth of the
female. This is in sharp contrast to its usual
fruit-eating habit.

The three kinds of small hill stream fishes
collected from the place were identified as
Garra gotyla (Gray), Danio aequipinnatus
(McClelland), Schizopyge progastus (Mc-
Clelland), all belonging to the family Cypri-
nidae. The anuran tadpoles could not be
properly identified.

Some tropical species of bats that visit the
temperate zone of the Himalayas in spring
and summer, migrate to warmer areas in
winter. The few that have adapted themselves
to the cold climate and do not migrate, either

178

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

hibernate or show a temporary period of in-
activity due to the severity of low tempera-
ture. It is interesting to note that the
population of the Fulvous Fruit Bat under re-
port did not migrate, nor did it show any
discomfort due to the low temperature. More-
over, it has adapted itself to eating-fish, most
probably due to the scarcity of fruits in the
surrounding forests during the severe cold
weather in January. This bat should normally
have migrated to a place where fruit which is
its usual diet, is available, but it is of interest
to note that instead it has developed a new
food-habit. Blanford (1891), reported Rouse -
ttus amplexicaudatus (E. Geoffroy, 1810)
feeding on exposed molluscs at Moulmein,
Burma.

Blanford (op. cit.) regarded Rousettus am-
plexicaudatus and Rousettus leschenaulti con-

Zoo logical Survey of India,

8. Lindsay Street,

Calcutta 700 087,

April 13, 1983.

Refer

Blanford, W. T. (1891) : Fauna of British India,
Mammalia, pt. 2. London (Taylor and Francies).

Brossett, A. (1962) : Studies on the bats (Chirop-
tera: Mammalia) of central and Western India. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 59(1): 1-57.

Ellerman, J. R. and Morrison-Scott, T. C. S.
(1951): Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian mam-
mals. London.

Khajuria, H. (1979) : Studies on the bats

(Chiroptera: Mammalia) of M. P., India, pt. 1.
Rec. zool. Surv. India, Occ. paper No. IS, pp. 1-59.

specific. Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951),
however, treated them as separate species. In a
recent work Rookmaaker and Bergmans
(1981) pointed out that the Burmese species
of the fruit bats referred to in literature as
Rousettus amplexicaudatus are actually Rouse-
ttus leschenaulti. They (Rookmaaker and Berg-
man, op. cit.) also mentioned some morpho-
metric variations in some specimens of Rouse-
ttus leschenaulti, which overlap those of
Rousettus amplexicaudatus. The measurements
of M3 in our male specimen is also within
the range of that of R. amplexicaudatus (1.1-
1.7 vs. 1. 7-2.1) in R. leschenaulti as men-
tioned by Rookmaaker and Bergmans (op cit.).
It would, therefore, appear that a detailed
study on the taxonomic characters of the Ful-
vous Fruit Bats might be of interest.

R. K. GHOSE
D. K. GHOSAL

EN CES

Khajuria, H. and Ghose, R. K. (1970): On a
collection of small mammals from Darjeeling Dis-
trict, West Bengal. J. Beng. nat. Hist. Soc., 56(1) :
15-36.

Prater, S. H. (1965): The book of Indian ani-
mals. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Rookmaaker, L. C. and Bergmans, W. (1981):
Taxonomy and geography of Rousettus amplexicau-
datus (Geofroy, 1810) with comparative notes on
sympatric congeners (Mammalia, Megachiroptera) .
Beaufortia, 34 ( 1) : 1-29.

179

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81

2. A FEEDING ASSOCIATION BETWEEN A HETEROPTERAN BUG

AND LANGURS

Animals have often been observed to
scavenge food wasted by primates (e.g. Elder
& Elder 1970, Glander 1979, Newton in prep.),
but all such associations appear to be oppor-
tunistic and facultative. Observations from
central India, presented here, suggest an
obligate commensalism in which bug nymphs
feed solely on fruit dropped by monkeys from
one tree species.

Scattered through the sal ( Shorea robust a)
or moist deciduous forest surrounding the cen-
tral meadows of Kanha Tiger Reserve (Mandla
District, Madhya Pradesh) are isolated boulder-
strewn hillocks vegetated with mixed (dry
deciduous) forest. On one of these hillocks
(locally called “chattans”) 1 km. east of Kanha
Forest Village (at 22° 17' 15" N, 80° 30'03"
E) “kosum” trees ( Schleicher a oleosa, Sapin-
daceae) fruited in May, June and July, strad-
dling the end of the hot season and early
monsoon. Their green ovoid fruits are 2. 5-3.0
cm in diameter and, within a hard coat, con-
tain a pulpy, acidic, mucilaginous arillus sur-
rounding oily cotyledons (Brandis 1874).
Common langurs, Presbytis entellus, Colobinae,
when feeding on these fruits, rejected and
dropped to the ground the coat with some of
the arillus coating the inside surface. Frequent
feeding by langurs resulted in a considerable
quantity of fruit debris accumulating below the
canopy.

During May, June and July of 1980, 1981 and
1982 I noted that beneath all fruiting kosum
trees on the chattan, there were large popu-
lations of the bug Leptocoris augur (Fabricius
1781) (Hemiptera, Rhopalidae). None were
observed from August to April inclusive in
any year. During the hot season (May to
mid- June) the bugs, mainly nymphs, were

found exclusively below the kosums with none
more than 1 metre from the canopy’s vertical
projection to the ground. Nor were the bugs
found more than 1 metre up the tree bole. On
18 June 1981, 510 nymphs and adults of L.
augur were counted below the canopy of a
single tree (approximately 50 m2 cross-
sectional area). The majority of the bugs were
aggregated at the fruits with their probosci
extended into the exposed mucilaginous arillus.
Bugs congregated at intact fruits but did not
feed, being unable to reach the mucus through
the hard coat. When I broke open a monkey
felled fruit, in the manner of a langur and
placed it below the canopy, twenty bugs con-
verged on the fruit within two minutes.

Although most tree species in the area fruit-
ed in the hot season, the bugs only occurred
below kosums and was the only species noted
scavenging the fruits. The bugs, which also
occurred below fruiting kosums on adjacent
chattans, were rarely seen to utilize other food
sources such as the leaves of bamboo, saplings
and herbs. Since opened fruits are dropped
only by langurs the bug is dependent on the
primate for processing an otherwise inacces-
sible food source. These observations suggest
that during the hot weather the bug is mono-
phagous and host specific.

However with the arrival of the monsoon
(23 June in 1981) the behaviour of L. augur
changed dramatically. The bugs, now mostly
matured into imagos, dispersed from the
kosums and were found scattered over the
chattan feeding on grasses, herbs and saplings.
They were not found in the tree canopies or
the surrounding sal forest and were no longer
aggregated below kosums. The sudden disper-
sal of bugs coincided with the arrival of the

180

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

monsoon and not with the browning of the
fruits, which mostly occurred in late June.
Langurs continued to feed on the drying brown
fruits and a few bugs remained below the
kosums scavenging the reduced quantity of
arillus present on the fruit debris.

These observations suggest a commensalism
in which during the hot season L. augur, most-
ly as nymphs, may be obligatorily dependent
on langurs for their food. With the arrival of
the monsoon, the vegetation flushes, the climate
ameliorates and the bugs are ‘released’ from
the association, dispersing from the kosums.
Concurrently they switch from being frugivor-
ous specialists to phytophagous generalists. An
additional advantage in living beneath kosum
trees is that the microclimate is relatively
benign owing to the leafed canopy. Most other
sympatric tree species are leafless during this
season and therefore, below their skeletal
canopies, associating bugs would be subjected
to high heat stress and water loss (tempera-
tures to 44°C in shade).

I suggest that the bug’s dependence on a

Department of Zoology,

Animal Ecology Research Group,

South Parks Road,

Oxford 0X1 3P5, U.K.,

October 20, 1983.

Refer

Brandis, D. & Stewart, J. (1874) : Forest flora
of north-west and central India. London. Wm. H.
Allen & Co.

Elder, W. IT. & Elder, N. L. (1970): Social
grouping and primate associations of the bushbuck
( Tragelaphus scriptus). Mammalia 34\ 356-362.

Glander, K. E. (1979) : Feeding associations bet-

shady tree and a prodigal primate evolved to
facilitate its survival and growth during the
invertebrate depauperate, hot, dry summer.
The selective advantage of this shift in life
history, from the usual pattern of nymphal
development in the monsoon, may be that the
nymphs avoid the competition, predation, para-
sitism and funsal attack which are at their
worst in the monsoon. However, if L. augur,
is an obligate commensal, it is dependent on
the vagaries of langur ranging and feeding, for
the survival and growth of its nymphs.

Acknowledgements

I am very grateful to Drs. M. W. Ridley,
M. R. W. Rands, M. J. Coe, M. S. Boyce,
B. A. C. Don and C. W. D. Gibson for helpful
comments, Mungal and Mohan Baiga for field
assistance, Madhya Pradesh Forest Department
for permission to work in Kanha and for their
co-operation and to the S.E.R.C. (U.K.) for
financial support. The bug was kindly identified
by Dr. W. R. Dolling of the B. M. (NH),
London.

PAUL N. NEWTON

E N C E S

ween howling monkeys and Basilisk lizards. Biotro-
pica 77(3) : 235-236.

Newton, P. N. (in prep.) : On the ecology and
associations of chital (Axis axis) and Common lan-
gurs (Presbytis entellus) in Kanha Tiger Reserve,
Central India. D. Phil, thesis. Oxford.

181

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo I. 81

3. WHITE DOTS ON THE LEGS OF BARKING DEER

I had kept an orphaned muntjac for over
one year in my house (Wildlife Warden’s Bun-
galow) at Shencottah, before the animal was
taken to the Wildlife orphanage at Mundan-
thurai. The animal was brought to me when
it was about 15-25 days old.

Wildlife Warden,

Mudumalai Sanctuary,

Udhagamandalam 643 001,

October 25, 1982.

It had conspicuous white dots on its legs
just above the hoofs. This aspect of coloration
has not been mentioned in Prater’s book of
Indian animals and on the animal in the
colour plate (Plate 68).

J. MANGALRAJ JOHNSON

4. A NOTE ON CANNIBALISM IN DESERT RODENTS

Cannibalistic propensities have been noted
in various small mammals by several workers
(Prakash 1964, Gupta and Agarwal 1968,
Ghosh 1970, Purohit and Bohra 1973). Most
of the instances reported on cannibalism, how-
ever, pertain to laboratory maintained rodents.
The shortage of food has been regarded to be
the main cannibalism inducing factor in
rodents. I have handled breeding and rearing
of Tat era indica, Meriones hurrianae , Rattus
ineltada, Rattus cutchicus, Rattus rattus ,
Golunda ellioti in laboratory. Irrespective of
any shortage of food and water (provided ad
libitum) these rodent species exhibited partial
to full cannibalistic activity on new born young.
Some times only mother and just born litters
were left undisturbed in large breeding cages
with ample greens as well as dry food and

Central Arid Zone
Research Institute,

Jodhpur - 342 003,

April 16, 1983.

water, even then, complete devouring of litters
occurred. These observations probably rule-out
the possibility that only the paucity of food
induces cannibalism. Further, cannibalism may
not be regarded as an inborn habit because
in several instances, more than one rodent
caught in the same live trap, have not re-
vealed this phenomenon. Therefore, devouring
of litters by the mother under optimum living
conditions can be explained in the man-made
and artificial environment of the laboratory is
considered a stress reaction — the stress of
captivity. In the natural habitat of rodents such
stressful conditions probably do not occur and
hence such devouring of litters may not happen.
This fact is confirmed by observations made on
the burrowing patterns of field rodents where
no such damaged young are encountered.

A. P. JAIN

182

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Ghosh, R. K. (1970) : Cannibalism in the house-
rat, Rattus r. rufescens (Gray.) Labdev. J. Sci. Tech.,
8B: 170-171.

Gupta, P. D. and Agarwal, V. S. (1968) : Canni-
balism in Indian five striped squirrel, Funambulus
pennanti. Sci. Cult., 34: 185.

Prakash, I. (1964) : Eco-toxicology and control

of the Indian desert gerbil, Meriones hurrianae Jer-
don. II. Breeding season, Litter-size and Post-natal
development. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61 : 142-149.

Puroeiit, K. G. and Bghra, O. P. (1973): Obser-
vations on factors inducing cannibalism in the House
rat, Rattus rattus rufescens , Z. angew. zool., 60:
405-408.

5. BANDICOOT RAT SEIZING A SNAKE

At dusk on March 15, 1982 when a fresh-
water snake, Enhydris enhydris Schneider, was
moving at the water’s edge of a roadside ditch
at Kakdwip, 24-Parganas, West Bengal, a large
Bandicoot rat, Bandicota indica (Bechstein)
suddenly came out of a nearby bush and caught
the snake. I focussed a 3 -celled torch on the
spot and saw that the Bandicoot was moving
in to the bush holding the snake at about its
anterior quarter of the body. I went close to
the site but could neither locate the rat nor
the snake.

It is believed that the rat might have seized
the snake as food. Like all other rats the

Zoological Survey of India,

Kakdwip Field Station,

Kakdwip-743 347,

24-Parganas, West Bengal,

September 27, 1983.

R E F E i

Behura, B. K. (1958) : A musk shrew attacking
a snake. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55: 552,

Chakraborty. R. & Chakraborty, S. (1982):
Food habit of large Bandicoot rat, Bandicota indica

Bandicoot rats are omnivorous and feed on
household refuse, on grain and vegetables, and
occasionally attack poultry (Prater 1965).
Chakraborty and Chakraborty (1982) reported
from the analysis of the gut contents that B.
indica accepts a wide spectrum of animals,
right from insects to amphibians. Behura
(1958), however, reported a musk shrew
attacking a snake.

Rats are, as a rule, known to be seized and
swallowed by snakes. Perhaps this is the first
occasion I have known of a Bandicoot rat
seizing a snake.

N. C. NANDI

ENCES

(Bechstein) in the fields of West Bengal during
rainy season. Rodent Newt. 6(4) : 27.

Prater, S. K. (1965): The book of Indian ani-
mals. Bombay Natural History Society. Bombay.

6. RECORD OF A FOETUS OF THE FINLESS BLACK PORPOISE

FROM GOA COAST

( With six text- figures)

On the morning of February 20, 1980, when Vasco-da-Gama (Goa), I saw some fishermen
collecting samples of fish on the beach of butchering a shark-like, smooth-bodied, black

183

JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Foetus of Neophocaena phocaenoides

Fig. 1. Entire foetus, lateral view; Fig. 2. Head, frontal view; Fig. 3. Head, lateral
view (enlarged); Fig. 4. Tail with tail-fluke; Fig. 5. Inguinal region of belly, genital
orifice covered by rod-like papilla; Fig. 6. Inguinal region of belly (rod-like papilla

of genital orifice pushed aside).

Abbreviations : A — Anus; B — Blowhole; BAM — Bulging of Auditory Meatus;
BE — Bulging of Eye; DR — Dorsal Ridge; EM — Extra-embryonic Membrane;
GO — Genital Orifice; P — Papilla; RP — Rod-like Papilla; TF — Tail-fluke;

UC — Umbilical Cord.

184

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

animal. It had no dorsal fin, and the tail flukes
were horizontal. There was a pair of wing-
like flippers at the position of pectoral fins,
and the head was abruptly round. The pieces
of flesh the fishermen were making had a thick
layer of blubber beneath the skin. The viscera
had the uterus containing a foetus. The gut
was examined and a rare trematode was re-
covered which is being reported separately.

The foetus with the umbilical cord was
enveloped in a transparent sac richly supplied
with blood vessels and was clearly seen through
it. Later, it was identified as *Neophocaena
phocaenoides (Cuvier) in the light of the obser-
vations made in the field as well as the foetus
which has developed the main external features
of the adult. The identification was confirmed
by the Mammals Section, Z.S.I., Calcutta.

The Finless Black Porpoise or the Little
Indian Porpoise, Neophocaena phocaenoides
(Cuvier), occurs in the coastal waters of India.
Pillay (1926) and Dawson (1959) recorded its
occurrence off Trivandrum and Malpe res-
pectively. Balan (1976) reported a female
juvenile of this cetacean from Calicut. Dawson
(1959) also reported four embryos of this
animal. The present female foetus, whose
account is given below, was recovered from
its mother caught near the mouth of Zoari
river off Vasco-da-Gama (Goa).

The creamy white foetus was completely
enveloped in the extra-embryonic membrane
profusely supplied with blood vessels when it
was recovered from the uterus. The head is
abruptly round and is roughly triangular in
outline. The crescentic blowhole (nostril) is
median and central in position. The head is

* Neomeris Gray, 1846 is junior homonym being
preoccupied by Neomeris Lamouraux, 1816. Palmer
(1899) rechristened it as Neophocaena. Also see
Hershkovitz in Smithsonian Inst. Bull.: 246.

at right angles to the horizontal axis of the
body. The snout is a bit drawn and appears
beak-like. The eyes are beady and completely
closed, and are situated at a distance behind
the angle of the mouth. Behind the eye is the
bulging of the auditory meatus but an external
aperture is absent. There are four papillae on
either side of the upper lip arranged in a line
parallel to that of the mouth opening. The three
anterior ones are close to each other while
the fourth one is slightly distant. The head is
marked off from the body by a slight narrowing
of the intervening space suggestive of a neck.
Near the beginning of the body there is a
pair of pectoral flippers. The triangular dorsal
fin is characteristically absent. Instead, the back
of the body has a long depression in which
minute scales are embedded in the skin. This
is a characteristic feature of the foetus of the
Finless Black porpoise. The tail tapers behind
the dorsal depression and is streamlined. The
tail flukes are horizontal and there is a notch
in the middle. The tail flukes are stretched
outwards and the posterior edges are semi-
circular. The middle line of the tail is slightly
ridged dorsally and ventrally. The ventral ridge
extends up to the anus while the dorsal ridge
extends up to the depression. The genital
orifice is covered by a muscular rod-like flap
inserted at the anterior corner of the orifice.
The anus is situated behind the genital orifice.
On either side of the reproductive opening
there appears a very faint trace of a slit which
is the seat for mammae.

The important body measurements are given
below:

Length of body from anterior extremity

of head to notch of tail fluke 100 mm

Width of body at the position of umbili-
cal cord 24 mm

Length of head 28 mm

Width of head at level of eyes ...19mm

185

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Blowhole across 5.5 mm

Mouth opening 7.5 mm

Angle of mouth to centre of eye 5 mm

Width of the base of insertion of flippers . . 6 mm
Length of flippers from centre of base

of flippers 15 mm

Length of tail from anus to notch of

tail fluke 38 mm

Distance from the anterior margin of
the genital orifice to the attachment of

the umbilical cord 14 mm

Tail fluke across 16.5 mm

Length of tail fluke from beginning to

notch 11 mm

Length of umbilical cord 50 mm

Like the present foetus, Dawson’s (1959)

specimens measuring 93 mm and 98 mm have
more or less beakless snout, and the mouth
opening is almost vertical, but in the 155 mm
long foetus the snout assumed roundish appear-
ance and opening of the mouth became slanted.
In Balan’s (1976) female juvenile specimen
measuring 669 mm long, the snout is comple-

Desert Regional Station,

Zoological Survey of India,

Jodhpur-342 006,

February 16, 1982.

tely round and the mouth opening is horizontal
as in the adult animal. The colour of the dorsal
surface is black while that of the ventral sur-
face is pale. Thus, as the developing foetus
grows in age, the colour of the body changes
from creamy white to deep greyish black, and
the somewhat beak-like appearance of the
snout changes to beakless condition as in the
adult.

Acknowledgements

I am thankful to the Director, Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta for providing faci-
lities, and to the Deputy Director-in-Charge,
Desert Regional Station, Jodhpur for taking
kind interest in the study. The author is also
thankful to Dr. V. C. Agarawal, Superintend-
ing Zoologist, Z.S.I., Calcutta for help in the
identification of the foetus. Thanks are also
due to Mr. S. A. Basit, photographer, for pre-
paring the photographs.

M. HAFEEZULLAH

References

Balan, V. (1976): A Note on a juvenile Indian Dawson, E. (1959): On a Large Catch of the
Porpoise, Neomens phocaenoides (Cuvier) caught off Finless Black Porpoise, Ncomeris phocaenoidcs
Calicut. Indian J. Fish. 23 ( 1&2) : 263-265. (Cuvier). /. mar. bioi. Ass. India, 7(2): 259-260.

7. CATTLE EGRETS ( BUBULCUS IBIS) FEEDING ON CICADAS

ON TREES

On a recent trip to the Borivli National Park
(18th April 1982) with Mr. Humayun
Abdulali, we stopped to watch a number of
cattle egrets ( Bubulcus ibis) scattered over a
large tree ( Garuga pinnata) which was in fruit
and which had many cicadas calling therefrom.
As we watched, the egrets were seen to stalk

along a branch and when near enough, jab at
the cicada after swaying the head two or three
times from side to side presenting (as Drs.
Salim Ali & Ripley have said in the handbook
1 p. 67) a comical appearance.

Egrets have been known to feed on blue-
bottle flies from nectar-yielding flowers of

186

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Salmalia and Erythrina and even from toddy
pots hung up on date palms, but we do not
recall having read of their stalking cicadas
along the branches of trees.

The cicadas were extremely numerous call-
ing from many trees and we later saw more
egrets in small parties of 3 to 5 perched on
trees in different places apparently for the same

Madhurima Society,

M. G. Road, Kandivli (West),

Bombay-400 067.

C/20 Kastur Mahal,

Sion, Bombay-400 022,

August 21, 1982.

purpose. Though they were unable to catch
the insects settled on the under surface of the
branches on which the egrets were perched,
this appears to be another instance of the
adaptability of this bird which has no doubt
helped it to retain its numbers around Bombay,
and also to establish itself in different parts
of the world.

S. G. MONGA

PARVISH PANDYA

8. UNUSUAL PLUMAGE IN A CATTLE EGRET BUBULCUS IBIS

COROMANDUS (BODDAERT)

On 6th June 1982, while visiting the Borivli
National Park with Mr. Humayun Abdulali,
we stopped to watch a large number of Cattle
Egrets B. ibis coromandus (Boddaert) feed-
ing in a semi-flooded grass field by the road.
We counted 17 in all-white and 22 in breeding
plumage. The latter group included a strik-
ingly coloured bird which had the usual
yellowish orange plumes on its head and
breast, pale pink legs with the rest of the
body a delicate rosy pink, and with abso-
lutely no trace of white anywhere.

A reference to Thomson’s dictionary of
birds (1964, page 643) reveals a note to the
effect that the plumage of some birds does
not depend upon any structural character but
on the infiltration of the feathers with chemi-
cal substances derived from the natural food

27A/1, Civil Lines,

Nagpur,

June 16, 1982,

of the species, the absence of which in capti-
vity may lead to loss of colour. There is pink
suffusion in the plumages of some birds like
Flamingos (Phoenicopteridae) and Goosanders
( Mergus merganser) that live on small aqua-
tic animals.

This phenomena does not appear to have
been observed in the Cattle Egret (B. ibis
coromandus) and it would be interesting to
see how long the colour remains and whether
it appears in other individuals also. I under-
stand from Mr. Abdulali that he recently noted
several species of flamingos at Slimbridge,
U.K. which had quantities of “Carotin” includ-
ed in the food offered to them. Each species
acquired the red or pink in that part of the
plumage peculiar to itself, the distribution being
presumably genetically controlled.

NITIN JAMDAR

187

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

9. SOME NOTES ON THE INDIAN REEF HERON

The Indian Reef Heron is found throughout
the maritime habitat of Gujarat. In Kathiawar
peninsula I have observed it in its central
portion and along the Kuteh coast. It is, how-
ever, not restricted to the coast. The breeding
season is a prolonged one commencing from
February and ending about August depending
upon local conditions. The peak season
appears to be from March to May.

The two most prominent phases of this
heron are, the white and slaty-grey forms
which vary from sooty to grey. Both sexes
are seen in these phases. I have seen pairing
of white with white and slaty with slaty as
the more common combinations. Nevertheless,
I have seen white x slaty and vice versa and
with grey forms. In the Gulf of Cambay the
slaty forms are seen more. What is surprising
is that although both parents may be slaty,
their young may be white or mixed and the
same with white parents, or both young may
be slaty or slaty and white in the same nest.
Some of the slaty and grey forms have white
patches on one or both wings in adults and
young alike. All these varied phases may
sometimes be seen in one Heronry, the gene-
tics of which require scientific study. The
young of white forms often have black or grey
featherings but slaty young do not invariably
have this pattern. The fledglings of the dark
slaty form are usually light grey colour with
whitish underparts. I have seen groups of
white forms frequently in the Gulf of Kutch
and North-west Kathiawar than in South-east
Kathiawar.

The composition of a breeding colony is
that the species prefers to nest together and
may monopolise an entire tree, yet, I have
seen them nesting with other herons, storks,
white ibises and cormorants. The trees select-

ed depend upon the suitability of the site and
I have even seen them nesting in Neem trees.
Trees in which large Fruit Bats roost are used
by all the above mentioned birds but not
cormorant.

The white form of the Reef Heron is easily
distinguished from the Little Egret by its stou-
ter bill, colour of lowest mandible and also
posture.

The nesting in trees or groups of trees by
this heron in urban areas is preferred pro-
bably because of suitability of type of trees
and closeness to their feeding grounds. Never-
theless, I have seen them nesting away from
urban areas throughout the coast where there
wer e mangrove forests, now denuded or heavily
cut in many places and to provide browse for
camels and fuel-wood. There is no doubt that
in such sites the breeding is later, from May
onwards.

In the littoral, especially in the Gulf, I find
sea-food abundant for shore birds and reef
herons take full advantage of the situation
specially during spring tides when tides in the
gulf have high incidence of rise and fall. A
very interesting observation during the breed-
ing season in the gulf especially in the muddy
and murky silted waters and in estuaries is
the feeding behaviour. Most of the food
gathered is during the ebbing, ebb and flow
of tides and not during full flood at which
time there is a marked lull in feeding of
young in the heronry. At full tide, the mud
flats and sands are covered by water and
feeding habitat though it may appear exten-
sive, food itself is submerged and in murky
water in which it is less visible and more
difficult to obtain. In monsoon, these herons
visit jheels and tanks and streams although
much of their food is taken in gulf, bays.

188

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

creeks and estuaries and consists of Mud-
Skipper, Fish, Prawn, Crab, Eel and other
marine and aquatic animal life, and in the
vicinity of fishermen. Although, feeding of
nestlings takes place at day and night, much
depends upon tidal timings. The heronry as

26 Lotus Court,

Jamshedji Tata Road,

Bombay-400 020,

May 6, 1982.

mentioned by other writers is fairly silent.
Crows are a scourge to nesting birds and yet
the parents alternately guard their eggs and
nestlings carefully. Predation by raptors is
negligible but young that fall to ground are
often killed by pariah dogs, cats and jackals.

K. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHJI

10. EXCEPTIONALLY LARGE EGGS OF THE COMMON HOUSE
CROW, CORVUS S. SPLENDENS VIELL.

On 15th April 1982, I saw a pair of house
crows (Corvus s. splendens) complete their
nest in a copperpod tree in my garden at
Kandivli, Salsette, in North Bombay.

For the next two days there appeared to be
no activity around the nest but on the 18th
April it contained one egg. This appeared
extraordinarily large that I took it. Again for
two days there was no activity and I thought
that the nest was deserted. But on the 21st
April morning there was another large egg
which I took, to be followed by a third egg
on the 22nd April.

The three eggs measured and weighed as
follows : -

Madhurima Society,

M. G. Road,

Kandivli (West),

Bombay-400 067,

September 7, 1982.

1. 47.55 x 25 mm 17 gm

2. 44.2 x 26.75 mm 15.5 gm

3. 43.55 x 25 mm 14.2 gm

Stuart Baker (1932) in nidification of
BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE (Vol. I, pp. 18)
gives the average size of 200 eggs as 37.2 x
27 mm (maxima 44.1 x 27.4 mm and 41.1 x
29.1 mm; minima is 30.4 x 25.4 mm and
32.0 x 23.0 mm).

The eggs obtained by me thus are appre-
ciably larger than those noted earlier and may
be worth recording. I am sending the eggs for
the Society’s collection.

S. G. MONGA

11. LABORATORY OBSERVATIONS ON THE INCUBATION
PERIOD OF THE INDIAN BLACK IBIS
PSEUDIBIS PAPILLOSA (TEMMINCK)

(With a text -figure)

Ali and Ripley (1968) have mentioned that of the Indian black ibis. In the course of our
there is no record of the incubation period studies on Indian black ibis, we have been

189

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

DAYS

Fig. 1. Left ordinate (O) shows decrease in weight of egg in milligrams. Right

ordinate (0) shows weight of egg in gms.

regularly checking a nest near the University
Campus, Rajkot, from March 1982. Two eggs
laid by the bird, however, were found missing.
So the third egg which was laid on 29th
March was brought to the laboratory, and
was incubated using an oven. The tempera-
ture was kept constant at 37 °C. One petridish
of 10 cm diameter filled with water was

Department of Biosciences
Saurashtra University
Rajkot-360 005 (India),

May 18, 1982.

placed at the bottom of the oven. The egg was
rotated at regular intervals. It was weighed
everyday in the evening.

The chick hatched on 30th April, at 0900
A.M. The incubation period was 33 days. The
weight of the egg had decreased constantly,
but the decrease in the weight was not linear
(Fig. 1).

C. SALIMKUMAR
V. C. SONI

190

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Reference

Ali, S. and Ripley, S. D. (1968) : Handbook of
the birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 1. Oxford
University Press, Bombay.

12. SEASONALITY AND OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN THE

EASTERN GHATS

The Errata on p. 240 of the Journal for
April 1982 regarding the “Seasonality and
Occurrence of Birds in the Eastern Ghats of
Andhra Pradesh” 76(3) 1979 pp. 379-422
reminds me that when I wrote to Mr. Trevor
Price, I also mentioned the improbability of
the thousands of swifts (once counted as
8500) “undertaking daily migration throughout
winter from the palm trees in the coastal plains
to over the Ghats” being Palm Swifts ( Cypsiu -
rus parvus) as recorded (l.c., p. 410) .

75, Abdul Rehman Street,

Bombay-400 003.

September 11, 1982.

In March 1982 I was invited to the Eastern
Ghats Environmental Seminar and one day we
drove from Vizagapatnam to Lamasinghi. The
paucity of Palm Swifts inspite of the abun-
dance of the Borassus Palm (though all had
their “heads” closely trimmed) was very strik-
ing. Could this lack of roosts have changed
the habits of the Swifts and got them to collect
elsewhere in large numbers ?

Or were the birds not palm swifts at all ?

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

13. A CURIOUS EXPERIENCE WITH A SMALL MINI VET
(. PERICROCOTUS C1NNAMOMEUS)

At about 9.30 a.m. on the morning of 8th
May 1982, a chick, presumably unable to fly,
was picked up on the ground behind our
bungalow at Kihim, Alibag tal., Kolaba (now
Rigadh) Dist., Maharashtra on an open piece
of sandy ground under Casuarinas.

It was very lethargic in its movements and
made no effort to escape handling by several
people who were guessing at its identity.

We brought it to the house about 50 yards
away and put in in an open cheese tin lined
with Casuarina leaves. At 10 a.m. it drank
10/15 drops of milk delivered soaked in cotton
wool. This appeared to liven it up. It now

started to utter sharp high notes at regular
intervals.

At noon it was brought outside into the
open, it perched on the edge of the tin and
was fed with bread crumbs soaked with milk.
It continued to call.

At 12.30 p.m., just three hours after it was
found, it fluttered out of the tin and fell to
the ground about 10 feet away, to be imme-
diately joined by the parents, who had pre-
sumably also been calling and had thus esta-
blished contact. They indulged in a display
of affection by fluttering close to the chick and
nudging it right and left.

191

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST , SOCIETY, Vol. 81

A jungle crow suddenly appeared and
lurched towards the chick which was saved
only by human intervention. The parents
screeching loudly enticed the crow away by
each trailing a wing in flight, keeping about 4
feet apart and 3 feet off the ground keeping
just out of reach. The crow kept snapping
at one or the other but they managed to
draw him about 20 yards away.

The tin with the chick was then moved to
an open table in a covered verandah. The
parents re-established contact and started feed-
ing it with insects. The crow appeared once
again but was chased away by the parents
helped by a pair of dayals who dive-bombed
the crow, actually hitting the crow on more
than one occasion. The Minivets also managed
to remove a few feathers from the crow’s
nape making him a marked character in the
neighbourhood.

For protection from the crow, the tin was
placed inside a breed-cage 18" x 10" x 10"
and the hinged door left open. For some
time both parents fluttered round the cage
not daring to go in, but at about 1 . 30 p.m.
they had overcome their fear and started
feeding the chick. The food brought in con-
sisted of green grasshoppers, white and colour-
ed moths, large spiders, etc.

The feeding continued throughout the after-
noon and evening, the parents soon having
become accustomed to ignoring the constant
movement of children, servants and others
within about 5 feet of the cage. Our observa-
tion post was about 20 feet away and the chick
and the cage were always visible.

During the course of the day the number
of feedings was not counted but quite often
the chick was satiated and refused to grab and
swallow the food which was then taken away
and eaten by the parents. Both parents appear-
ed to be equally interested in bringing the

food and while the pair would presumably
go in different directions to look for food, it
was seldom that both would come back carry-
ing it. If one returned with food, it would wait
until the other also arrived and they would
then approach the chick together, one perching
about 10 feet away at a slightly higher level,
while the other did the feeding.

In the evening at about sunset the parents
disappeared, the chick went to sleep and we
shut the cage door.

On the following morning we opened the
door when it was still dark. The parents arrived
at about 6.25 a.m. and after making an initial
contact and assuring that the chick was still
there, went away and brought back the first
morsel of food at about 6.40. The human in-
terest and interference appeared to have in-
creased a bit too much and we moved the
cage about 15 yards away and hung it from
a tree. The parents kept going to the old place
with food, and failed to locate the new site.
We therefore brought back the cage and fenc-
ed it off from the rest of the verandah with
an old chik curtain. This appeared to be satis-
factory and feeding was resumed. A palm
squirrel appeared on the roof at about 7.30
a.m. and the female dived and chased it away.
Throughout the morning the feeding continued
and at about 11.30 a.m. the chick encouraged
by the parents fluttered out of the cage. As it
appeared helpless, we put it back but at about
12.15 p.m. the parents again wheedled it out
and it flew for a short distance. It was then
coaxed to enter heavier undergrowth and then
they all disappeared.

In the short while that we had the bird
under observation, the chick appeared to have
grown to one-and-a-half times the original size
and was certainly much stronger and more
active when it flew away.

It was all a most interesting experience. The

192

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Minivets lay 2 to 3 eggs at a time. What being fed at the same time, and was there a
happened to the other chicks ? Were they also final re-union ?

C/o. N. Futehally & Co., SADIQ A. FUTEHALLY

19, Bank Street,

Bombay-400 023,

August 12, 1982.

14. FREQUENCY AND DURATION OF INCUBATION OF THE

EGGS FOR AEG1TE1IN A TIPHIA

Material and Methods :

A pair of Iora were observed in their breed-
ing activities from March 22, 1979 and April
27, 1979 in Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu. In-
cubation of the eggs began with the laying of
the first egg on March 27, 1979. rhere were
two eggs in the nest, the second egg having
been laid on March 29, 1979. Both the mem-
bers of the pair were observed closely for two
days — on April 4, 1979 and April 7, 1979 —
from the first change of duty at 6.40 a.m. till
the female sat on the eggs for the night at
4.30 p.m and 5-05 p.m. respectively. The
nest with the two eggs was placed at a height
of 20 feet from the ground at the parting of
three outer twigs of a neem tree. The obser-
vation was made with a pair of binoculars
8 x 30 mm. Field 7.5°.

Results and Discussion :

The results of the observations made on
April 4, 1979 and April 7, 1979 were tabu-
lated and given in Tables 1 & 2.

The data for the first day showed that dur-
ing the period between 6.40 a.m. and 4.30 p.m.
the male was on the eggs six times with an
average sitting duration of 53 mts and a total
of 318 mts for the day. The female bird sat
five times with the duration averaging at 54.4
mts and a total of 272 mts. The male had
spent longer time on the eggs during the day
than the female.

For the second day the data showed a trend
similar to that of April 4, 1979, the male
warming the eggs six times with a total dura-
tion of 325 mts at an average of 65 mts and
the female performing it five times for 300
mts at an average of 60 mts-

It was obvious that there was alternate care
of eggs by the two sexes. The brooding by
the female less by a sitting and for shorter
total duration during the day than the male
did not indicate a shift to the male the bur-
den of incubating. For assuming that the
female rose up for the days at 6.40 a.m. on
April 5, 1979 and April 6, 1979 the average
duration in minutes for the night shifts would
be 832.5 mts for the female.

Conversely, the male and the female were
out of the nest alternately for a total of 272
mts and 318 mts respectively, the female for-
aging for 46 mts more than the male (Table
1). On April 7, 1979 they showed a similar
trend, the female having been away from the
nest for 25 mts more than the male (Table 2).

Could it be argued that the female was
spending more time out of the nest to gather
enough food to meet the energy requirement
during the night for production of warmth
for the eggs? A closer study of the tables
suggests that the male bird had spent more
time away than the female bird. On both
the days under study, the female was away
feeding six times. But the average time dura-

193

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Table 1

Duration (in minutes) of incubation for each sitting; 4-4-1979

Duration in minutes of

Time of

Duration

in minutes of

incubation by the male

arrival — male

arrival — Female

incubation by female

6.40 A.M.

8.05 A.M.

7.30 A.M.

9.35 A.M.

8.35 A.M.

11.25 A.M.

10.15 A.M.

1.24 P.M.

12.10 P.M.

2.45 P.M.

2.12 P.M.

105

4.30 P.M.

318

272

Table 2

Duration

(in minutes) of

INCUBATION FOR EACH SITTING;

7-4-1979

Duration in minutes of

Time of

Duration

in minutes of

incubation by the

male

arrival — male

arrival — Female

incubation by the female

6.40 A.M.

8.10 A.M.

7.35 A.M.

9.40 A.M.

8.40 A.M.

12.00 Noon

10.25 A.M.

100

2.25 P.M.

1.40 P.M.

3.55 P.M.

2.50 P.M.

5.05 P.M.

325

300

tion for which she was away from the nest
was 53 mts, 1.4 mts less than for the five for-
aging trips of the male for the first day. The
corresponding time scales for the female for
the next day were 64.16 mts and 4.16 mts

respectively. It was evident that the male was
spending more time, on the average, on for-
aging than the female though the number of
trips he made was fewer by one than his mate.
This might be a necessary exercise for him

194

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

because he had to sit on the eggs six times
the total duration of which exceeded that of
the female’s-

Conversely, the data also suggests that the
length of time the female spent on foraging
increased from about noon until her sitting
on the eggs for the night. The total period
for the second set of three foraging for the
first day was 198 mts which was 78 mts more
than that for the three earlier trips that day.
The corresponding values for the second day
were 195 mts and 65 mts. It appears as
though the female was preparing for the
night’s brooding, storing enough energy in her
body. This argument, however, has the dis-
advantage that it does not consider the fact
that the male was free to forage from the
moment he was last relieved from duty by the
female at 4.30 p.m. and 5.05 p.m. on the
two days of observation. Hence it cannot be
said with certainty that the female gathered
more food for the nights than the male did
for his roosting.

Professor of Zoology,

Bishop Heber College,

Tiruchirapalli-620 017,

Tamil Nadu,

December 22, 1981.

Conclusion :

The male and the female iora share the
duty of incubating the eggs, both taking turns
to sit on them. During the day the male in-
cubates for longer duration than the female.
The female sits on the eggs for the night.

The male appears to spend more time on
the average on collecting food than the female.
However the female incubates for much longer
duration when the day and night sittings are
taken together. Nevertheless, it is not certain
if the female accumulates and spends more
energy on incubation than the male does- Two
more thoughts that occur and need verifica-
tion are that (1) the periodic shifts might be
to dissipate the extra thermal energy generated
during incubation; and (2) the out-of-the nest
sojourn may have the additional purpose of
keeping themselves oriented to the familiar
nature environment.

H. DANIEL WESLEY

15. HYPSIPETES MAD A GASCA RIENSIS SINENSIS (LA TOUCHE):

A FIRST RECORD FOR INDIA

In late 1981, my wife and I joined Dr. Salim
Ali and colleagues from the Bombay Natural
History Society in an ornithological survey of
the Namdapha Wildlife Reserve, Tirap Dis-
trict, Arunachal Pradesh. On 20 December
1981, we were fortunate to obtain a specimen
of an apparently adult female of the bulbul
Hypsipeles madagascariensis sinensis (La
Touche), a first record for India.

The Black Bulbul, H. madagascariensis , is a
wide-ranging species that occurs from Mada-
gascar to Afghanistan, India, southeast Asia,
China and Taiwan (Deignan 1960). Sixteen
subspecies are currently recognized (ibid.), and
of these, four have been recorded from India:
psaroides, ganeesa, humii and nigrescens
(Ripley 1982). The resident population in
Arunachal Pradesh is nigrescens, a bird that is

195

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. SI

mostly slaty blue-grey with a black crown,
malar streak, nape and tail. The bird that we
collected differs markedly from nigrescens, and
closely resembles, in plumage and dimensions,
specimens of sinensis examined at the U. S.
National Museum and American Museum of
Natural History (Table 1). Unlike nigrescens,
our bird is rich blackish with slight iridescent
highlighting on the dorsum, and fine scalloping
of pale grey on the belly and vent. In this
respect, it agrees with the known female
plumage of sinensis, and no other (Mayr
1941). The male of the subspecies ambiens is

Table 1

Measurements of Hypsipetes madagascariensis
(females only)

Subspecies

Wing

Tail

Indian Specimen

122

93.5

sinensis

116-129

92.5-103

ambiens

116-121

97-103

* Measurements by Mayr (1941), at least 5 speci-
mens included.

Smithsonian Institution,

Washington, D. C. 20560,

U.S.A.

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House,

Shaiteed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay-400 023,

June 22, 1983.

Refe

Deignan, H. G. (1960): Pycnonotidae (Oriental),
p. 221-300 in E. Mayr and J. C. Greenway (eds.)
Checklist of Birds of the World. Museum of Com-
parative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.

Mayr, E. (1941) : Die geographische Variation

similar, but the female ambiens, which we
examined, is grey ventrally, very distinct.

A number of well defined local isolates of
H. madagascariensis have evolved in the moun-
tainous region of SW China and North Burma
(Mayr 1941). Sinensis is one of several sub-
species whose breeding range occurs in this
area. To date, sinensis has been recorded
breeding in NW Yunnan and adjacent Hsikang
(Salween-Mekong Watershed), and it has
been recorded as a migrant dispersing into Laos
and Thailand. The new record in eastern
Arunachal Pradesh represents a range exten-
sion of 200 km to the west of the bird’s known
breeding habitat. Considering the known dis-
persal capabilities of Hypsipetes madagascari-
ensis, this distance is not extraordinary.

Given that the population of ambiens is re-
corded as breeding in the area between the
range of sinensis and Arunachal Pradesh, one
might expect to find the occasional individual
of this other subspecies occurring in north-
eastern India, as well. Further ornithological
surveys of this frontier region would be
profitable.

S. DILLON RIPLEY

S. A. HUSSAIN

ENCES

der Far bung stypen von Microscelis leucocephalus.
Journ. f. Ornith. 89: 377-392.

Ripley, S. D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds
of India and Pakistan, Second Edition. Bombay
Natural History Society, Bombay.

196

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

16. THE DIAGNOSTIC PLUMAGE CHARACTERS OF THE RED-
HEADED BABBLERS STACHYRIS RUFICEPS AND S. RUFIFRONS

In 1847 Blyth described a new small babbler,
Stachyris ruficeps: a drab olive bird with a
slender tapering bill and rufous cap. He stated
that the crown was ferruginous, the lower
parts whitish with a fulvous tinge on the sides
of neck and breast, and the chin and mid-
throat white. In his catalogue of birds of the
Asiatic Society’s museum (Blyth 1849) he
indicated that the holotype was a specimen
from Darjeeling collected by C. S. Bonnivie.
A similar description was used by Horsfield
and Moore (1854) in their catalogue of birds
of the East India Company’s museum, based
on specimens collected by B. H. Hodgson.

Hume (1873) described a new species, S.
rufifrons, from Burma. It was differentiated
from S. ruficeps in having, inter alia, the rufous
of the head extending to the occiput, and in
lacking the yellow tinge to the underside which
Hume stated was present in ruficeps. Haring-
ton (1915) described the subspecies S. rufi-
frons ambigua from Assam, and commented
on the published descriptions of S. ruficeps,
querying the reference to a white throat. Sub-
sequently S. rufifrons ambigua has been found
occurring north to the foothills of Sikkim (Ali
& Ripley 1971).

On present information and specimens there
appear to be two sibling species. The more
northerly Red-headed Babbler S. ruficeps
occurs in Taiwan, through much of China and
south into northern Vietnam with an isolated
population in southern Vietnam, into the hills
of north-west Burma and the Indian border,
and through the eastern Himalayas. The Red-
fronted Babbler S. rufifrons is a southern
species occurring from Borneo and Sumatra,
north through Malaya into northern Thailand
and southern Burma, through the hills of

western and northern Burma, and along the
Himalayas.

I have not found any evidence to support
Deignan’s proposal (Peters 1964) to regard
ambigua and rufifrons as separate species. E.
C. Dickinson has suggested (in litt.) that
Deignan was influenced by problems of appa-
rent sympatry in northern Thailand (Deignan
1945) which were resolved by retaining S.
rodolphei Deignan 1939 as a full species. How-
ever, in Peters’ Checklist Deignan (1964) lists
a series of apparently allopatric subspecies of
rufifrons / ambigua but divides them into two
species. There is material of both in the British
Museum (Natural History) and I can find no
characters for such a specific separation, nor
any statement by Deignan concerning the speci-
fic characters of his S. ambigua which might
justify such a separation.

Where ruficeps and rufifrons overlap in
general range there is usually an altitudinal
separation with rufifrons at lower altitudes.
However, there may be some degree of alti-
tudinal overlap and in the collection of the
British Museum (Natural History) there are
specimens of both species labelled Darjeeling.

The two species are generally similar but
two diagnostic characters are apparent. S.
rufifrons has a chestnut cap extending back
no further than the hind-crown and usually
with some indistinct dark streaking along the
feather shafts, while S. ruficeps has a uniform
chestnut cap extending right back to the
nape where it merges with the mantle, not
“sharply defined” from it as stated in Ali and
Ripley (1971). S. rufifrons has a white throat,
usually with some fine blackish streaks along
the feather shafts, and this is separated from the
rest of the underside by a transverse zone of

197

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 81

slightly rufous buff colour which also borders
the throat. S. ruficeps has a very pale throat,
usually with a faint yellow tint, which merges
gradually into ochraceous-buff on the upper
breast and cheeks. The yellowish suffusion of
the underside and back, making the latter
appear greener, is referred to in most recent
literature but is variable in character, and is
absent over most of the underside in some
Chinese subspecies.

Mr. H. Abdulali has recently queried (pers.
comm.) Blyth’s description of the type of S.
ruficeps as having a white throat when it
should be pale yellow, the white throat being
regarded as a character of S. rufifrons. I have
not been able to trace the present location,
if any, of the holotype of the former species.
Horsfield and Moore (1854) used specimens
collected by B. H. Hodgson which in the
absence of the holotype of S. ruficeps provide
information on the type of material available
at the time. Some of these Hodgson specimens
from the East India Company’s museum are
now in the collection of the British Museum

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1971) : Handbook of the
birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 6. Bombay, London
& New York: Oxford U.P.

Blyth, E. (1847): Notices and descriptions of
various new or little known species of birds. J.
Asiatic Soc. Beng. 16: 452.

(1849) : Catalogue of the birds in the

museum of the Asiatic Society. Calcutta: J. Thomas,
Baptist Mission Pr.

Deignan, H. G. (1945): The birds of Northern
Thailand. Bull. U.S. Nat. Mils. 186 : 1-64.

(Natural History) and these lack a yellow
suffusion, and are therefore white-throated.

This might be attributed to later fading and
exposure to light, but a specimen of ruficeps
from Hodgson which appears to have come
straight to the museum and was registered in
1859 (no. 1859. 3.4.267) is wholly without
yellow colour and has a white throat, while
other specimens collected only a little later
still retain the yellow. It is possible that a
preservation technique was used which affected
the lipochrome pigments but not the melanins.
There is therefore a strong possibility that
Blyth’s type specimen may have lost its yellow
colour prior to being described. The fact that
he refers to fulvous colour at the sides of the
throat and breast, and does not refer to a
rufous-buff transverse zone on the upper breast
which would have been present in rufifrons,
appears to confirm that the specimen he des-
cribed was in fact ruficeps. His reference to a
white throat would not therefore affect the
nomenclature of these species.

C. J. O. HARRISON

Harington, H. H. (1915) : Notes on Indian Tima-
liides and their allies. Pt. 4. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 23: 614-657.

Horsfield, T. & Moore, F. (1854): Catalogue of
the birds in the museum of the Hon. East India
Company. Vol. 1. London; W. H. Allen.

Hume, A. O. (1873) : Stachyris rufifrons sp. nov.
Stray Feathers 1 : 479-480.

Peters, J. L. (1964): Checklist of birds of the
world. Vol. 10. Cambridge, Mass.: Mus. Comp. Zool.

Sub-department of Ornithology,

British Museum (Natural History),

Tring, Hertfordshire HP23 6AP,

(U.K.),

September 3, 1982.

References

198

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

17. BEHAVIOURAL RESPONSE OF A MALE MAGPIE-ROBIN
(COPSYCHUS SAU LARIS SCLATER) TO ITS OWN SONG

The observations were carried out during
May 1982 at Pazayannur village in the Trichur
district of Kerala. A pair of magpie-robins
had nested in a bulbless street lamp-shade
and the favourite singing perch of the male
magpie-robin was the electric wire leading to
the lamp post. The recording of the song was
done by suitably placing a battery operated
portable cassette tape recorder with a built-in
microphone on first floor veranda of a build-
ing with grills almost on all sides which per-
mitted birds to enter and leave easily. From
this vantage point an excellent view could be
obtained of the lamp post nest of the magpie-
robins as well as a 50 year old peepul tree
located 60 feet from the veranda but whose
branches reached to within 20 feet of it. Dur-
ing the period of this observation the peepul
tree was fruiting and was frequented by many
species of birds.

The recordings included the calls and songs
of all the singing birds of the vicinity, but the
song of the male magpie-robin predominated
especially during early mornings. During a test
replay of about an hour’s recording at very
low volume the male magpie-robin sitting on
the electric wire about ten feet away was found
to puff up on hearing its own song. This was
followed by a direct flight towards me when
I was holding the recorder, and a few swift
criss-cross flights close over my head with
pecking attempts.

In order to see the bird’s reaction to other
birds singing its song, three dummy bird
models, one resembling as closely as possible
a magpie-robin and the other two resembling
a myna ( Acridotheres tristis) and a black
drongo ( Dicrurus adsimilis) respectively were
set up prominently on the grill at 15 feet in-

tervals and the recorder replaying the male
magpie-robin song was placed close to each
dummy one after another. In these experiments
the magpie-robin tended to ignore the dummies
altogether.

In the first instance the robin landed within
three inches of the recorder, ignoring the
dummy robin, puffed up several times while
hopping around the recorder subjecting it to
close scrutiny. No attempt was made to attack
the recorder itself. With the other two dummies
the reaction was progressively less pronounced
with the bird appearing in the balcony in a
puffed up state but without bothering to
examine the recorder further. These observa-
tions were made from a concealed place be-
hind a window of a nearby room. A complete
disregard for the visual image (stuffed bird)
and a keen attraction for the source of the
sound was clearly evident.

Prolonged observations showed that the
behavioural response of the male magpie-robin
to its own song had three phases. The imme-
diate response was anger with the bird puffing
up and flying straight towards the source of
the song in a clearly aggressive manner. On
the replay being continued the initial anger
and aggressiveness was followed by a period
of confusion with the bird perching and flying
restlessly in the vicinity of the source while
attempting to sing. Repeated exposures to its
own song accustomed the bird to it and was
even found to stimulate it to sing. Henry (1975)
has mentioned somewhat similar behaviour
during encounters between rival male magpie-
robins with the birds attempting to outsing
each other. In the present observations the pro-
longed exposure to its own song acted only
as a stimulant for the male magpie-robin to

199

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81

sing. Such artificially stimulated songs were of
shorter duration and seemed less inspired.
There was no attempt to outsing the tape
recorder. Whether this muted behavioural
reaction was due to the bird having recognised
the song as its own or having realised the
mechanical origin of the song remains to be
found out.

Entomologist,

Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate
Medical Education and Research,
Pondicherry, Tamil Nadu,

August 9, 1982.

Only the fixed station song (Salim Ali
1960) that elaborately was sung by the male
magpie-robin in the mornings between 5.30
and 6.30 were played back in these experi-
ments.

I am grateful to Dr. Rachel Reuben, Deputy
Director, Vector Control Research Centre,
Pondicherry, for suggestions.

E. NARAYANAN

References

Ali, Salim (1969) : Birds of Kerala. Oxford Uni- Henry, G. M. (1975) : A Guide to the Birds
versity Press, Bombay. of Ceylon. London.

18. MOUSE, A NEST-PARASITE OF BAYA WEAVER BIRD

(. PLOCEUS PHI LIPPI N US L.)

( With three text-figures)

During my field surveys for indigenous palm
species, I came across a few Baya weaver bird
( Ploceus philippinus) colonies nesting on tele-
graph wire (Fig. 1). Baya nesting on telegraph
wires or on live power lines have been re-
corded by Ambedkar (1970), Betts (1952),
Davis (1971, 1978) and Kirkpatrick (1952).
A colony on telegraph line noticed by Deva-
danam, Ramnad District, Tamilnadu in early
July 1981, revealed a curious phenomenon.
By May- June, the nests were deserted by the
weaver birds since the breeding season was
already over by them. But a number of nests
were found parasitized by a species of mouse
(Mus sp.) common in Tamilnadu, for its
breeding purpose (Fig. 2). Watching about a
dozen semi-adult mice moving around the
deserted Baya nests was a spectacular sight.

To satisfy my curiosity, I pulled down
some nests with a bamboo pole, when alas !
dozens of still younger mice fell down
from different nests in the sugarcane field
below. However, none of them could walk
along the wire even for a short distance.
Eventhough I have not seen an adult passing
along the wire in order to have ground con-
tact for foraging, I was told by eye witness
that the mice move from the nests to the
ground and vice-versa only during nights. In
the colony which I watched, the mice had to
move along the wire to a distance of not less
than 10 m to reach the nearest pole for climb-
ing down. Thus, the adult mice seem eminently
adapted to climbing posts and walking on
wire. Moreover, the adult mice have no need
to carry food for the young ones, which would

200

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

have necessitated more hazardous walks over
the thin wire.

The African weaver birds whose nests have
been parasitized by other animals including
birds have been explained in detail by Fried-
mann (1960). Many ploceine species have

Fig. 1. Weaver birds nests on telegraph wires. Fig. 2.
Mouse and Baya Nest. Fig. 3. Entrance hole made

by mouse.

been found to carry out nest-building activities
to excessive proportions by building in and
out of season. These out-of -season nests, appa-
rently not being used for breeding, are desert-
ed prematurely. Many of these nests offer ideal
shelters and breeding place for several species
of animals especially birds like Munia ( Lon -
churn malabarica L.), members of estrildines,
as well as squirrels (Salim Ali 1931, 1977;
Ambedkar 1970; Friedmann 1960). Mice are
yet another nest-parasite of the Baya weaver
bird.

From a study of the nesting sites of the
Baya Weaver, Davis (1978) is of the opinion
that the bird gives maximum importance to the
safety of the nest against predators, wind and
rain. Only next in importance, is the availa-
bility of nest-weaving material around the host
tree. Therefore, attaching nests on telegraph
or power lines is presumed to be for greater
safety against predators even though it is more
vulnerable to wind damage. In order to over-
come this disadvantage, the bird ingeniously
changes even the structure of the nest by dis-
pensing with long suspension and entrance
tubes. Nevertheless, even these telegraph or
power lines are not spared by mice and per-
haps some snakes. The mice do not harm the
birds or the nest contents. But they merely
make use of the deserted nest for their breed-
ing purpose. The mouse does not move over
the complete nest to enter through the normal
opening at the bottom, but it makes a small
hole at the top or on a side of the nest through
which it enters (Fig. 3). Perhaps the mice
devour any dead chick or rotting egg still left
in some of the nests. It is possible that in some
localities bigger species of rodents could also
reach such nests during breeding season and
destroy some eggs or young ones.

201

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Acknowledgement Haldane Research Centre for providing rele-

vant literature and helpful suggestions.

I thank Professor T. A. Davis, Director, JBS

JBS Haldane Research Centre, D. REGUPATHY

Carmel Nagar, Nagercoil-2. T. A. DAVIS

Tamil Nadu, South India,

September 5, 1981.

References

Ali, Salim (1931): The nesting habits of the
baya ( Ploceus philippinus) . A new interpretation
of their domestic relations. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 34: 947-64.

(1977): The book of Indian Birds.

10 ed. Bombay Natural History Society, Page 124.

Ambedkar, V. C. (1970): Nests of the baya,
Ploceus philippinus (Linnaeus) on telegraph wires.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 66 : 624.

Betts, F. N. (1952): Birds nesting on telegraph
wires. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 51: 271.

Davis, T. A. (1971) : Variation in nest-structure

of the common weaverbird Ploceus philippinus.
Forma et Functio 4: 12-21.

(1978): Selection of nesting trees

and the frequency of nest visits by Baya weaver-
birds. A bundle of feathers proffered to Salim Ali
for his 75th birth day in 1971. Editor S. D. Ripley
page 12-21.

Friedmann, H. (1960) : The parasitic weaverbirds.
Smithsonian Institution, U. S. National Museum,
Bulletin number 223.

Kirkpatrick, K. M. (1952): Baya ( Ploceus

philippinus Linn.) nests on telegraph wires. J. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. 52: 657.

19. FIRST RECORD OF THE FRESHWATER GREY MULLET,
RHINOMUGIL CORSULA (HAMILTON) FROM MAHARASHTRA

This is the first record of Rhinomugil corsula (Ham.) from Maharashtra State. The
fishes were found in Bhima and Nira rivers and a few of their tributaries like Ghod
and Velvandi. Probably the water depth plays an important role in their limited
distribution. The fishes have a peculiar habit of keeping their eyes, head and anterior
portion of the body out of water and swim in small shoals. This ability to see out
of water makes them hard to catch. Moreover these large river fishes have been
seen to survive adverse conditions of temperature and limited food supply.

Introduction

While surveying the Fauna of Pune district
for the Western Regional Station, Zoological
Survey of India, we collected Rhinomugil
corsula (Ham.) from the Bhima river and
some of its tributaries.

As a perusal of literature (Menon & Jaya-
ram 1977, Jayaram 1981) confirmed that no

previous record of this fish existed from Maha-
rashtra, it was decided to conduct a thorough
survey in Pune district primarily for studying
the occurrence and distribution of this fish in
Bhima river and its tributaries which form
part of the Krishna river system.

Materials and Methods

Almost all the rivers, streams, etc., passing

202

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

through Pune district and ultimately meeting
Bhima river were surveyed during March- July
1983. The specimens were collected by using
cast nets along the banks of the rivers. The
fish has aerial vision due to dorsally situated
eyes (which it keeps above water) and thus
easily escaped capture in all 42 stations that
were surveyed.

The fish specimens collected from the sur-
veys were identified with the help of Menon
& Jayaram (1977) and Jayaram (1981), and
identification confirmed at Calcutta.

Occurrence and Distribution

The first record of Rhinomugil corsula
(Ham.) is of Hamilton (1822) from the Gan-
getic river system. Day (1889) mentioned
rivers and estuaries of Bengal and Burma as
its habitat. Recently Menon & Jayaram (1977)
recorded for the first time its occurrence in
the Cauvery river system, where they found
it along the entire stretch of the river system.
However there is no record from Maharashtra.

Field observations show that R. corsula
has been located in Nira and Bhima
rivers almost upto their origin. Almost all the
tributaries of Nira and Bhima were devoid
of this fish except Ghod river (a major tribu-
tary of Bhima) near Chinchani dam. In Mula
& Mutha rivers too these fishes were not seen.
The probable reason for its absence may be
due to less water depth in these tributaries
which hinders easy movements. Jayaram (1981)
too has noted its presence in large rivers only.
Moreover Mula & Mutha rivers are infested
with water hyacinth which grows profusely
and covers the entire water surface which also
hinders their movement near the surface.

Panshet, Mulshi and Pawna dams constructed
on Mutha, Mula and Pawna rivers respectively
were also devoid of this fish, but it was present

in large numbers in Ujni dam on Bhima river
and in Bhatgar dam on Velvandi river, a
major tributary of Nira near Bhor.

As carp spawn and fry are brought from
Calcutta by the State Fisheries Department for
releasing in the waters of Maharashtra State,
it is quite possible that small numbers of
Rhinomugil sp. spawn or fry might have in-
advertently come along with these carp fry.
Similar accidental stocking of this fish has been
reported by Ranganathan & Natarajan (1969)
in Krishnagiri and Sathanur reservoirs in
Tamil Nadu.

Habit and Habitat

The fishes have a peculiar habit of swimming
in small shoals near the water surface with
their eyes, head and anterior portion of the
body out of water. This aerial vision gives
them a fair chance of escaping capture. Whene-
ver danger threatens, the whole shoal dives
underwater and reappears at a safe place
farther away after some time. They have also
been observed skipping on water for a short
distance to escape netting. These fishes are
usually found near the muddy banks of rivers
in groups of 20-30.

During the summer of 1983, Bhima river
was dry almost the entire length except for a
few pools of stagnant water. One such pool
of water of about \\ metre depth near Tale-
gaon Dhamdhere had about 20-25 fish (length
upto 37 cm) swimming in separate groups.
It is remarkable that these large river fish
survive in such adverse conditions of tempe-
rature and limited food supply.

Little is known about the breeding habits
of the species. Menon (pers. comm.) has
mentioned that this fish multiplies fast and
that the Cauvery river above Krishnarajasagar
dam, where the Hemavathi joins the Cauvery,

203

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 81

has presently innumerable Rhinomugil
Although this situation has not developed
here, it is imperative to start preventive mea-
sures to protect indigenous species from being
eliminated by competition for food and space.

The fish has good culinary value, but its
commercial exploitation is not feasible in the
present conditions as it escapes netting due
to its ability to see out of water. Gill and
cast nets have not given promising results. It
is quite possible that this fish might have been
accidentally introduced together with the carp
frys in other major rivers of Maharashtra
State. Further surveys are in progress.

Western Regional Station,

Zoological Survey of India,

933/A, Shivajinagar,

Pune-411 016,

October 20, 1983.

R E F E

Day, F. (1889): The Fishes of India, William
Dawson, London.

Hamilton, F. (1822): An account of fishes found
in the river Ganges and its branches, London.

Jayaram. K. C. (1981): The Freshwater Fishes
of India-A Handbook. Z.S.I., Calcutta.

Menon, A. G. K. & Jayaram, K. C. (1977) : The
freshwater grey mullet Rhinomugil corsula (Hamil-

AcK N OWLEDGEM E N TS

We are thankful to Dr. B. K. Tikader,
Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta
for allowing us to publish this note. We are
also wish to express our thanks to Dr. A. G.
K. Menon for his help and advice. We are
also grateful to Dr. K. C. Jayaram, Joint
Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta,
for confirming the identification and also for
critically going through the MS. Thanks are
also due to the Pune regional office of Maha-
rashtra State Fisheries Department for their
help.

M. S. PRADHAN
D. F. SINGH

E N C E S

ton) as a fishery resource in the Cauvery river sys-
tem, South India. Science and Culture 43(7) : 302-
304.

Ranganatham, V. & Natarajan, V. (1969) :
Studies on the occurrence and biology of Rhino-
mugil corsula Hamilton in Krishnagiri and Sathanur
reservoir, T.N. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 66(3) :
518-532.

20. PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE MIGRATORY
BEHAVIOUR OF THE GARHWAL HIMALAYAN MAHSEER

( With a text-figure)

The observations revealed a peculiar pattern
of migration in the Garhwal Himalayan
mahseer Tor putitora (Ham.). The parent
population was observed to inhabit the Ganga
at the foothills of the Garhwal Himalaya
while new recruits and the young fish inhabit

the shallow spring-fed hill streams of this
region. The fish was observed to frequent snow-
fed streams or rivers for a span of 3-4 months
i.e. between March- April and June- July, from
where the brooders moved towards suitable
spawning grounds and the non-brooders re-

204

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1. Diagrammatic representation of the migratory pattern exhibited by the Garhwal

Himalayan mahseer.

205

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

turned to the foothills during July. The mature
fish returned to the foothills only after laying
their spawn. This descent was observed during
September. The earlier part was considered
to be wintering migration while latter as
spawning migration. The fish thus exhibited
tri-phased migration.

Further, it was found to possess separate
feeding, breeding and overwintering grounds,
and migrates from one to another to ensure
the survival of the species by maintaining the
food supply. The water temperature was
observed to govern the phenomenon of tri-
phased migration, high turbidity being a
critical factor.

Introduction

Feeding and breeding are the two most
important activities while migration, in some
species of fishes is an adaptation which usually
links them and ensures their existence, survival
and numbers. Naturally, migrations like any
other adaptive property of the species, have
developed in the process of evolution and the
basic factor, primarily for the freshwater fishes
being insufficient food supply (Nikolskii
1963). According to Nikolaev (1958 a &
1958b) and Nikolskii (1961a & b), the food
supply of the parent population determines
not only the fecundity but also the quality
of the sexual products and thus the viability
of the off-springs. Evidently, if both the
parents and their young ones have same feed-
ing grounds the competition for food will in-
crease and lead to scarcity of food and ultimate-
ly to decrease in fecundity and viability of the
off-springs.

1 Tor pu tit or a matures in four stages, ‘Immature’
(1st), ‘Maturing virgins’ (Ilnd), ‘Ripening’ (Illrd)
and ‘Ripe’ (IVth).

Migratory Pattern

The parent population of the Garhwal
Himalayan mahseer along with the juveniles
nearing maturity inhabit the Ganga where they
feed, grow and attain maturity. The pheno-
menon of contranatant migration commences
somewhere in March-April when their shoals
appear for the first time in the snow-fed tribu-
taries of the Ganga (Fig. 1). The fishes within
20.0-70.0 cm range, comprising mainly of
individuals in second and third stages of
maturity1, were in abundance while those in
fourth stage of maturity were very rare. They
frequented these tributaries upto June- July,
thus covering a span of 3-4 months.

The first phase of migration comes to an
end during July and the second phase sets in
which bifurcates at this juncture. In the first
part of the second phase the mahseer juve-
niles, which are common inhabitants of the
shallow spring-fed hillstreams, move into
torrential snow-fed rivers or streams when the
former swell due to sudden influx of water
during early monsoon. Most of them measure
below 20.0 cm in length and occur almost
regularly in the daily catches. They join the
shoals of juveniles which had migrated up-
wards, and migrate along with them towards the
foothills. The fact that the Ganga is a vast
water body providing an appropriate environ-
ment for the young to grow and attain adoles-
cence, as compared to the shallow streams
which supplement the descent of ‘immatures’
into the snow-fed rivers like Alaknanda and
Bhagirathi and then into the Ganga. Simulta-
neous to the migration of the juvenile stock
commences the movement of the brooders
from the Ganga and its snow-fed tributaries
into the spring-fed streams possessing suitable
spawning grounds. The latter were also observ-
ed to serve as the feeding grounds of the new

206

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

recruits and youngest juveniles. With the on-
set of the spawning season sets in the second
part of the second phase of migration. This
spawning migration is initiated somewhere in
July and continues upto September after
which the spent fishes exhibit denatant migra-
tion and return to the foothills. This, of course
is the third and the concluding phase of the
migration.

Factors influencing migration :

It is evident from the above observations
that the fish exhibits two types of migration.
Based on the purpose of migration they can
be classified as ‘spawning’ and ‘wintering’.
Both of them are regulated or rather influ-
enced by changes in the water temperature for
the onset of wintering migration coincided
with the general rise in the temperature. The
water temperature in the Alaknanda was
observed to achieve a maxima during May
(18°C) which implies that the temperature in
Ganga must be higher to the extent that
mahseer cannot withstand it. Similarly, the
denatant migration of the juveniles during
July coincided with the lowering of the water
temperature in the Alaknanda. Naturally, they
cannot tolerate high temperatures of the
Ganga and move towards cold waters of the
Alaknanda and Bhagirathi, nor can they tole-
rate low temperatures of these snow-fed rivers
and move towards warm waters of the Ganga.
The fish is apparently ‘sternothermal’ in

Fishery Biology Research Laboratory,
Department of Zoology,

Garhwal University,

Srinagar-246 174, (India).

July 13, 1983.

nature, as is S. richardsonii, another coldwater
species of this region (Nautiyal et al. 1982).

The spawning migration, too, is influenced
by fluctuations in the water temperature but
sudden influx of the water carrying huge
amounts of silt seems to be the major factor
effecting migration of the brooders.

A dapti ve significance

All the phases of migration are of adaptive
significance. To begin with, the spawning
migration ensures the survival of the species
by maintaining the food supply in these rivers
and streams. The migration of the ‘immatures’
from the spring-fed tributaries to snow-fed and
that of wintering juveniles from the foothills
to the upper reaches and back, too, is under-
taken to maintain the food supply, which is
scarce in these tributaries. In case of those
which move away from the spawning-cum-
feeding grounds it ensures food for new recruits
which are voracious feeders (Nautiyal & Lai,
in press). The tri-phased migration of the
Garhwal Himalayan mahseer is obviously due
to insufficient ‘basic food’.

Apparently, the pattern of migration in-
volves movement of the mahseer from the
feeding grounds to the wintering ones and
then to the spawning grounds. Since the upper
reaches of the Ganga and its tributaries are
not rich in ‘basic food’, the migration of Tor
putitora is of adaptive significance from the
viewpoint of limited food supply.

PRAKASH NAUTIYAL
M. S. LAL

207

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

References

Nautiyal, P. & Lal, M. S. (in press) : Food and
feeding habits of the fingerlings and juveniles of
Garhwal mahseer Tor putitora (Ham.) inhabiting
Nayar river. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

Nautiyal, P., Misra, M. & Lal, M. S. (1982):
Notes on the distribution of S. richardsonii in some
Garhwal hillstreams. JOSHRAD, 6: 93-95.

Nikolaev, I. I. (1958a): Some factors governing
the fluctuations in numbers of Clupea harengus
mem bras L. and Atlanto-Scandinavian Harengus
harengus. Trudy VNIRO, 34.

(1958b): Long term variations in

the numbers of Baltic Clupeonalla in relation to
productivity of plankton, ibid. 34.

Nikolskii, G. V. (1961a) : Some trends in the
effects of fishing on the population structure and
details of individuals in the caught population for
commercial fish. Transactions of the Conference on
Dynamics of Fish Numbers. Izd. Akad. Nauk. SSSR.

(1961b): The causes of fluctua-
tions in fish numbers. Vopr. lkhtiol., 1, 4.

(1963): The Ecology of Fishes.

Academic Press Inc. London.

21. THE SPIDER AS BEE ENEMY

{ With a text-figure)

Introduction

During routine inspection of apiary in
spring honey flow period, occasionally spiders
are spotted which seem to mean no harm.
Their webs appear amidst the fencing shrubs
and undergrowth. With the commencement of
the monsoon season however, webs along with
the spiders start appear in greater numbers
in the apiary which soon form an invisible
wall all around from ground to tree top levels.
A close look at the web during monsoon and
autumn period revealed A. meilifera honey
bees caught in them while the others already
devoured and discarded were seen on the
ground below the webs. The spider webs were
also a source of nuisance in the apiary during
inspection work. Out of curiosity, observations
were initiated on the nature and extent of
damage to honey bees caused throughout the
year and possibilities of some control measure.

Observations

Spider webs were located amidst and over
the fencing bush foliage, amongst the apiary

shrubs at 15 feet from ground level and also
among the surrounding trees upto 40 feet
height.

Average web size was found to be 3.5 feet
across and were either round, square or pen-
tagonal in form, though other forms also exist-
ed. Some spiders occupying these webs were
caught, preserved and sent to Department of
Zoology, Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana where they were identified as
Nephilia kuhlii. The pattern of the webbing
around the apiary was such that any forager
or young bee in orientation flight was certain
of getting trapped since most of them were
right in the flight path of the foragers. How-
ever, it was observed that foragers which took
off from the colony flew at high speed and
pierced the webs to the other side without
any harm while others coming laden with pollen
or nectar to the hive were caught in the webs
owing to their slow speed. In a separate
observation taken in a private A. indica apiary
plagued with a similar problem, comparatively
less number of foragers were trapped in the
webs by virtue of its being extremely agile.

208

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Five clean webs were kept under constant
scrutiny all through the day for studying the
feeding behaviour of the spider. Total number
of spiders in the apiary was worked out consi-
dering the number of webs scattered around.
When trapped in the web, the bees tried to
get free but got more perfectly entangled. This
struggle by the bees was carefully watched by
the spider which maintained its distance from
the unfortunate victim. When the bee gave up
the struggle the spider started moving towards
it and carefully wrapped it up like a cocoon
in a freshly spun silk web. Such cocooned
bees were then suspended on one side of the

The apiary consisting of 50 well managed
colonies of A. mellifera had 71 major webs
within the apiary premises and 132 webs on
the fencing shrubs and amongst the tree
foliage. Thus, with over 200 spiders comfor-
tably ensconced in their webs in the apiary
under study, roughly 2000 foragers were lost
in a day. This worked out to a loss of 40
bee foragers in one single colony. Considering
the production of nearly 800 bees during this
period every day in one colony the loss
accruing to spider damage alone amounted
to 5 per cent of the total bee production (Table
1). However, this, coupled with the damage

Table 1

Extent of damage (%) to honey bees*

Critical destructive period in a year

Year

Bees

June

July

August

September

October

November

1978**

A pis mellifera

1.25

3.75

4.38

Apis indica

—

1.25

2.50

3.13

2.50

j 979* * *

Apis mellifera

—

2.50

1.25

3.75

1.88

1980***

Apis mellifera

—

3.13

1.50

4.38

* Observations based on 5 spider nests
** Untreated
*** Treated

web and the spider returned to its previous
position, maintaining a close vigil. On an
average, 10 foragers were got trapped
by evening in clean webs every day. Feeding
on the trapped bees continued from morning
till evening. Whenever hungry, the spider
approached the cocooned bees, cleaned off the
silken threads and ripped open the thoracic
and abdominal portion to feed on the stomach
and intestinal contents. During feeding, the
bees exhibited some movements but soon
perished. Such devoured bees were later cast
to the ground by the spider.

caused by major enemies like wasp, endo-
parasitic mite Tropilaelaps clareae and birds,
the colony strength soon dwindled. The loss
is often colossal considering the fact that this
is a scarcity period in Kangra valley of Palam-
pur and artificial feeding has to be resorted
to, so that egg laying work is not hampered
in a colony. With the winter approaching, the
colony situation rapidly deteriorated, calling
for utmost care in organising sound manage-
ment practices.

In a separate experiment with A. mellifera
in another apiary, carbaryl 50 WP @ 0.05

209

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vof. 81

200i

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

TIME OF THE YEAR

Fig. 1. Spider population throughout the year.

per cent was found to give effective check
against spiders among other chemicals when
sprayed at dusk after all the bees were safely
inside the hives. By morning the effect of the
insecticidal compound had worn off since no
undesirable bee behaviour was noticed and
normal colony work in all the hives progressed
satisfactorily. However it was a difficult task
to get rid of the spiders by resorting to chemi-
cals for fear of careless and untimely use of
the chemical by field workers. Besides, even
if the spiders were killed the webs would
still be a nuisance to the bees. This problem
was effectively tackled by washing down the
spiders along with their webs with a quick
water-spray- jet. This work was done on a
bright, clear and sunny day and many of the

spiders receiving direct water-spray jet were
paralysed and later killed. No new webs came
up for good part of the season later.

Observations were again resumed the next
year 1979 (Fig 1). It was found that the spider
activity did not show up as early as on the
previous year. It started late during July,
picking-up by August and their activity was
confined to certain isolated areas in the apiary.
Water-spray jet treatment was given during
August and consequently the population level
showed a rapid decrease. However, the popu-
lation level again shot up to 150 during Octo-
ber and the decline by November was extre-
mely slow. This simultaneously resulted in
continued loss to the bee colonies prior to
winter. In the third year of 1980, spider popu-

210

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

lation showing a threatening level during
August was curbed through the first water-
spray jet treatment. Another treatment was
resorted to during October as a result of
which the problem was taken care off in good
time. During this year, some of the trees,
shrubs and other plants were pruned and
fencing area cleaned. The distance between

Department of Entomology-Apiculture,

H. P. Agricultural University,

Palampur (HP) India-176 062.

Bee-Keeping Research Station,

Nagrota Bagwan, Kangra (HP) 176 047,

July 20, 1982.

22. NEW RECORDS OF APHIDS

FROM UTTAR

The aphid fauna of Uttar Pradesh is com-
prised of 169 species belonging to 79 genera.
Further exploration in the hills of Kumaon
Range of the state during the period 1979-’80
17 more species were recorded for the first
time from the state. With the present commu-
nication the aphid fauna of Uttar Pradesh
numbers 186 species.

The material of the species reported are in
the collection of Entomology Laboratory, De-
partment of Zoology, University of Calcutta,
Calcutta 700 019.

Capitophorus hippophaes mitegoni Eastop: 2
apterae viviparae ex. Clematis buchaniana,
Nainital, 4.xii.79; many apterae viviparae
and 1 alate vivipara ex. Polygonum barba-
tum, Bageshwar, 21.iii.80.

Cavariella konoi Takahashi: 15 apterae vivi-
parae ex. Salix babylonica, Nainital, 16.iii.80.
Ceratovacwm silvestrii (Takahashi) : 8 apterae
viviparae and 9 nymphs ex. Bambusa sp.
Almorah, 8.xii.79.

Diphorodon cannabis (Passerini) : 5 apterae

bush to bush was also increased so as to deny
their use for webbing.

To contain the spider menace thus, it was
observed that, apart from maintaining clean
surroundings, use of water-spray jets once
during peak time in August and another during
late autumn season gave a safe, clean, econo-
mical, efficient and sure method of control.

A. K. THAKUR

O. P. SHARMA

(HOMOPTERA: APHIDIDAE)

PRADESH

viviparae and 2 nymphs ex. Cannabis sativa,
Almorah, 8 . xii . 79.

Greenidea longirostris Basu: 1 alate vivipara
ex. indet plant of Palmaceae and ex. Quer-
cus sp., Nainital, 13 . iii . 80.

Hyperomyzus lactuceae (Linn.): 3 apterae

viviparae and 3 alatae viviparae ex. Son-
chus sp., Nainital, 4. xii. 79; 4 apterae vivi-
parae and 4 nymphs ex. Sonchus sp., Rani-
khet, 22. iii. 80.

Liosomaphis berberidis (Kaltenbach) : 6 apte-
rae viviparae and 4 nymphs ex. Berberis
aristata, Nainital, 13. iii. 80; 4 apterae

viviparae and 4 nymphs ex. Berberis sp.,
Almorah, 19. iii. 80.

Macrosip hum aulacorthoides David, Narayanan
and Rajasingh: 3 apterae viviparae ex.

Ocimum canum, Nainital, 3. xii. 79.

Macrosiphum euphorbiae (Thomas) : 3 apterae
viviparae ex. indet plant of Rosaceae,
Almorah, 9. xii. 79.

Metopolophium sonchifoliae Raychaudhuri,
Ghosh and Das: 4 apterae viviparae and 1

211

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. HI

nymph ex. Rubus ellipticus, Nainital, 4.xii.79.

Mollitrichosiphum bucldlejae Ghosh, Banerjee
and Raychaudhuri : 2 apterae viviparae and
1 nymph ex. Alnus nepalensis, Almorah,
17 . iii . 80.

Myzus cymballariellus Stroyan: 1 aptera vivi-
para and 1 nymph ex. Sedum sp., Almorah,
17. iii. 80.

Pseudoastegopteryx himalayensis Ghosh, Pal
and Raychaudhuri: 1 aptera vivipara and
1 nymph ex. indet. bamboo plant, Almorah,
17. iii. 80.

Reticulaphis distyJii rotifera Bille Ris Lambers
and Takahashi: 2 apterae viviparae and 6

Department of Life Science,

Calcutta University,

Post Graduate Centre,

Agartala-799 004.

Department of Zoology,

Calcutta-700 019,

August 6, 1982.

nymphs ex. Quercus sp., Nainital, 5.xii.79.
Rhopalosiphum nymphaeae (Linn.) : 3 apterae
viviparae, 1 alate vivipara and 1 nymph ex.
an aquatic plant, Ranikhet, 8 . xii . 79.
Takecallis arundinariae (Essig) : 2 alatae

viviparae ex. Bambusa sp., Nainital, 4. xii. 79.
Toxoptera odinae (van der Goot) : 1 alate
vivipara in yellow pan water trap, Almorah,
19 .iii . 80.

We are grateful to the UGC, New Delhi
for financing the work, the Head, deptt. of
Zoology and the Incharge, deptt. of Life
Science, Calcutta University for providing
working facilities.

BASANT K. AGARWALA
D. GHOSH

D. N. RAYCHAUDHURI*

* Deceased, 1st May 1981.

23. NEW RECORD OF INSECT PESTS INFESTING KASTURI
BHENDI, HIBISCUS ABELOMOSCHUS LINNAEUS,

A MEDICINAL PLANT

Kasturi Bhendi, Hibiscus abelomoschus L. a
useful medicinal plant has been reported to
be attacked by the cotton shoot weevil, Aid-
dodes affaber Aurivillius (Coleoptera: Curcu-
lionidae) (Devaiah et al. 1981).

It was revealed in a survey made during
August-September, 1980 at the Regional Re-
search Station, University of Agricultural
Sciences, Dharwad Campus, Karnataka that
this plant is attacked by ten insect pests. These
pests are being reported on this plant for the
first time.

spotted boll worms Earias cupreovirides
Wlk. and E. insulana Boisd.

The adult moths laid eggs on the fruits and

the young ones after emergence bore into the
flower buds and pods of the plant. The per-
centage of incidence was 19.04. The cater-
pillars make irregular tunnels evident by the
excreta thrown out and completely damage the
seeds of the pod. The number of grubs in each
pod varied from 1 to 3 with an average of 2.
The fully grown caterpillars pupate either
within the pod or outside in silken cocoons.

TOBACCO LEAF EATING CATERPILLAR Spodop-
iera litura F. feeds on the leaves also bores
into the pods. The incidence of this pest is
sporadic. The fully grown larvae pupate out-
side the pod.

gram caterpillar Heliothis armigera Hb.

212

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

feeds on pods. The eggs were laid on the
pods and young ones bore into the pods. The
number of caterpillars in each pod varied
from 1 to 2.

cotton semi-looper Anomis flava Fb. defo-
liates the plants by cutting the leaves. The in-
cidence was sporadic.

red cotton bug Dysdercus cingulatus Fb.
Both nymphs and adults suck sap from the
seeds of the ripening pod and renders the seeds
unfit for further use. Average number of
nymphs in an infested pod was 57. The in-
festation of this bug was found only when the
pods were already infested by bollworms.

dusky cotton bug Oxycarenus hyalinipen-
nis Costa. Both nymphs and adults of this bug

Department of Entomology
College of agriculture,

Dharwad-580 005,

January 28, 1983.

suck the sap from the dried opened pods and
rendered the seeds useless. The average num-
ber of nymphs in an infested pod was 83.
Similar to red cotton bug, the infestation of
dusky cotton bug was also found only after
the pods were infested by bollworms.

myllocerus beetle Myllocerus undecim-
pustulalus var. maculosus Desbr. The adults
feed on the leaves from the margins. The
number on each leaf varied from 1.0 to 2.0
with an average of 1.0. The beetles prefer
tender leaves for feeding.

cetonid beetle Oxycetonia versicolor F.
Feed on the soft and tender pods.

blister beetle Mylabris pustulata (Thunb.)
feeds on the flowers.

R. RAJASHEKHARGOUDA
M. C. DEVAIAH
SUHAS YELSHETTY

Reference

Devaiah, M. C., Rajashekhargouda, R., Govin- Linnaeus, a new host plant of cotton shoot weevil,
dan, R., Thippeswamy, C. & Yelshetty, Suhas Alcidodes affaber (Auriv.) (Curculionidae : Coleop-

(1981): Kasturi bhendi, Hibiscus abelomoschus tera). Curr. Res., 10: 95.

24. A NEW RECORD OF NEOPHEOSIA FASCIAE A (MOORE)

ON APPLE

Neopheosia fasciata (Moore) (Notodonti-
dae: Lepidoptera) was recorded for the first
time, on apple at Regional Fruit Research
Station, Mashobra, Simla during 1978-79. Cater-
pillars found feeding on apple foliage were
reared and further studies were carried out in
the laboratory.

Larva is pale green; head streaked with red
lines; thoracic segments and legs green and
abdomen brown dorsally and light green ven-
trally with a prominent brown process on
dorsal side of the first abdominal segment.

Larva becames full grown in 22-28 days and
measures 3.8 to 4.0 cm. It defoliates apple
during May-early June and during late July-
August. Pupation occurs in loose silken threads
on leaves in June and it lasts for 25-27 days.
Larva of the second generation pupates during
September-early October in debris or in cre-
vices of the bark where it over-winters. Moth
emerges after 230-270 days, in May, next year.

Adult is brown; fore wings pale brown with
dark brown streaks on and below the costa,
a series of short streaks on and towards the

213

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo I. 81

outer margin, inner margin dark brown; hind
wings light brown, outer margin brown and
anal angle dark brown. Antennae are slightly
bipectinate. Male moth is smaller (4.2 cm)
than the female moth (4.5 cm) when measur-
ed with wings expanded. It is active during
May and again in July. Eggs laid singly by a
female moth without mating, are creamish
yellow and round.

N. fasciata was reported to occur in India
by Hampson (1892) as Fheosia fasciata Moore.

Regional Fruit Research Station,

H. P. Krisiii Vishva Vidyalaya,

Mashobra, Simla - 171 007,

August 11, 1982.

After this record the insect does not seem to
have been reported from any where in India
or elsewhere. The present account is, there-
fore, the new record of N. fasciata on apple.

Ack no wledge m e n ts

Thanks are due to the Chief Scientist, RFRS,
Mashobra, Simla for providing facilities and
to the Director, ZSI, Calcutta, for identifying
the insect.

RAMESH CHANDER

Reference

Hampson, G. F. (1892): Fauna of British India
including Ceylon & Burma, Moths. Vol. I, p. 160.
London, Taylor & Francis.

25. ON A GLOSSIPHONID LEECH

{With three text -figures )

Among fresh water Flirudineans Glossipho-
nid leeches are small invertebrates that prey
largely on water snails (Clegg 1952). These
leeches do not form true cocoons but carry
their fertilized eggs in membranous capsules
on the ventral surface of the body. After
hatching the young remain on the body of the
parent in the same area, attached to the parent
by means of mucous threads. Young ones
probably feed on mucus, until they reach a
certain size and then detach themselves from
the parent to lead a free life (Pennak 1953).
I came across a similar glossiphonid leech,
which is quite often found inside or attached
to the shell of a freshwater bivalve Lamelli-
dens corrianus from river Mula, Poona. The

leech appears to be Hemiclepsis marginata as
per the descriptions of Harding and Moore
(1927). The photographs show dorsal surface
of an individual with characteristic rows of
yellow spots (Fig. 1) and ventral surface of
the same individual with 10 large, prominent
eggs attached to the body (Fig. 2). Such
leeches with eggs were often found to be
resting at one place for a long time with only
undulating body movements. In two observed
cases after about 11-13 days the small leeches
came out of the eggs. The young ones were
observed to come out from under the parent
leech and, if disturbed, to retreat to the same
shelter (Fig. 3). The parent leech guarded its
young ones in a similar manner as it guarded

214

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Hemiclepsis marginata

Fig. 1. Dorsal surface with characteristic rows of
yellow spots.

Fig. 2. Ventral surface with 10 'large eggs attached
to the body.

the eggs — a kind of parental care. I am
not aware whether the glossiphonid mention-
ed here is a known parasite of the Lamellidens

Post-Graduate Research Centre,

Modern College,

Pune 411 005,

January 27, 1983.

Fig. 3. Young ones were observed to come out from
under the parent leech.

or some other animal. It is mentioned, how-
ever, in Fauna of British India that some
specimens were found in Lamellidens.

H. V. GHATE

References

Clegg, John (1952): The freshwater life of the
British Isles. Frederick and Co. Ltd., London.

Harding, W. A. & Moore, J. P. (1927): The
Fauna of British India, Vol. Hirudinea, Taylor and

Francis, London.

Pennak, R. W. (1953): Fresh-Water Inverte-
brates of the United States. The Ronald Press Co.,
N. Y., USA.

215

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

26. STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF TWO COMMON
VECTOR SNAILS OF PUNJAB BY PREDATORY INSECTS

8 species of aquatic insects have been screened for their predatory activity against
two species of snails viz. Limnoea luteola and Indoplanorbis exustus. Larvae of
Hydciticus sp. are the most efficient predators of L. luteola as they consumed 84.3%
of the snails exposed to them and the other species in decreasing order ranked as
follows, Laccotrephes ruber (70%), Diplonychus rusticum (43.3%), Laccotrephes
griseus (40%) and Lethocerus indicus (22.2%). Laccotrephes ruber is the most
efficient predator of 7. exustus as it consumed 84.3% of the snails and the other
species in decreasing order ranked as follows, Diplonychus rusticum (60%), Hydaticus
sp. larvae (52.5%), Lethocerus indicus (20%), Cybister sp. (18.7%) and Lacco-
trephes griseus (16.6%). Ranatra elongata and Strenolophus sp. did not feed either

on L. luteola or on I. exustus and Cybister
Introduction

The importance of snails cannot be over
emphasised as many of them act as the inter-
mediate hosts of several important diseases
of man and livestock namely Schistosomiasis,
Fascioliasis and Paramphistomiasis and some
are serious crop and garden pests. Their con-
trol is, therefore, rather essential. Controlling
snails through chemical methods involves large
scale dissemination of pesticides or mollusci-
cides which in addition to being expensive
may prove hazardous to the health of live-
stock and man. Studies for the development of
alternate methods of snail control are, there-
fore, quite necessary. The need to develop
new methods for the control of medically
important snails has also been stressed by the
U.S. Parasitic Diseases Panel (Anonymous
1971).

Bequaert (1925, 1926) studied the arthropod
enemies of molluscs with particular emphasis
on the dipterous parasites of snails. Berg (1953,
1961, 1964a, 1964b, 1973) studied the potential
of sciomyzid fly larvae for snail-killing and
highlighted their importance for the biological
control of snails. The role of sciomyzid fly
larvae for the biological control of snails was

sp. did not feed on L. luteola.

also stressed by Neff (1964), Neff & Berg (1966),
Knutson et al. (1967, 1970), Bvattet al. (1969),
Eckblad (1971), Ferguson et al. (1971) and
Geckler (1971). The biological control of
snails through giant water bug was studied by
Somasunderarao (1963), through another be-
lostomatid bug by Voelker (1968) and through
Hydrophilus beetles by Maillard (1971).
Studies on the biological control of snails as
such have also been carried out by Chemin
et al. (1956, 1971) Michelson (1957), Fer-
guson et al. (1956, 1971), Petitjean (1966),
Scott (1970), Yasuvaoka .(1970) and Muley
(1978).

It was, therefore, considered worthwhile to
find out the biological control agents from
amongst the aquatic insects living in the water
bodies inhabited by snails. The present study
deals with the assessment of 8 species of
aquatic insects for the biological control of
two important species of vector snails namely
Indoplanorbis exustus and Limnoea luteola.

Materials and Methods

Eight species of aquatic insects namely
Laccotrephes ruber Linn., L. griseus Guer. and
Ranatra elongata Fabr. belonging to Nepidae

216

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

(Hemiptera); Diplonychus rusticum (Fabr.)
and Lethocerus indicus (Lep. and Serv.) be-
longing to Belostomatidae (Hemiptera); Cy bis-
ter sp. and Hydaticus sp. larvae belonging to
Dytiscidae (Coleoptera); and Sternolophus sp.
belonging to Hydrophilidae (Coleoptera) were
used in the experiments and these were col-
lected from the different permanent water
bodies of Ludhiana district. Two species of
laboratory bred snails i.e. Indoplanorbis exus-
tus and Limnoea luteola in well established

aquaria were exposed to the attack of the
above aquatic insects and their rates of snail
consumption were recorded. Their interesting
behaviour patterns were also photographed.
The observations were made over a period of
about two weeks.

Results and Discussion

Out of the 8 species of predacious insects
used in the present study the larvae of Hyda-
ticus sp. ranked first for the control of Limnaea

Table 1

Showing the consumption rate of Limnoea luteola and Indoplanorbis exustus by aquatic insects . .

Sr.

Name of insect

Snail species

No. of

Soft mass/

Consump-

No.

snails

snails left

shell consumed

tion %

used

unconsumed

Laccotrephes

Limnoea

12(8)

Only soft mass

griseus Guer.

luteola

consumed

Indoplanorbis

15(3)

16.6

exustus

L. ruber Linn.

L. luteola

9(21)

— do —

I. exustus

5(27)

84.3

Ranatra elongata Fabr.

L. luteola

6(0)

— do —

I. exustus

5(3) * *

Diplonychus

L. luteola

17(13)

— do —

43.3

rusticum (Fabr.)

I. exustus

12(18)

Lethocerus indicus

L. luteola

7(2)

— do —

22.2

(Lep. & Serv.)

I. exustus

16(4)

Cy bister sp.

L. luteola

15(0)

— do —

L exustus

12(3)

18.7

Sternolophus sp.

L. luteola

20(0)

— do —

I. exustus

20(2)*

0.09

Hydaticus sp.

L. luteola

11(59)

17 shells com-

84.3

larvae

L exustus

19(21)

pletely eaten and

52.5

50% shells of the
rest partly eaten

N.B. Figures in parenthesis under heading 5 indicate snails consumed.

* Natural death.

217

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 81

luteola as they ate up 84.3% of the snails
exposed to their predatory activity. They were
found to be voracious feeders of snails as
they even ate up the hard shells along with
the soft parts. The other species which ranked
next in decreasing order were Laccotrephes
ruber, Diplonychus rusticum, Laccotrephes
griseus and Lethocerus indicus as they con-
sumed 70%, 43.3%, 40% and 22.2% of the
L. luteola snails respectively (Table 1). The
other 3 species namely Ranatra elongata,
Cybister sp. and Sternolophus sp. did not feed
even on a single L. luteola snail. Laccotrephes
ruber has been found to be the most efficient
predator of Indoplanorbis exustus as it con-
sumed 84 . 3% of the snails exposed to its
predatory activity. The other species namely
Diplonychus rusticum, Hydaticus sp. larvae,
Lethocerus indicus, Cybister sp. and Lacco-
trephes griseus consumed 60%, 52.5%, 20%,

Department of Vety. Parasitology,

Punjab Agril. University,

Ludhiana (Pb.),

November 22, 1982.

Refer

Anonymous (1971): U. S. Parasitic Diseases
Panel. In “United States-Japan Co-operative Medi-
cal Science Program Five Year Report 1965-1970”.
pp. 73-82. United States Department of State. Publi-
cation 8598.

Bequaert, J. C. (1925) : The arthropod enemies
of mollusks with description of a new dipterus para-
site from Brazil. J. Parasit. 11: 201-212.

(1926): A dipterus parasite of

a snail from Brazil with an account of the arthropod
enemies of mollusks. In Medical report of the
Hamilton Rice Seventh expedition of the Amazon.
Harvard Inst, for trap. Biol, and Med. Contr. 4:
292-303.

Berg, C. O. (1953): Sciomyzid larvae (Diptera)
that feed on snails. J. Parasit. 39: 630-636.

(1961) : Biology of snail — killing

Scicmyzidae (Diptera) of North America and Europe.

18.7% and 16.6% of the /. exustus snails
respectively. Ranatra elongata and Strenolophus
sp. did not consume any /. exustus snail
although 3 out of 8 snails & 2 out of 22 snails
exposed to them respectively died a natural
death. Somasundararao (1963) also studied the
predatory activity of Sphaerodema rusticum
(now called as Diplonychus rusticum) and
found that 39 bugs destroyed 309 snails in 5
days which worked out to be 45 snails per
month for each bug. He further observed that
Limnoea luteola snails were preferred over
Indoplanorbis corneus and the latter over
Limnoea accuminata.

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to Dr. Kuldip Rai, Zoolo-
gist, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta for
the identification of the predatory insects used
in the present study.

H. S. BALI
SAWAI SINGH
SUNITA SHARMA

EN CES

Verh. XL lnt. Kongr. Eat. 1: 197-202.

(1964a) : Snail control in Trematode

diseases. The possible value of sciomyzid larvae,
snail-killing Diptera. In “Advances in Parasitology”
(B. Dawes, ed.), Vol. 2, pp. 259-309. Academic
Press, London and New York.

(1964b) : Snail-killing sciomyzid flies:

biology of the aquatic species. Verh. hit. Vcrein.
theor. angerr. Limnol. 15: 926-932.

(1973): Biological control of snail

borne diseases. A review. Ex pi. Parasit. 33: 318-330.

Bratt, A. D., Knutson, L. V., Foote, B. A. &
Berg, C. O. (1969): Biology of Pherbellia (Diptera:
Sciomyzidae) . Med. Cornell Univ. Agric. Exp. Stn.
404: 1-247.

C/HERN IN, E.. MlCHELSON, E. H. & AUGUSTINE,
D. L. (1956) : Studies on the biological control of
schistosome bearing snails. Am. J. trop. Med. Hyg.

218

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

5: 297-307.

Chernin, E. & Perlstein, J. M. (1971): Protec-
tion of snails against miracidia of S. mansoni by
various aquatic invertebrates. J. Parasit. 57: 217-219.

Eckblad, J. W. (1971) : The population ecology
of malocophagous larvae of Sepedon fuscipennis and
three aquatic snail populations ( Lymnoca palustris:
Physa integra : Gyraulus parvus). Ph.D. thesis. Cor-
nell University, Ithaca N.Y. 108 pp.

Ferguson, F. F., Oliver-Gonzalez, J. & Palmer,
J. R. (1958) : Potential for biological control of
Australovbis glabratus, the intermediate host of
Puerto Rican schistosomiasis. Am. J. trop. Med. Hyg.
7: 491-493.

Geckler, R. P. (1971): Laboratory studies of
predation of snails by larvae of the marsh fly,
Sepedon tenuicornis (Diptera: Sciomyzidae) . Can.
Ent. 103 : 638-649.

Knutson, L. V., Neff, S. E. & Berg, C. O. (1967) :
Biology of snail-killing flies from Africa and Southern
Spain (Sciomyzidae, Sepedon). Parasitology 57:
487-505.

Knutson, L. V., Stephenson, J. W. & Berg,
C. O. (1970): Bio-Systematic studies of Salticella
fasciata (Meigen) a snail-killing fly (Diptera: Scio-
myzidae). Trans. R. ent. Soc. Load. 722(3): 81-100.

Maillard, Y. P. (1971): La Malacophagei dans
le genre Hydrophilus Geoffroy (Ins. Coleopteres:
Hydrcphilidae) : son interet dans le controle natural
des hotes intermediares d helminthiases. Comptes
rendus des Seances de /’ Academic des Sciences.
Paris 272: 2235-2238.

Michelson, E. H. (1957) : Studies on the biolo-
gical control of schistosome-bearing snails, predators

27. NECROPHAGOUS HABIT IN
ACHAT IN A FULICA

( With

On the sunny day of 18th August, 1982 at
6.45 A.M. one of us (RMS) saw a house
lizard, Hemidactylus frenalus Schlegel dying
in a cemented open space near the bath room
of his house. The lizard was lying upside down.
In the vicinity a number of giant African
snails, Achatina fulica fulica Bowdick were
also present. Out of them one snail came to-

and parasites of fresh water Mollusca: A review of
literature. Parasitology 47: 413-426.

Muley, E. V. (1978) : Biological and chemical
control of the vector snail Melania scabra scabra
(Gastropoda: Prosobranchia) : Bull. Zool. Surv.

India 7(i): 1-5.

Neff, S. E. (1964): Snail-killing sciomyzid flies:
application in biological control. Verb. int. Verein.
theor. angew. Limnol. 15: 933-939.

Neff, S. E. & Berg, C. O. (1966): Biology and
immature stages of malacophagous Diptera of the
genus Sepedon (Sciomyzidae). Bulletin Agricultural
Experiment Station, Virginia Polytechnic Institute
566: 1-113.

Petit jean, M. (1966) : Le controle biologique des
mollusques nuisibles. Annee biol. 5: 271-295.

Scott, J. A. (1970) : “Biological regulation of
vectors' ’ a special emphasis area. J. Parasit. 56: 253.

Somasundararao, G. (1963): A preliminary note
on the biological control of fresh water snails by
aquatic insect. Indian Vet. J. 40 ( i) : 50-52.

Voelker, J. (1968): Untersuchungen zu Ernahrug,
Fort pflanzungs-biologie und Entwicklung Von Lim-
nogeton fieberi Mayr (Belostomatidae — Hemiptera)
als Beitrag zur. Kenntnis Von Naturlichen Feinden
tropischer Surswasser Schnecken. Ent. Mitt. Zool.
St. Inst. Zool. Mas. Iiamb. 3(60): 1-31.

Yasuvaoka, K. (1970): Some recent research on
the biology and control of Oncomelania snails in
Japan. In “Recent Advances in Researches on Fila
riasis and Schistosomiasis in Japan”. (M. Sasa,
ed.) pp. 291-303. Univ. of Tokyo. Press, Tokyo;
Univ. Park Press, Baltimore and Manchester.

THE GIANT AFRICAN SNAIL,

FULICA BOWDICK

a plate )

wards the lizard, crawled on it from the head
end, came upto the lower jaw and started
devouring it within a couple of minutes. Ini-
tially the lizard moved its limbs but after 15
minutes it became motionless. This feeding was
continued upto 8.10 A.M. When the snail
retired, skin and flesh of the lower jaw and
the neck of the lizard were found to be eaten

219

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

away. A peculiar chuck-chuck sound was heard
all the time during the feeding.

In order to confirm this habit of Achatina
fulica an experiment was conducted. On 26th
August, 1982 at 8.15 A.M. the same species
of house lizard was collected, made almost
motionless and kept upside down in the same
place where the earlier incident occurred. Then
two giant African snails were brought and
placed near the lizard. Both the snails came
to the lizard which was then alive and moving
its limbs slowly. Both the snails crawled on
the lizard. But one showed no attraction for it
and ultimately went away, while the other
started eating its skin and flesh of the abdomen
region. The lizard was still alive and showed
some movements but the snail did not let
loose. The lizard completely stopped its move-
ment at 8.35 A.M. Feeding continued upto
9.30 A.M. and the same chuck-chuck sound
was heard. During the feeding this time the
snail turned the lizard's body to the lateral
side and went on nibbling at its skin and
muscle till it could finish up the portion from
the abdomen to the head region.

The giant African snail has the status of a
serious international pest of a number of im-
portant crops and herbivorous habit of this

Zoological Survey of India,

Andaman & Nicobar Regional Station,

Port Blair - 744 101,

March 15, 1983.

snail is very well known. There is no record
on the flesh eating habit of this snail barring
a single report by Mead (1961) who observed
Achatina fulica to feed on a dead black rat in
Guam Island (in South America). A perusal
of literature also shows that pulmonates in
general are herbivorous but they devour dead
and decomposed flesh when easily available
(Hyman 1967, Mitra and Biswas 1974, Raut
and Ghose 1982).

Although in the present case Achatina fulica
fed on the flesh of dying lizard not the dead
or decomposed one still this is the same necro-
phagous habit as stated earlier. Because this
feeding habit of Achatina is quite different
from that of carnivorous pulmonates which
hunt animal prey (Watson 1915, Hyman
1967).

Ack nowledge m e n ts

We are thankful to the Director, Zoological
Survey of India for the facilities to undertake
this work. We are also indebted to Dr. S. K.
Raut, Lecturer, Department of Zoology, Cal-
cutta University and Shri T. R. Mitra, Zoolo-
gical Survey of India, Calcutta for sparing
valuable literature.

A. K. DAS
R. M. SHARMA

References

Hyman, L. H. (1967) : The Invertebrates. VI,
Mollusca. McGraw-Hill, New York, vii + 792 p.

Mead, A. R. (1961): The giant African snail: A
problem in economic malacology. The University of
Chicago Press, Chicago & London, xvii + 257 p.

Mitra, T. R. & Biswas, S. K. (1974): Necropha-
gous habit in Opeas gracile (Stylommatophora: Subu-
linidae). Melac. Rev., 7: 136.

Raut, S. K. & Ghose, K. C. (1982) : Cannibalism

in the garden snail Macrochlamys indica Godwin-
Austin (Stylommatophora: Mollusca). J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 79(3) : 706-707.

Watson, H. (1915): .Studies on the carnivorous
slugs of South Africa, including monograph on
genus Apcra, and a discussion on the phylogeny of
the Aperidae, Testacellidae, and other agnathous
Pulmonata. Ann. Natal Mus, 3(2): 107-267.

220

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81

Das & Sharma: Achatina fulica fulica

Plate

Above : Achatina fulica fulica feeding on a house lizard, Hemidactylus frenatus.
Below. (Left) — H. frenatus after being eaten by A. fulica fulica.

(Right) — H. frenatus after being eaten by A. fulica fulica in the second case.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

28. A CONTRIBUTION TO THE VEGETATION OF CHAIBASA
(NORTH), SINGHBHUM DIST. (NORTH BIHAR)

91 more plants under 84 genera collected
from Chaibasa (North) forest have been
accounted for in this paper. Of these 1 1 species
are monocotyledons and 80 species are dico-
tyledons. 81 species under 71 genera collected
from Chaibasa (South) forest are published
in earlier works [/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
77(2): 223-226].

Enumeration

Nymphaeaceae

Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Nelumbium
specioswn Willd. Biswas 72

Nymphaea nouchali Burm. f.

N. pubescens Willd. Biswas 82

Papaveraceae

Papaver somniferum L. Biswas 32

Cruciferae

In the following enumeration the system of
Bentham and Hooker with some delimitations
has been followed. Nomenclature has been as
far as possible brought up to date. It may be
noted that the following species were collected
during the months of June- July 1980. The field
numbers mentioned against the place of collec-
tions is indicative of the author’s own contri-
bution. The enumerated taxa have been depo-
sited at N.B.S. Mahavidyalaya, Bishnupur,
Bankura (West Bengal).

DICOTYLEDONS

Ranunculaceae

Clematis gouriana Roxb. ex Dc. Biswas 10
Thalictrum javanicwn Bl. Biswas 22

Mag noli ace ae

Michelia champaca L. Biswas 23

Anonaceae

Brassica junoea (L.) Czern.

B. nigra Koch

Coronopus didymns (L.) Sm.

Lepidiwn didymum L.
Raphanus sativus L.

Capparaceae
Cleome viscosa L.

Bombacaceae

Bombax ceiba L.

B. malabaricum DC.

Malvaceae

Pavonia odor at a Willd.

Sid a cordifolia L.

S. acuta Burm. f.

Sterculiaceae

Melochia corchorifolia L.
Pterospermum acerifolium Willd.

Biswas 2

Biswas 25
Biswas 34

Biswas 39

Biswas 15

Biswas 52
Biswas 73
Biswas 67

Biswas 70
Biswas 55

Desmos chinensis Lour. Biswas 44

Polyalthia longifolia (Sonn.) Thw. Biswas 50
P. cerasoides (Roxb.) Bth. & Hk. f. Biswas 61

Tilxaceae

Corchorus aestuans L.

C. acutangulus Lamk.

Biswas 1

221

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Rutaceae

Caesalpinia pulcherrima (L.) SW.

Biswas 58

Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr.
Limonla acidissima L.
Feronia elephantum Corr.

Biswas 7
Biswas 12

Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) Baker ex.

K. Heyne

P. ferrugineum Benth. Biswas 5

Saraca asoca (Roxb.) De Wilde Biswas 6

Meliaceae

Mimosaceae

Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
Melia azadirachta L.
Chloroxylon swietenia DC.
Swietenia mahogani Jacq.

Biswas 62
Biswas 3
Biswas 13

Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Del.

Subsp. indica (Benth.) Brenm.
A. auriculiformis A. Cunn.

Mimosa pudica L.

Biswas 18
Biswas 42
Biswas 63

Rhamnaceae

Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth. Biswas 16

Zizyphus oertoplia (L.) Mill

Biswas 53

Onagraceae

VlTACEAE

Ceniella asiatica (L.) Urban.

Hydrocotyle asiatica L.

Biswas 19

Cayratia pedata (Lamk.) Juss. ex

Ludwigia prostrata Roxb.

Biswas 35

Gagnep. Cissus pedata Lamk.

Biswas 85

L. perennis L.

Biswas 17

Cissus quadrangula L.

Oenanthe javanica (Bl.) DC.

C. setosa Roxb.

Biswas 29

O. benghalensis Benth. and Hk. f.

Biswas 30

Sapindaceae

Rubiaceae

Cardiospermum haiicacabum L.

Biswas 26

Borreria articularis (L.f.) Williams

Spermacoce hispida L.

Biswas 38

Anacordiaceae

lxora arborea Roxb. ex Smith

Buchanania lanzan Spreng.

Biswas 11

/. parviflora Vahl
/. coccinea L.

Biswas 33
Biswas 83

Papilionaceae

Pavetta indica L.

Biswas 20

Abrus precatorius L.

Biswas 9

COMPOSITAE

Clitoria ternatea L.

CrotaJaria juncea L.

Desmodium motorium (Houtt.)

Biswas 14
Biswas 8

Blumea lacera (Burm. f.) DC.
Tridax procumbens L.

Biswas 21
Biswas 36

Merr. D. gyrans (L. f.) DC.

Biswas 4

Oleaceae

Erythrina variegata L.
E. indica Lamk.

Biswas 56

Jasminum arbor escens Roxb.

Biswas 37

Tephrosia purpurea (L.) pers.

Biswas 60

Apocynaceae

Caesalpiniaceae

Nerium indicum Mill.
Rauvolfia serpentina (L.)

Biswas 27

Cassia occidentalis L. .

Biswas 31

Benth. ex Kurz

Biswas 64

222

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Asclepiadaceae

Labiatae

Calotropis procera (Willd.)

Dryand ex W. Ait. Biswas 28

Pergularia daemia (Forsk.) Choiv.

Duenna extensa R. Br. Biswas 54

Gentianaceae

Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit.

Amaranthaceae

Amaranthus spinosus L.

A. viridis L.

Biswas 45

Biswas 47
Biswas 49

Canscora diffusa (Vahl.) R. Br. ex

Roem and Schult. Biswas 59

Boraginaceae

Cordia dichotoma Forst. f. Biswas 68

Ueliotropium indicum L. Biswas 40

H. ovalijoliwn Forsk. Biswas 86

Con VOLVU LACE AE

Cuscuta reflexa. Roxb. Biswas 71

Ipomea aquatica Forsk.

Ipomea reptens poir Biswas 74

SCROP H U LARI ACEAE

Lindernia ciliata (Coism.) Pennell.

Bonnaya brachiata Link. Otto Biswas 75
Limnophila heterophylla (Roxb.)

Benth. Biswas 89

Acanthaceae

Barleria prionitis L. Biswas 90

Hygrophila auriculata (Schum.)

Heine Biswas 77

Rungia pectinata (L.) Nees
R. parvijlora (Retz.) Nees var.
pectinata (L.) Cl. Biswas 91

VERBEN ACEAE

Clerodendrum viscosum vent.

C. infortunatum auct pi. (nonL.) Biswas 78
Tectcna grandis L. f. Biswas 43

Euphorbiaceae

Acalypha indica L.

Antidesma ghesmbilla Gaertn.
Croton bonplandianum Bail!

C. sparsiflorum Morang
Jatropha gossypifolia L.
Phyllanthus f rat emus webster
P. niruri Hook. f.

Biswas 51
Biswas 81

Biswas 76
Biswas 53

Biswas 54

MONOCOTYLEDONS

PlYDROC H ARITACE AE

Hydrilla verticillata (L. f.) Royle Biswas 87
Orchidaceae

Vanda lessellata (Roxb.) Hk. ex
G. Don V. roxburghii R. Br. Biswas 57

Amaryllidaceae

Curculigo crchioides Gaertn. Biswas 65

COMMELINACEAE

Amischophacelus axilloris (L.)
and Kamm. Cyanotis axillaris
Roem and Schult.

Commelina appendiculata Cl.

C. benghalensis L.

Cyperaceae
Fimbristylis spathacea Roth Biswas 24

Rolla Rao
(L.)

Biswas 69
Biswas 41
Biswas 66

223

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol 81

POACEAE

Arundinella setosa Trim Biswas

Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin.

Andropogon aciculatus Retz. Biswas

Eragrostis coarctata Stapf Biswas

Sclerostachya fusca (Roxb.)

A. Camus Biswas

C/o. Mr. Khagendra Nath Biswas,
Anishbazar,

P.O. Bishnupur,

Dist. Bankura,

(West Bengal),

August 12, 1982.

Acknowledgement

I am thankful to Dr. M. N. Sanyal, Head
88 of the Dept, of Botany, Ramananda College
46 for providing necessary facilities, valuable sug-
gestions and encouragement.

DILIP KUMAR BISWAS

29. OCCURRENCE OF DESMODIUM SCORP1URUS (SWARTZ)

DESVAUX IN WESTERN INDIA

{With five text-figures)

During routine plant collection around
Pune, an unusual plant of Desmodium type
was noticed. It showed quite different morpho-
logical features and we could not match it
with any species of Papilionaceae occurring in
Maharashtra. It grows near hedges among
grasses and low shrubs. It thrives well in
coarse soils. So far a single patch of this
species has been observed in the Pune Muni-
cipal area. The plant has been identified as
Desmodium scorpiurus (Sw.) Desv. and des-
cribed as follows:

Desmodium scorpiurus (Sw.) Desv. Journ.
Bot. 1: 122, 1813; DC. Prodr. 2: 333, 1825;
Schubert, FI. Peru, 8: 433, 1943; Hedysarum
scorpiurus Sw. Prodr.: 107, 1788; Meibomia
scorpiurus (Sw.) O. Ktze. Rev. Gen. 1: 198,
1891; Nissoloides cylindrica M. E. Jones,
Contr. West. Bot. 18: 135, 1935 (Figs. 1 to
5). Scorpiurus, refers to the monoliform hairy
pods showing much resemblance with the tail
unit of the scorpion.

A diffuse straggling herb. Stem wiry, some-
what angled, grooved, ascending, covered with
hooked hairs. Leaves trifoliate, alternate,
glabrescent to puberulous; stipule foliaceous,
3-5 mm long, ovate, acuminate, amplexicaul-
auriculate at base; leaf rachis 3-7 cm long;
petioles =±z 1 mm; stipules filiform, ± 1 mm
long; lateral leaflets 3-7 cm by 1. 5-4.0 cm,
ovate-oblong, or elliptic-oblong, obtuse; termi-
nal leaflets 2. 0-6.0 cm by 1.5-4. 5 cm, elliptic
or obovate, obtuse; main nerves 5-7 pairs;
conspicuous beneath; leaflets sparsely hairy on
both surfaces, more dense beneath with a few
hooked hairs. Flowers in terminal and axillary
racemes of 15-20 cm length, laxly arranged in
few flowered (2-4) fascicles; pedicels filiform,
3-6 mm long, puberulous; bracts 2-3 mm long,
persistent, lanceolate, acute, ciliate; calyx 2 mm
long, hairy; teeth about as long as the tube,
linear, acute, ciliate; corolla 3-4 mm long,
standard white, wing purplish or white diffused
with violet, ultimately fading to lemon-yellow;

224

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1-5. Desmodium scorpiurus (Swartz) Desvaux.

1. Habit; 1A. Pubescence on the stem (enlarged); 2. Stipule; 3. Flower;

4. Pod; 5. Seed.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

stamens 10 (9 + 1), vexillary one entirely free,
the other nine united, anthers uniform; ovary
shortly stalked, ovules 6-8; style incurved;
stigma terminal, minute, capitate. Pods linear,
monoliform, 4-6 cm long, joints 6-8, 3. 0-4.0
by 1 .0 mm, flat with hooked hairs. Seeds d= 3
mm by 1 mm, rhomboidal, lemon — yellow
to pale brown, smooth.

Flowers'. October-February.

Fruits : November-March.

Field notes : A very distinct species with
small flowers and narrow, long, straight or
slightly falcate moniliform pods covered with
hooked hairs. Segments are easily breakable
and they adhere to the bodies of browsing
animals and even to clothes of field collectors.
Found on heavy clay soils in open low lands
exposed to severe dry season. Occurs near
Mutha river side near Dattawadi, Pune on
waste lands and was collected from October
1981 to February 1982. It has also been re-
ported in the Aarey Colony area of Bombay
by Dr. Y. S. Kulkarni. Voucher specimens are
deposited in (1) Herbarium of Maharashtra
Association for the Cultivation of Science,
Pune and (2) Central National Herbarium,
B.S.I., Calcutta.

The plant is not mentioned in Cooke’s flora
and efforts to identify by this Flora failed.

However, it may come closer to Desmodium
laxijlorum DC. and D. dichotomum (Willd.)
DC. from which it differs in the following
respects: 1) twining, straggling herb, 2) Size
and shape of the leaves, 3) nature of pubes-
cence, 4) colour of flowers fading to lemon-
yellow, 5) rhomboidal seeds. It also varies to
some extent from the D. scorpiurus species
of Peru (Schubert 1943) in 1) dimensions of
leaf rachis and leaflets, 2) size and monoli-
form nature of pods.

Localities'. Mutha river side, near Datta-
wadi, Poona-common, Vartak 25714-16; Govt,
pastures, Aarey colony, near Bombay, very
common, Kulkarni 26001-3.

The specimens were confirmed by the
authorities of Central National Herbarium,
Calcutta. It is a native of Mexico, Central
America, West Indies and South America, south
to Peru. It occurs very commonly in the Pacific
Asia and Africa as an introduced and natu-
ralized weed. It’s occurrence in Western India,
however, has been located for the first time
and hence reported in the present note.

Thanks are due to Dr. K. Thothathri and
Dr. A. Pramanik of Central National Herba-
rium, Calcutta for confirmation, to Prof. K. R.
Surange, Director, MACS, for laboratory faci-
lities, and to Shri V. C. Deo for drawing.

V. D. VARTAK
M. S. KUMBHOJ K AR

M.A.C.S. Research Institute,
Law College Road,

Pune - 411 004,

April 14, 1982.

Reference

Schubert, B. G. (1943): Flora of Peru. Vol. 8,
Port III, No. 1: 413-439. Botanical Series, Field
Museum of Natural History. Chicago.

226

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

30. IDENTIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTIONAL NOTE OF A FEW
SPECIES OF EPILOBIUM LINN. IN INDIA

The paper presents the distributional record of two newly described species namely
E. gouldii & E. squamosum and extension of distribution of E. cylindricum

The genus Epilobium Linn, with more than
200 species occurs in all continents relatively
at high altitudes. Clarke (1879) described 12
species under the genus Epilobium from East
and North-East Himalaya. Raven (1962) re-
cognised 37 species which include 13 new taxa
from the Himalayan region and recorded 31
taxa from India.

During identification and study of the
Indian Epilobium in herb. CAL we
came across some interesting specimens.
Further critical study with the available lite-
rature, type specimens and the photographs
from Kew herbarium reveal that they belong
to two newly described species of Epilobium
described by Raven (1962).

The specimens, one collected from Gurhwal
and the other from Mussourie have been iden-
tified as E. squamosum Raven. The species was
so far known from Nepal, eastward to Bhutan
and Western Yunnan. So it is here reported for
the first time from India showing a westward
extension of distribution of the taxon. Another
specimen collected from Kashmir has been
identified as E. gouldii Raven, so far reported
from South East Tibet and Sikkim. The new
report of this taxon thus establishes its
westward extension. E. cylindricum DC., a
species well distributed in sino-himalayan area
is reported here for the first time from Aruna-
chal Pradesh. A short description is provided
below for easy identification.

Epilobium gouldii Raven in Bull. Brit. Mus. -
2(12): 371 et pi. 35B. 1962.

Perennial herbs 20-25 cm tall, partly subter-
ranean, underground parts often with scales.

broadly ovate dead leaves at the base; plants
not pubescent throughout; internodes small,
prominent pubescent lines decurrent from the
base of the leaves. Leaves opposite, often
alternate towards apex, sessile (10-) 18-22 (-25)
x (4-) 6-8 (-10) mm, ovate, apex acuminate,
base subrounded, margin serrulate, glabrous or
sparsely pilose on the nerves, subcoriaceous.
Inflorescence axillary or terminal, nodding at
anthesis, subtending bracts smaller than the
ovary. Flowers 6-7 mm long. Sepals 5, 3 . 5-4.0
mm long, ovate-acuminate, pubescent dorsally.
Petals 5, rose purple, obcordate, 4. 5-6.0 mm
long. Stamens 5, filaments short, anthers cor-
date, remains near the stigma. Ovary densely
pubescent, strigose. Style 2. 5-3.0 mm long,
stigma clavate-capitate. Capsule 5-6 cm long.
Seeds less than 1 mm long, obovoid, papillose,
verrucose.

Type : Gautsa to Phari, 12,000-14,300 ft
(3650-4350 m), 13 Aug. 1938, Gould 1452
(K; photograph CAL).

Distribution : India: Kashmir, (Sikkim),

TIBET.

Specimens examined : Tibet: without pre-
cise locality, 1882, Dr. King's Collector 146
(CAL). India: Kashmir, Astor Dist., Gudhai
valley, 3344-3648 m, 12.7.82, /. F. Duthie
12198 (CAL).

From this disjunct distribution it is presum-
ed that this taxon may be available in Kumaon
^Himalaya and Nepal.

Epilobium squamosum Raven in Bull. Brit.
Mus. 2(12): 380. et pi. 39B. 1962.

Perennial herbs 8-10 cm tall, unbranched.

227

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

upper part pubescent, lower part glabrous but
prominent line of hairs decurrent from the
petiole, internodes small, underground stem
with a series of small imbricate coriaceous
scales. Leaves opposite, sessile or subsessile,
broadly ovate, (10-) 12-15 (-18) x (6-) 8-10
(-15) mm, apex acute, base subrounded or
subcordate, margin obscurely serrulate, sparsely
hairy on the nerves, membranous or subcoria-
ceous. Inflorescence mostly terminal, nodding
after anthesis, subtending bracts foliaceous,
usually { *he ovary. Flowers 7-10 mm long.
Sepals 5. 0-6.0 x 1.5-2. 0 mm, apex acute or api-
culate, dorsally pubescent. Petals rose purple,
6-9 mm long, obcordate. Stamens smaller than
the style. Ovary distinctly curved, sparsely
pubescent, style 4-5 mm long, stigma capitate.
Capsules 2-4 cm long, curved, glabrous or
sparsely pubescent.

Type : Chhoyang khola, west of Num, Arun
valley, 3500 m, 20 June 1956, D. A. Stainton
726 (BM).

Distribution : India, nepal.

Specimens examined : Uttar Pradesh, Gurh-
wal, 1869, Sine coll, s.n.; Near Mussourie, N.
W. Himalaya 1869, G. King s.n. (CAL).

The species is related to E. sikkimense in
having leaves broadly ovate with obscurely
serrulate margin and smaller habit, in addition
to distinct curved ovaries as noted by Raven.
E. cylindricum D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 222.

1825. — Hausskn. Monogr. Epil. 200. 1884.

— Raven in Bull. Brit. Mus. 2(12): 355.

1962 — E. roseum var. cylindricwn (D.

Don) Clarke in Hook, f., FI. Brit. Ind. 2:

585. 1879.

Type : nepal: Sheopuri Hill, North of

Kathmandu, Aug. 1821, Wallich num. list No.
6328 (BM, lectotype; E; G; K; W and CAL).

Distribution : North eastern Afghanistan to
the Tian Shan range and throughout the
Himalaya to Szechwan, Yunnan and Hupeh.
In India the species is well distributed in the
Sino-himalayan range and is reported to occur
in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and also
in S.E. Tibet, Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan.

The specimens cited below from Arunachal
Pradesh thus confirm its new eastward exten-
sion of occurrence.

Specimens examined : Kameng District,

Bomdila camp on the way to Dirong Dsong,
on the hill top, 13.4.1957, G. Panigrahi 6870
(ASSAM, CAL)! Rupa-gegaon, 1570-1329 m,
9.4.1957, G. Panigrahi 6699 (ASSAM, CAL)!;
Bomdila, 6 km towards the Terpa valley, along
the roadside near the drain, 2500 m, 14 Sept.
1964, J. Joseph 39916 (ASSAM, CAL)!; Lohit
F. D., Dreyi — Shoeliang 1200-625 m, 13.11.
1957, Rolla Seshagiri Rao 10505, 10545

(ASSAM, CAL)!

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to Dr. N. C. Majumder,
Ecologist, Botanical Survey of India, for valua-
ble suggestions and critically going through the
manuscript.

Botanical Survey of India, G. S. GIRI

Central National Herbarium, R. N. BANERJEE

Howrah-711 103, (W.B.),

July 12, 1982.

References

Clarice, C. B. (1879) : Onagraceae Hook. f. FI. the Himalayan region. Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.)
Brit. India 2: 582-587. 2(12): 327-382.

Raven, P. H. (1962): The genus Epilobium in

228

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

31. CUCUMIS MELO LINN. IN PUNJAB — A TAXONOMIC

REAPPRAISAL

In this paper a key and pertinent synonymy are provided for separation of various
infraspecific taxa of Cucumis melo Linn, available in Punjab. Besides, the correct
nomenclature of snake or serpent melon is also indicated.

Introduction

Cucumis melo Linn, with polymorphous
fruits is often cultivated throughout the plains
of India, chiefly on the sandy beds or margins
of rivers, for the sake of its fruits. The fruits
are edible and used unripe and ripe as
salad, vegetable and table fruits besides being
an important ingredient of an extensively sold
seasonal spicy preparation locally called in
north-west India as ‘Chat’. This species has re-
ceived divergent treatments in Indian taxo-
nomic literature. The fruits being very large
and fleshy are not preserved on the herba-
rium sheets except sometimes in very young
stages. This, probably, has resulted in the
varied circumscription of different taxa includ-
ed under Cucumis melo. An attempt has been
made here to clear the taxonomy of various
constituents of this species as found in Punjab.
The conclusions are based mainly on the field
observations of various forms supplemented by
the study of herbarium material.

Observations in literature

The taxon C. melo has received divergent
treatments taxonomically. As indicated clearly
by notes, local names and synonymy; Haines
(1961), Prain (1963) and Tutin (in Tutin et
al. 1968) treat C. melo as a Compositae taxon
including several varieties distinguished by
other taxonomists. Chakravarty (1959), while
retaining var. agrestis includes all other varie-
ties under var. culta. Somewhat similar view

has been followed by Babu (1977) but with
the difference that instead of var. culta he
recognized var. melo with 5-100 cm long fruits
and embracing all other varieties except var.
agrestis which is kept distinct. Rau (1969)
considers var. melo and var. agrestis as distinct
and merges the other forms under var. culta.
Sharma & Bir (1978) have kept var. melo
separate from other forms which are put to-
gether under var. culta. Babu (1977) supports
Gamble’s (1957) treatment of considering C.
melo var. agrestis as a distinct species under
the name C. pubescens Willd. Duthie (1960)
also treated C. melo var. agrestis as C. pubes-
cens and retained other varieties under C.
melo.

Present observations and conclusions

An extensive and intensive field study of
various types in Punjab during the last two
decades has shown that the different taxa dis-
cussed here under Cucumis melo Linn, are
annuals with yellow flowers. These are either
cultivated or are found as self sown or some-
times may become escape. Only one type (var.
agrestis) is truly feral. The fruits are commonly
sold in the local markets and the wild form
is plentiful in waste places and fallow and
agricultural fields. In all, four distinct varieties
are easily recognizable. All of these should be
treated as distinct and not merged under var.
melo or var. culta as has earlier been done
by different authors.

A perusal of taxonomic literature has shown

229

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 81

that no clear cut ‘key’ has been provided for
the discrimination of these taxa. Presumably
this is due to the different alignment of various
forms under different names or because some
authors consider all forms constituting a single
taxon. Hence to fill in this lacuna; a ‘key’,
base on discernible macroscopic features, is
given below for the convenient segregation of
the four varieties found in Punjab:

1. Plant slender, truly wild; leaves 2.5-9 cm
across; corolla 0.5-1 cm long; fruits 2. 5-3. 5 cm

long var. agrestis

1 . Plants robust, cultivated, occasionally escape but
never truly wild; leaves larger, corolla 1-1.5 cm
long; fruits 5-100 cm long

2. Ripe fruits bursting spontaneously

var. momordica

2. Ripe fruit otherwise (i.e. not bursting)

3. Fruit at the most about 1| times longer
than broad. without corduroy-like

ridges var. melo

3. Fruits normally several times longer
than broad, with corduroy-like ridges. .
var. flexuosus

Nomenclatural citations and pertinent litera-
ture and synonymy with special reference to
the important Indian floristic works of these
varieties along with some noteworthy annota-
tions are as follows:

C. meio Linn. var. agrestis Naud. Ann. Sci.
Nat. Par. ser. 4. II. 73. 1859; ibid. 12: 110.
1859; Chakravarty, Rec. bot. Surv. Ind. 17
(1): 103. 1959; Sant. ibid. ed. 3. 16(1):
103. 1967; Babu, Herb. FI. Dehra Dun 195.
1977. C. pubescens Willd. Sp. PI. 4: 614.
1805; Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras 1: 378.
1957, repr. ed.; Duthie, FI. Upp. Gang. PI.

1: 341. 1960, repr. ed.

Chakravarty (loc. cit.) distinguishes var.
agrestis from var. culta Royle, inter alia, in
the fact that the fruits are inedible in the
former and edible in latter. However, the native
people of Punjab not only eat the immature

and mature fruits but also appreciate them
with apparent relish. I have myself tasted the
fruits on several occasions during the course
of botanizing and found these very juicy.
In the absence of water, the fruits are indeed
refreshing for a thirsty person in the field.
Occasionally, however, the fruits are bitter.
After the rainy season, the fruits can be seen
lying on the ground and attached to the plant
long after the death of vegetative parts. In
the herbarium specimens, it is not uncommon
to see only one male flower in the leaf-axil
but in the living state the flowers are in clusters
of 2-3, the largest of which is on a clear
pedicel.

Local name : Chibbar, Meki, Takmak
English name : Small gourd
Flowers & Fruits: May-November.

C. melo Linn. var. momordica (Roxb.) Duthie
& Fuller, Field & Gard. Crops 2: 50. t. 49.
1883; Duthie, FI. Upp. Gang. PI. 1: 342.
1960, repr. ed.; Maheshwari, FI. Delhi 170.
1963; Nair, Rec. bot. Surv. Ind. 21(1): 117.
1978; Bhandari, FI. Ind. Desert 168. 1978.
C. momordica Roxb. FI. Ind. (ed. Carey)
3: 720. 1832.

Local names : Kachra, Phunt, Phutt, Phutt
Khira.

English name : Snap melon.

Flowers & Fruits : June-September.

C, melo Linn. Sp. PI. 1011. 1753, var. melo
Duthie, FI. Upp. Gang. PI. 1: 340. 1960,
repr. ed.; Maheshwari, FI. Delhi 169. 1963;
Nair, Rec. bot. Surv. Ind. 21(1): 117. 1978.
Local name : Kharbuza.

English name : Musk melon.

Flowers & Fruits : April-September.

C. melo Linn. var. flexuosus (Linn.) Naud.
Ann. Sci. Nat. ser. 4.ii.34. 1859; Bailey,
Man. Cult. PI. 955. 1949. C. flexuosus Linn.
Sp. Pi. ed. 2: 1437. 1763. C. melo Linn,
var. utilissimus (Roxb.) Duthie & Fuller,

230

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Field & Gard. Crops 2: 55. tt. 53, 54. 1883;
Duthie, FI. Upp. Gang. PI. 1 : 341. 1960,
repr. ed.; Maheshwari, FI. Delhi 170. 1963;
Nair, Rec. bot. Surv. Ind. 21(1): 117. 1978.
C. utilissimus Roxb. FI. Ind. (ed. Carey)
3: 721. 1832.

Hitherto, in Indian literature this long, snake-
like melon has been recorded under the name
of C. nielo Linn. var. utilissimus Duthie &
Fuller. But as will be clear from the synonymy
cited above, it should bear the correct name
C. melo var. jlexuosus in accordance with Art.
11 of International Code of Botanical Nomen-
clature.

Department of Botany,

Punjabi University,

Patiala - 147 002 (India),

April 28, 1982.

Local names : Kakri, Tar.

English names : Snake melon. Serpent melon.

Flowers Si Fruits : April-September.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to the Heads of Botany
departments of Punjab University, Chandigarh,
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana and
Punjabi University, Patiala for providing labo-
ratory facilities. Grateful thanks are due to
the authorities of some Indian herbaria (DD,
BSD, CAL and NBG) for providing herba-
rium and library facilities and to UGC New
Delhi for giving travel grant.

M. SHARMA

References

Babu, C. R. (1977) : Herbaceous Flora of Dehra
Dun. New Delhi.

Bailey, L, H. (1949) : Manual of cultivated plants.
Ed. 2. New York.

Bhandari, M. M. (1978) : Flora of the Indian
desert. Jodhpur.

Chakravarty, H. L. (1959): Monograph on

Indian Cucurbitaceae. Rec. bot. Surv. Ind. 77(1):
1-234.

Duthie, J. F. (1960) : Flora of the upper Gange-
tic Plain and of the adjacent Siwalik and Sub-
Himalayan tracts. Repr. ed. Vol. 1. Calcutta.

& Fuller, J. B. (1883): Field and

garden crops of the North-Western Provinces and
Oudh. 2nd part. Roorkee.

Gamble, J. S. (1957): Flora of the Presidency
of Madras, repr. ed. Vol. 1. Calcutta.

Haines, H. H. (1961) : Botany of Bihar and
Orissa. Repr. ed. Vol. 2. Calcutta.

Maheshwari, J. K. (1963): The Flora of Delhi.
New Delhi.

Nair, N. C. (1978): Flora of the Punjab Plains.
Rec. bot. Surv. Ind. 27(1) : i-xx, 1-326.

Prain, D. (1963): Bengal Plants. Repr. ed. Vol. I.
Calcutta.

Rau, M. A. (1969): Flora of the upper Gangetic
Plain and of the adjacent Siwalik and Sub-Himalayan
tracts. Check List. Bull. bot. Surv. Ind. 10 (Suppl.
2): 1-87.

Roxburgh, W. (1832): Flora Indica (Ed. W.
Carey). Vol. 3. Serampore.

Sharma, M. & Bir, S. S. (1978) : Flora of Patiala.
Patiala.

Tutin, T. G. et al. (1968): Flora Europaea Vol.
2. Cambridge.

231

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

32. ON THE IDENTITY OF TWO SPECIES OF OLDENLAND1A L.

(RUBIACEAE)

Oldenlandia wightii Hook. f. Brit. Ind. 3:
66. 1880 was described on the basis of a col-
lection from Western Peninsula by R. Wight.
It was distinguished from O. umbellata L. Sp.
PI. 119. 1753 based on capitate cymes, sessile
flowers and distant calyx teeth equalling the
capsules. In course of taxonomic study of
Hedyotis L. and Oldenlandia L., specimens of
both the taxa extant in Indian herbaria and
some selected ones from foreign herbaria have
been examined. In O. wightii Hook. f. (l.c.)
the inflorescence is umbellate as evident from
the type cited below but erroneously described
as capitate with sessile flowers. In O. umbellata
calyx teeth vary from lanceolate to ovate-
lanceolate or triangular. In the early stage of
the fruit the calyx teeth are close and lanceo-
late, but on maturity of capsules they are dis-
tant, short and subulate equalling the capsules.
Thus the variations observed in O. umbellata
L. cover the characteristics of O. wightii for
which the latter cannot be treated as distinct
and deserves to be reduced to a synonym. The
correct nomenclature of the species is as
follows.

Hedyotis puberula (G. Don) Arn. Pug. 342.
1836. Oldenlandia puberula G. Don, Gen. Syst.
3: 530. 1834. (Type: Herb. Heyne s.n. in
Wall. Cat. 884! K-W). O. umbellata L. Sp.
PI. 119. 1753 (Type: Malabar, Linn.?). H.
umbellata Lamk. Tabl. Encycl. 1: 273. 1791.
non Walt. 1788. H. puberula R. Br. ex Wall.
Cat. No. 884. 1829, nom. nud, H. linearifolia
R. Br. ex Wall. Cat. no. 870. 1829, nom. nud.
O. wightii Hook. f. FI Brit. Ind. 3: 66. 1880.
(Type: Western Peninsula, Hb. Wight s.n. K
photo CAL!) synon. nov.

Oldenlandia maheshwari Sant, et Merch. in
Journ. Ind. Bot. Soc. 42A: 213. tt. 1-6. 1964

Botanical Survey of India,

Calcutta - 700 064,

August 16, 1982.

was distinguished from O. stocksii Hook. f. FI.
Brit. Ind. 3: 67. 1880 for having “stem pubes-
cent, flowers solitary, calyx teeth ovate-oblong
or oblong, longer than the corolla; corolla
smaller (±2x1 mm), white or pink in colour.
Examination of the type material of O. stocksii
shows that it bears, inter alia, pubescent stem
and solitary, axillary or terminal flower; calyx
teeth are also sometimes ovate-oblong or
oblong and longer than the corolla; corolla
varies from 3 mm to 6 mm in length. There
are other specimens where the flower is still
smaller. Colour of the flower in O. maheshwarii
is reported to be white or pink while in O.
stocksii it is blue. It cannot be checked on
herbarium specimens and there is hardly any
record of flower colour available in the herba-
rium. It is white or pink in O. maheshwarii
indicating variation, and taxonomic differences
cannot stand on colour of the flower only.
Thus none of the differences noted by Santa-
pau and Merchant stand and the distinctions
of the taxa are not tenable. Hence it is rele-
gated to a synonym. The nomenclature is as
follows.

Hedyotis stocksii (Hook, f.) Rolla Rao et
Hemadri in Ind. For. 99(6): 378. 1973. O.
stocksii Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 3: 67. 1880.
(Syntypes: Concon, Stocks s.n.! K.; Malabar,
Bababudan Hills, Stocks s.n.! K, CAL; ibid.
Lawson s.n.! K). H. stocksii Hook. f. & Thoms,
in Sched.! (CAL, K). O. maheshwarii Sant,
et Merch. in Journ. Ind. Bot. Soc. 42A: 213.
tt. 1-6. 1964. (Type: Mahabaleshwar, 13th
Sept. 1959, Y. A. Merchant 1267! BLAT.).
H. maheshwarii (Sant, et Merch.) Rolla Rao
et Hemadri in Ind. For 99(6): 376. 1973,
synon. nov.

D. B. DEB
RATNA DATTA

232

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

33. CEROPEGIA PUSILLA WIGHT ET ARN. ( ASCLEPI AD ACE AE )
IN HOSHIARPUR DISTRICT (PUNJAB)

During the course of identification of some
undetermined specimens of Bloshiarpur district
(Punjab), I found an interesting material
of the genus Ceropegia L. which on examina-
tion turned out to be Ceropegia pusilla
Wight et Arn. The specimen is known only
from Nilgiris and Anamalai hills in South
India (Hook. f. 1883) and has not been
reported so far from Northern India. It
is recorded here for the first time from Punjab
in North-Western India and has not been in-
cluded in the recent Flora reported by Nair
(1978) from Punjab. Because of its botanical
interest and rarity the report is appended here
with a short description.

Ceropegia pusilla Wight et Arn. in Wight,
Contrib. 31. 1834; Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4:
66. 1883; Fyson, FI. Nilgiri Pulney Hill. 1:
285. 1915.

Dwarf puberulous, tuberous herbs. Stems
c. 10 cm high, distinctly swollen at nodes.
Leaves crowded on the stem, opposite, 1. 5-3.0

Botanical Survey of India,

Northern Circle,

3, Lakshmi Road,

Dehra Dun,

July 22, 1982.

x 0.4-0. 8 cm, linear-lanceolate, acute, narrow-
ed at the base. Peduncle with linear bract at
base. Flowers 1-3, light pink, erect. Sepals 3-4
mm long, linear. Corolla c. 12 mm long with
swollen, angled base. Coronal lobes 5, triangu-
lar, acute, somewhat hairy; processes narrowly
linear. Corona dark purplish brown with 10,
white-ciliate teeth. Stamens thick erect and
separate from the stylar head, except at the
base. Follicles narrowly fusiform, c. 5 cm
long.

Flowers and Fruits : August-October.

Distribution : Nilgiris and Anamalais hills.

Present report : Hoshiarpur Distt. (Punjab).

Specimens examined : Punjab: Manguwal,

27.8.1970, Misra 41581 (BSD).

Acknowledgement

We are thankful to the Deputy Director,
Botanical Survey of India, Northern Circle,
Dehra Dun for facilities and encouragement.

ANIL K. GOEL
SURENDRA SINGH

References

Hooker, J. D. (1883): The Flora of British India Nair, N. C. (1978): Flora of the Punjab Plains.
4: 66. London. Rec. bot. Surv. India 2/(1): 326.

233

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 81

34. TWO NOTEWORTHY PLANTS FROM WEST BENGAL

Two plants, namely Nervilia macroglossa (Hook, f.) Schltr. (Orchidaceae) and
Aeginetia pedunculala Wall. (Orobanchaceae) have been reported here as new records
to W. Bengal. Relevant field data and notes have been presented here along with
short descriptions.

Introduction

During the botanical collections for econo-
mic plants and plant-products of Jalpaiguri
district in the months of April-May and
November 1981, we came across two
rare and interesting plants which deserve
special care for conservation in their natural
habitat due to their rarity and dis-continuous
distribution. The species are enumerated below
with correct nomenclature, diagnostic features
and relevant field data. The herbarium speci-
mens and photographs are deposited in the
herbarium (BSIS) of Industrial Section, Bota-
nical Survey of India, Calcutta.

ENUMERATION

Orchidaceae

Nervilia macroglossa (Hook, f.) Schlechter
in Engl. Bot. Jahrb. 45: 402 (1911); Hara,
H. in FI. E. Himal. I: 445 (1966), Phot.-Alb.
PI. E. Himal. f. 128 (1968). Pogonia macro-
glossa Hook. f. in FI. Brit. India vi: 120
(1890), Icon. PI. t. 2195a (1894); King et
Pantling in Orch. Sikkim-himal. 267. t. 356
(1898).

Small tuberous terrestrial orchid, growing in
open or shady loamy grassland. Flowering
stem 7.5 to 15 cm. long; leaf cordate, entire;
flower solitary at top of the stem, about 2.5
cm. long. Sepals linear lanceolate, green sub-
equal to petals. Petals linear lanceolate, white,
minutely streaked with rose colour; lip gib-
bous 2. 1-2.2 cm. long, distinctly linear than
sepals, apical half expanding with two obscure

side lobes near its base. Upper surface having,
in addition to rose coloured streaks, deep rose
coloured spots.

Flowering : April-May.

Distribution : Subtropical Himalayas
(Sikkim).

Hara (1966) has remarked “this was col-
lected at one spot under sparse forest” from
Sikkim Himalayas. Matthew (1966) has re-
ported from Kurseong (W.B.), a species,
Pogonia macroglossa Lindl. without citing any
herbarium specimens which could not allow
the verification of the identity of the speci-
mens referred by him. We could not trace
any herbarium specimens, collected from
trace any herbarium specimens, collected from
Kurseong after critical search in the herbaria
(CAL & BSIS).

Further, the works of Krishna et al. (1967)
and Mukerjee (1972) did not report this plant
from North Bengal. So, the occurrence of this
plant may be considered as the new record
from the plains of W. Bengal.

Specimens examined : A Meebold 4163

(CAL), Mangpoo, May, 1905; Kari 1036
(CAL), Mangpoo, 14.4.1909; S.N.D. et S.C.R.
3748 (BSIS), on the wet grassland of Siltosha
Beat, Jaldapara wild life Sanctuary (Jalpaiguri
district), 3rd May, 1981.

Orobanchaceae

Aeginetia pedunculata Wall, in PI. As. Rar.
Ill: 13, t. 219 (1831); Hook. f. in FI. Br.
India IV : 320 (1885); Kanjilal et al. FI. Assam
III: 385 (1939); Gamble, J. S. in FI. Pres.
Mad. II (Reprint edd.): 685 (1956).

234

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

A parasitic herb on the roots of grass, grow-
ing as solitary plant in wet loamy grassland.
Plant with a short stem of 7.5 to 15 cm high,
reddish, buried in the soil; leaf not present.
Scape short slender, one flowered; peduncle
with sheathing obtuse bracts at the base; calyx
fleshy, red and then yellow-white, loaded with
mucilage, tip obtuse, acute or shortly beaked;
corolla tube as long as calyx, yellowish, lobes
bright violet, crenate and erose; anthers with
dorsal fleshy decurved horn; stigma pelted,
broadly cordiform.

Flowering : April-May.

Distribution : Throughout India.

This plant is little known due to its rarity.

Industrial Section,

Botanical Survey of India,

Calcutta - 700 016,

April 12, 1982.

From W. Bengal this collection is the first
report of its occurrence in this area. It may
also be noted that we could not trace any
herbarium specimens of this species from
any part of W. Bengal in the herbaria (CAL
& BSIS) after a thorough search.

Specimen examined : S.N.D. et S.C.R. 3749,
Siltosha beat, Jaldapara wild life sanctuary,
Jalpaiguri district, 3rd May, 1981.

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge with thanks the
help and valuable suggestions, provided by
Dr. G. G. Maity, Botanist and Smt. K. Roy
of Botanical Survey of India, Howrah.

S. N. DAS1
S. C. ROY

References

Kara, H. (1966) : The flora of E. Himalaya. 424-
452.

Krishna, B. et at. (1967) : Five unreported

orchids from Northern districts of W. Bengal. Bull.
Bot. Surv. Ind. 18( 1-4): 224-225.

Matthew, K. M. (1966): A preliminary list of

plants from Kurseong. Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 8: 158-
168.

Mukerjee, S. Iv. (1972): Orchids of the plains
of North Bengal. Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 14 ( 1-4) : 92-
103.

1 Present address : Sr. Scientific Assistant, Botani-
cal Survey of India, D-7, Shastri Nagar, Jodhpur,
Rajasthan.

35. ABNORMAL FLOWERING OF AGAVE ANGUSTIFOLIA HAW.

( With a plate)

Agave angusdfolia Haw. (Agavaceae) — a
commonly cultivated plant of the tropics,
whose habitat is not known, was found to
flower abnormally at Poona, where it is natu-
ralised along the cultivated fields and in waste-
lands.

In normal cases, the plant bears a basal
rosette of numerous large leaves (upto 75.0 x
7.5 cm) on a short, 10-40 cm high, erect or
ascending stem. The plant is normally mono-
carp ic and dies after the flowering. At the
time of flowering a large cylindrical, bamboo

235

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 81

like peduncle arises from the rosette, which
bears flowers on terminal branches. Fruits
usually develop in situ and form bulbils, which
separate away from the parent plant and
develop into new plants.

In one of the plants observed many germi-
nated bulbils were seen at the apex of the
peduncle (c 2.5 m high) of the parent plant.
These bulbils were well established on the
parent plant and had developed upto 10 leaves
which were upto 15.0 x 5.0 cm in size. These
so called secondary plants, which were formed
from the bulbils of the parent plant were also
in turn found to be flowering. At the time of
flowering they formed slender, upto 75.0 cm
long panicles. Fruits were also formed as in the
normal cases (plate 1). In another plant, some

of these fruits had germinated in situ forming
bulbils which eventually developed into tertiary
plants (plate 1).

This abnormal germination and flowering of
the bulbils on the peduncle of the parent plant
showed that the parent plant did not die after
the flowering but on its peduncle, plants of
the next generation are borne which also suc-
cessfully flowered and produced fruits there.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to the Director, Botanical
Survey of India, Howrah and to the Deputy
Director, Western Circle, Poona for facilities.
Thanks are also due to Shri N. P. Singh,
Systematic Botanist for encouragement during
the course of this work.

Botanical Survey of India, ANAND KUMAR1

Western Circle, P. G. DIWAKAR

Poona,

January 22, 1982.

1 Present Address'. Botanical Survey of India,

Centra] Circle. Allahabad.

36. GREGARIOUS FLOWERING OF CARVIA CALLOSA BREMEK
AND NILGIRIANTHUS RETICULATUS BREMEK AT AMBOLI

The BNHS nature camp at Amboli from
the 25th of September 1982 to the 28th of
September 1982 was well attended by its
members. Nestling in the ranges of the Sahya-
dris, Amboli is a beautiful mountain resort
in Sindhudurg district, at an altitude of 700
metres. While trekking through lush green
hills and valleys, the members saw many
species of birds, butterflies and flowering
plants. Here, the end of September is the tail
end of the monsoon and we had two clear
days, but also two days of intermittant rain.

A trek through the moist evergreen forest
at Ramghat on the 25th of September revealed

the gregarious flowering of Carvia callosa,
Bremek (Vern. Karvi). The undergrowth in
the region consisted mainly of these plants and
most of them were in full bloom with light
purple flowers. On the 27th of September, the
same phenomenon was observed on Narayan-
gad trail. There were a few patches of plants
still in bud, the buds being pinkish in colour.
Karvi stems are used by the local people for
making huts and for fuel. The gregarious
flowering of the plant is considered auspicious
by some tribes. The honey collected in the
forest during such times is known as Karvi
honey and is sold at a very high price because

236

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Plate

Kumar & Diwakar: Agave angustifolia

Agave angustifolia Haw.

1 . Flowering and fruiting of secondary plants developing on the peduncle of the
parent plant.

2. Formation of bulbils by secondary' plants on the peduncle of the parent plant.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

of its medicinal properties. According to the
wealth of India — Raw Materials, Vol. X:
57, the leaves are poisonous to man and ani-
mals, causing vomiting and inflammation of the
mucous membrane of the stomach. But it
has been observed that the fresh leaves are
used by the people as a palliative for malaria.
To prevent vomiting, the hairy part on the
veins beneath the leaves, is removed.

The open hillslopes at Parvati hill and
Hiranyakeshi were covered with Nilgirianthus
reticulatus, Bremek (Vern. Bakara). During
treks through this region on the 26th of Sept-
ember, we saw these plants flowering gregari-
ously. At Hiranyakeshi, some patches were
still in bud.

At Amboli, a clear difference in the distri-
bution of the two species was observed.
Carvia callosa occurred in the forest as an
undergrowth species whereas Nilgirianthus
reticulatus was seen on open hillslopes. On
Parvati hill both the species were growing
profusely and were in bloom simultaneously,

Laxmi Narayan Bhuvan,

G. D. Ambekar Marg,

Bhoiwada, Parel,

Bombay - 400 012,

February 1, 1983.

but nowhere was there overlapping of the two
species.

The gregarious flowering of Carvia callosa
takes place at an interval of 7 or 8 (some
local people say 10) years (T. Cooke, flora
of Bombay, Vol. II: 444), whereas the grega-
rious flowering of Nilgirianthus reticulatus
occurs at intervals of about 20 years according
to local information. It is necessary to keep
records of the gregarious flowering of Nilgiri-
anlhus reticulatus, as according to Shri M. C.
Suryanarayan, Indian Forester 96: 850 (1970),
16 years life cycle of Strobilanthes scrobiculata
Dalz. ex Clarke, is the longest among the
group Strobilanthinae.

Fr. H. Santapau in his note (1950, JBNHS,
49: 320) sought the help of readers in India
to observe various species of Strobilanthes and
report their gregarious flowering. It may be
of interest therefore to put down these notes
on two different species which have been
observed in bloom this year.

I am grateful to Shri M. R. Almeida for
confirming the identification of the plants. .

ULHAS RANE

37. PTERIS SC AB RIFES WALL. EX HOOK. —
A NEW FIND FROM INDIA

In course of the revisionary study on the
genus of P ter is from India, I located a
specimen collected by W. G. Craib from
Haflong, North Cachar, Assam, housed in CAL
herbarium. After careful examination, it is
found that it is exactly identical with Pteris
scabripes Wall, ex Hook., described from
Malay Peninsula. This note gives first report

of this species from India. Full description is
provided in this paper.

Pteris scabripes Wall. (Cat. N. 94, 1828) ex
Hook. Spec. Fil. 2: 165, 1858; Holttum,
Fern. Malay 2: 399, 1954.

Rhizome erect, sparsely scaly, stipe tufted,
purple, 20 to 40 cm long, longest in fertile
frond. Frond has a terminal pinnae and 2-3

237

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vo!. 81

pairs of lateral pinnae, lateral pinnae similar
to apical pinnae. Sterile pinnae 15 cm- 18 cm
long, 3 cm to 3 . 5 cm broad, sessile, apex of
pinnae 10 cm to 15 cm long, 8 mm to 12 cm
broad, apex acuminate, texture coriacious,
veins forked at base, parallel, midrib raised

Cryptogamic Section,

Botanical Survey of India,

P.O. Botanic Garden,

Howrah - 711 103,

West Bengal,

April 22, 1982.

on upper surface and grooved; sori continuous
along the edges of fertile pinnae except apices
of pinnae; spores brown, tetrahedral.

Specimen examined :

Haflong, 800 m. North Cachar, Assam, 24
Aug. 1908, W. G. Craib 425 (CAL-8067).

S. R. GHOSH

38. STUDIES IN LEGUMINOSAE XXX — FURTHER
CONTRIBUTIONS TO DALBERG1A L. F. AND DERRIS LOUR.

{With three text-figures)

Introduction

Critical examination of the Indian and
Burmese specimens of Dalbergia L. f. and
Derris Lour, in the Herbarium, Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew, has enabled me to supplement
the taxonomy and distribution of a few species.
Derris elliptica (Wall.) Benth.

This is the only species of economic impor-
tance in the genus and is renowned as the
‘Tuba root of Commerce’. Rotenone, extract-
ed from the roots, is extensively used as an
insecticide. The species is known wild so far
from Bangladesh, Burma, Malaysia, Java,
Sumatra, Philippines and New Guinea. In
India, it is only cultivated for the ‘Tuba root’.
Thothathri (1976) reported its wild occurrence
in the Great Nicobar Island. D. elliptica var.
chiltagongensis Thoth., originally described
from Chittagong, Bangladesh, has also been
reported in India from Assam (Thothathri
1960). Recently I examined a collection (Fig.

1) from Rattenpur, Cachar District, Assam,
which also proved to be D. elliptica and the
first record of var. elliptica wild in India.
Future intensive explorations in eastern India
may extend its distribution further.

A climber. Branches lenticellate, glabrous.
Leaves up to 40 cm long; leaflets 9, 13-16 x

5- 6 cm, lower pair always smaller than upper,
leaflets oblong to obovate-oblong, entire, nar-
rowed at base, acute to shortly acuminate at
apex, coriaceous, puberulous below; lateral
veins 10-12 pairs, ascending; petiolules grooved
above, 5-8 mm long. Infructescence incomplete,
rachis 22 cm long, glabrous, main peduncle

6- 9 mm long, each bearing 2-3 stalked pods;
stalks 8-10 mm long, peduncles and stalks
glabrous to puberulous. Pods oblong, 6.5-10.0
x 2.5-3 .0 cm, distinctly winged along the upper
suture with a narrow wing on the lower suture,
narrowed at base, obtuse at apex, faintly
reticulated, puberulous, 1-2-seeded.

India: Assam, Cachar, Rattenpore, 1873,
Maneek for R. Keeman (K).

238

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig, 1, Derris elliptica (Wall) Benth, Fruiting branchlet.

239

JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Fig. 2. Derris benthamii Thw. var. wightii (Baker) Thoth.

A. Habit with flowers. B. A twig with pods. C. Calyx-tube. D. V exillum, wings and

keels. E. Staminal column. F. Pistil.

240

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Derris foenthamai Thw. var. wightii (Baker)

Thoth.

This variety has been known only from the
fruits, with its floral characters undescribed.
Recently a collection from Kalakkadu Forest,
Tamil Nadu, by Oates has enabled me to
furnish details of floral parts and an illustra-
tion (Fig. 2).

Inflorescence terminal and axillary panicles,
up to 19 cm long, rachis and branches ferru-
ginous. Flowers 7-8 mm long; bracts linear;
bracteoles oblong, at the base of the calyx-
cup; pedicels 2. 0-2. 5 mm long. Calyx campa-
nulate, 2.5-2. 8 mm, densely ferruginous with-
out; mouth entire to faintly toothed. Vexillum
obovate, 9-10 mm long, emarginate, shortly
clawed, wholly glabrous within, silky pubescent
without above; wings boat-shaped, 9-10 mm
long, auricled below, clawed; keels narrowly
oblong, 9-10 mm long, long-clawed, auricled
below. Stamens 10, monadelphous, sheath 10-
1 1 mm, vex illary filament free below and
above, longer filaments alternating with shorter
filaments. Ovary linear, 9-10 mm long, pubes-
cent, 3-4-ovuled; style slender; stigma capi-
tate; ovules 0.3 mm across.

India: Tamil Nadu, Thirunelveli District,
Kalakkadu Reserve Forest (Near Settlement
of Kakachi), 1300 m, 1976, J. F. Oates 136
(K).

Dalbergia misiiosolctes Franch.

Originally described from China, D. mlmo-
soicles is known to occur in India also (Assam,
Sikkim). A collection of this species from
Burma by Kingdon-Ward constitutes a new
record. The field notes read as follows: “A
shrub, 25 feet in forests and on open sunny
slopes. A scrambler with long and thick stems
growing in thickets among which it finds sup-
port. The branches are also sensitive to con-
tact and appear to grow in a curve forming
a hook even without the stimulus of contact.

If they come in contact with a support they
form real woody tendrils”.

Scambling shrubs, 8 m. Branches glabrous.
Infructescence axillary and terminal, racemose.
Pods oblong, 3. 5-5.0 x 1.0- 1.2 cm, yellowish,
distinctly stalked, obtuse and mucronate at
apex, glabrous, smooth (without reticulations),
1-2-seeded (Fig. 3).

Burma: Tsangpo Gorge (Gerupa Le), 1500-
1800 m, Dec. 1924, F. Kingdon-Ward 6375 (K).

Fig. 3. Dalbergia mimosoides Franch. Fruiting
branchlet.

241

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Acknowledgement rials from the Director, Royal Botanic Gar-

dens, Kew, England.

I gratefully acknowledge the loan of mate-

Botanical Survey of India, K. THOTHATHRI

Central National Herbarium,

P.O. Botanic Garden,

Howrah -711 103 (W.B.),

August 11, 1982.

References

Thothathri, K. (1960): Studies in Leguminosae Thothathri, K. (1976): Studies in Leguminosae
1. A taxonomic revision of the genus Derris Lour. (24). Notes on the Indo-Burmese species of Derris.
in India. Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 3: 175-200. Journ. Jap. Bot. 51(5): 141-150.

ERRATA

VOLUME 80, NO. 1: APRIL 1983

A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of Bombay Natural History
Society — 27

On page 157,

For 1330 Garrulax eryihrocephaius crythrocepSialus (Hume)

Read 1330 GarruSax eryths-ocepIiaSus erytSurolaema (Hume)

VOLUME 80, NO. 3: DECEMBER 1983

Misc. Note No. 6. Additions “to the Birds of Goa by Robert B. Grubh &
Salim Ali JBNHS — Vol. 73, No. 1”

On page 639 — Sr. No. 22

For Sturnus erythropygius (Blyth). Whiteheaded Myna
Read Sturnus malabaricus blythii (Jerdon). Whiteheaded Myna

242

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CONTENTS

Page

Some aspects of the Biology and Ecology of Narcondam Hornbill ( Rhyticeros

narcondami ) . By S. A. Hussain - • 1

Seasonal variation in the population of Acrida exaltata Walk, at Aligarh.

By Shamshad Ali . . 19

Larval culture of the Hermit Crab Clibanarius aequabilis var. merguiensis De
Man (Decapoda, Anomura, Diogenidae) reared in the Laboratory. By
Venkatray N. Nayak . • 29

Tourist activity and behaviour of the Leopard Panthera pardus fusca (Meyer,

1794) in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka. By M. R. Chambers, Charles

Santiapillai and N. Ishwaran 42

Some observations of scarce birds in Nepal. By N. J. Redman, F. Lambert and

R. Grimmett . . 49

Spawning of some important coldwater fish of the Garhwal Himalaya. By

S. P. Badola and H. R. Singh . . 54

Reproduction biology of the Soft-furred Field Rat, Rattus meltada pallidior

(Ryley, 1914) in the Rajasthan desert. By B. D. Rana and Ishwar Prakash 59

\ y. kji

Flowering plants around the holy shrine of Kedarnath, Uttar Pradesh. By

J. K. Semwal 71

Observations of the reproductive biology of the Indian Chameleon, Chamaeleo

zeylanicus (Laurenti). By L. A. K. Singh, L. N. Acharjyo and H. R. Bustard 86

New records and hosts of Aphid paras itoids (Hymenoptera: Aphidiida) from

Kashmir, India. By R. C. Bhagat . . 93

Host plants of the Fruit Flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) of the Indian sub-
continent, exclusive of the sub-family Dacinae. By Mohammad Zaka-ur-Rab 99

Observations on the length- weight relationship of the fish Rasbora daniconius

(Ham.-Buch.) . By V. Y. Thakre, and S. S. Bapat . . 105

Influence of atmospheric temperature and humidity on the variations in
seasonal abundance and phenology of Micronecta striata Fibber. By T. C.
Banerjee, A. S. Mondal and T. K. Nayek . . 110

Further contribution to the Flora of Buxa Forest Division, Jalpaiguri District

(West Bengal). By J. K. Sikdar and Rolla S. Rao .. 123

New Descriptions . . 149

Reviews . . 172

Miscellaneous Notes 178

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Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400023.

Vol. 81, No. 2

Editors : J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole & A. N. D. Nanavati

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Editors.

Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society.

VOLUME 81(2): AUGUST 1984

Date of Publication : 16-11-1984

CONTENTS

PAGE

On the taxonomy of the Indian Ocean lizards of the Phelsuma madagascari-
ensis species group (Reptilia, Geckonidae). By Achim — Rudiger Borner and
Walter Minuth. ( With a colour and a monochrome plate & two text-figures ) 243

Agastyamalai and its environs: A potential area for a Biosphere Reserve.

By A. N. Henry, M. Chandrabose, M. S. Swaminathan and N. C. Nair. ( With
a text-figure ) . . 282

A PROVISIONAL LIST OF UNRECORDED SOUTH-EAST ASIAN BIRDS. By D. CoUZenS, R. J.

Quinnell and J. Bass . . 291

Reproductive biology of the mugger ( Crocodylus palustris ). By Romulus Whitaker

and Zahida Whitaker. ( With two plates & five text- figures ) . . 297

Morphological studies on the syconia of Ficus bengalensis Linn. By R. Indra

and K. V. Krishnamurthy. ( With four text- figures ) . . 318

Distribution of Drosophila species and their diversities in the tropical rain
forests of Western Ghats. By H. S. Frakash and G. Sreerama Reddy ( With
a text-figure ) . . 323

A sketch on the sedge and grass flora of Jalpaiguri District, West Bengal.

By J. K. Sikdar . . 346

Rhesus monkey distribution in the lower Himalayas and secondary forest

succession. By Kazuo Wada. ( With a text- figure) . . 355

Material for the Flora of Mahabaleshwar — 5. By P. V. Bole and M. R. Almeida 364

Breeding habits and associated phenomena in some Indian bats. Part IX —
Hipposideros lankadiva (Kelaart) — Hipposideridae. By V. M. Sapkal and W.

R. Bhandarkar . . 380

Activity patterns in a colony of Peafowls ( Pavo cristatus ) in nature. By K.

Navaneethakannan. {With five text-figures) . . 387

Population structure of the Indian House Rat, Rattus rattus rufescens in the

Indian Arid Zone. By Ranjan Advani and B. D. Rana . . 394

Recent Ornithological records from Pakistan. By T. J. Roberts . . 399

A report on a collection of Amphibians and Reptiles from the Ponmudi,

Kerala, south India. By Robert F. Inger, H. Bradley Shaffer, Mammen Koshy
and Ramesh Bakde. {With three plates) . . 406

New Descriptions:

A new species of Cresphontes stal (Heteroptera : Pentatomidae) from India.
By M. Nayyar Azim and S. Adam Shafee. (With a text- figure)

Description of a new species Drosophila septacoila (Diptera: Drosophilidae)
from south India. By P. G. Gai and N. B. Krishnamurthy. (With seven text-
figures)

A new species of Osbeckia L. (Melastomataceae) from Kerala (India). By
G. S. Giri and M. P. Nayar. (With a text- figure)

Osbeckia arunkumarensis sp. nov. from eastern India. By M. P. Nayar and G. S.
Giri. (With two text-figures)

New species of Psychotria (Rubiaceae) from Indian subcontinent. By D. B.
Deb and M. Gangopadhyay. (With three text-figures)

Descriptive notes on three new or rare Himalayan taxa of Indigofera L. (Faba-
ceae — Papilionoideae) . By M. Sanjappa. (With two text-figures)

Reviews :

1 . Grasses of Marathwada. (A. R. Daruwalla)

2. A synoptic Flora of Mysore District. (A. R. Daruwalla)

3. Illustrations on the Flora of the Tamilnadu Carnatic Vol. 2

and

The Flora of the Tamilnadu Carnatic. Vol. 3. (M. R. Almeida)

428

430

434

436

439

445

452

453

454

Miscellaneous Notes:

Mammals: 1. The Sundarbans Tiger. By Kalyan Chakrabarti (p. 459); 2. Interaction
between Gaur and Tiger in Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary. By K. Ullas Karanth (p. 460);
3. A note on the longevity of two species of wild carnivores in captivity. By L. N. Acharjyo
and S. K. Patnaik (p. 461); 4. Record of a Pygmy White-toothed Shrew, Suncus etruscus
(Savi, 1822) from Daman, Nepal. (With a textrfgure) . By Patrick Brunet-Lecomte (p. 462);
5. Feeding activity in the captivity of the Western Ghats Squirrel, Funambulus tristriatus
Waterhouse. (With a text-figure). By S. Keshava Bhat and D. N. Mathew (p. 464); 6.
Report on the occurrence of the fawn-coloured mouse, Mus cervicolor cervicolor Hodgson,
1845 [Rodentia: Muridae] in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India. By Ajoy Kumar
Mandal and M. K. Ghosh (p. 465).

Birds: 7. A large flock of migrating white storks. By J. Mangalraj Johnson (p. 466);
8. Puddle-feeding of Flamingos Phoenicopterus roseus in inland tanks. By J. Mangalraj
Johnson (p. 467); 9. Occurrence of Lesser Flamingo Phoeniconaias minor (Geoffroy)
in Poona, Maharashtra. By Taej Mundkur (p. 468); 10. Sighting of Ringtailed Fishing
Eagle at Vihar Lake, Greater Bombay. By D. P. Bannerjee (p. 468); 11. Some observations
on natural Cheer Pheasant, Catreus wallichii, population at Mukteswar Reserve forest,
Kumaon, Naini Tal, U. P. By T. J. Rasool (p. 469); 12. Possible Nordmann’s Green-
shank in Nepal. By A. J. Del-Nevo (p. 472); 13. Unusual communal nest-feeding in
southern small Minivet Pericrocotus cinnamomeus cinnamomeus Linne. By Ulhas Rane
(p. 473); 14. Occurrence of Whitebreasted Laughing Thrushes (Garrulax jerdoni Blyth)
in Goa. By Ulhas Rane (p. 474); 15. A new record of Sunbirds as avian pests on grape
around Hyderabad. By S. Tej Kumar, A. Ranga Reddy and K. Lakshminarayana (p. 475).

Reptiles: 16. Some notes on the reptiles of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. By S.
Biswas (p. 476); 17. Nutritional disorders of young captive crocodiles. (With a plate).
By K. Tulasi Rao, B. Thrinadha Rao, Y. Rama and B. Bharatha Lakshmi (p. 481);

18. A report on the rare occurrence of two headed Russell’s earth-snake or red earth boa
Eryx conicus (Ophidia: Boidae). ( With a plate). By R. N. Desai (p. 483); 19. Predation
on a sympatric species by Hemidactylus leschenaulti (Sauria: Gekkonidae). By Shekar

Dattatri (p. 484) .

Amphibia: 20. On the distribution and habitat of the Himalayan Newt ( Tylotoiriton
verrucosus Anderson) in the eastern Nepal. ( With a plate). By Tej Kumar Shrestha (p. 485);
21. Distribution of Bufo camortensis Mansukhani & Sarkar in the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands. By A. G. Sekar (p. 488); 22. The Occurrence of the Marbled Baloon Frog
Uperodon systoma (Schneider) (Family Microhylidae) in Baroda (Gujarat State). By Y.
M. Naik (p. 488).

Crustacea: 23. Some ecological observations leading to a new source of seed of the
freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii (de Man) in Maharashtra. ( With two text-
figures & a map). By J. N. Pande (p. 489).

Insects: 24. A note on species named Lycaena pavana (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae). By
R. K. Varshney (p. 493); 25. Correct name of the Red-base Jezebel butterfly (Lepidoptera:
Pieridae). By R. K. Varshney (p. 495); 26. Cassia siamea Lamk. — a new host plant for
the castor slug caterpillar, Parasa lepida (Cochlididae : Lepidoptera). By R. Rajashekhar
Gouda and M. C. Devaiah (p. 496); 27. Additions to the termite fauna of the Thar
desert. By R. K. Thakur (p. 496); 28. Further records of occurrence and incidence of
damage by termites of the genus Cryptotermes Banks in India (Isoptera: Kalotermitidae) .
By M. L. Thakur (p. 497); 29. A spider as predator of Lampides boeticus (Linnaeus)
(Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) from Punjab, India. By Jagtar Singh and G. S. Mavi (p. 501).

Other Invertebrates: 30. Some observations on the biology of planorbid snail Helicorbis
coenosus (Benson) in Punjab. ( With three text-figures) . By H. S. Bali and G. S. Srivastava
(p. 501).

Botany: 31: “Caesalpinia hymenocarpa (Prain) Hattink, comb. nov. — a superfluous name”
— a correction. By Tenjarla C. S. Sastry and G. B. Kale (p. 506); 32. Family Alismataceae
in the Kashmir Himalayas. ( With two plates). By A. Majeed Kak (p. 506); 33. Additions to
the flora of Bihar and Orissa — IV. By M. Brahmam and H. O. Saxena (p. 509); 34. The genus
Curcuma L. (Zingiberaceae) on Andaman and Nicobar Islands. ( With a plate). By N. P.
Balakrishnan and N. Bhargava (p. 510); 35. Aquatic knot weeds of the Kashmir Himalayas.
(With three plates). By A. Majeed Kak (p. 514); 36. A note on the occurrence of a few
uncommon plants in W. Bengal. By S. N. Das and S. C. Roy (p. 518); 37. Notes on
Viola betonicifolia J. Sm. sensu Into in India. ( With a text-figure). By S. P. Banerjee and
B. B. Pramanik (p. 521); 38. Distributional notes on Margaritaria L.f. (Euphorbiaceae)
in southern India and Sri Lanka. By Vatsavaya S. Raju (p. 526); 39. Melochia pyramidata
Linn. (Sterculiaceae) — a new record for Maharashtra. (With six text-figures) . By S. M.
Almeida and C. S. Lattoo (p. 528); 40. Acrorumohra diffracta (Baker) H. Ito (Aspidiaceae) :
a little known fern from Arunachal Pradesh and Shan State of Upper Burma. By B. Ghosh
(p. 530); 41. An interpretation of Bauhinia L. (sensu lato) species illustrated in van
Rheede’s Hortus Malabaricus (1678-1703). By K. K. N. Nair (p. 531). Notes and News 536.

■ f

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81

Plate

Above: P. befotakensis sp. nov., one of the type specimens (alive).
Below: P. chekei sp. nov., male. (Courtesy of Mr.U.Hoesch).

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

1984 AUGUST VoL 81 No, 2

ON THE TAXONOMY OF THE INDIAN OCEAN
LIZARDS OF THE PHELSUMA MA DA GA SC A RIENSIS
SPECIES GROUP (REPTILIA, GECKONIDAE)1

Achim — Rudiger Borner and
Walter Minuth2

( With a colour and a monochrome plate Si two text-figures)

Introduction

The taxonomy and phylogeny of the Phel-
suma madagascariensis species group still con-
tain vexed problems due to the wide dispersal
of these geckos in the Indian Ocean, to in-
adequate samples from many localities in
Madagascar and the rather remote, far-flung
islands and to a certain lack of in-depth study
of the available specimens and photos. Earlier
authors (Angel, Boettger, Boulenger, Love-
ridge) regarded the taxa of the species group
as varieties of Phelsuma madagascariensis ; Ren-
dahl’s paper constituted a major step forward,
as he clarified the situation of the sibling species

1 Accepted April 1982.

2 Ziilpicher Str. 83. D-5000 Cologne 41, West
Germany.

in the Seychelles, but his conclusions were fully
accepted only in recent times. Cheke’s paper on
the taxonomy of the Phelsuma of the Seychelles
(Cheke 1982) gives a full account of the re-
search history, which will not be repeated
here. While Cheke’s approach is biogeographi-
cal (cf. Cheke in press), our aim is to discuss
the phylogeny of the species group in view of
supplementary findings.

Material and Methods

This paper is based on a study of:

1) specimens and photos obtained by Mr.
Humayun Abdulali on the Andaman
Islands in 1976, by Mr. Anthony S.
Cheke on the Seychelles in 1976, by
Mrs. Eva Minuth and Dr. Walter Mi-
nuth in northwest Madagascar in 1977;

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vof. 81

2) specimens and photos communicated
by numerous contributors which are
mentioned in the list of materials exa-
mined;

3) living specimens, partly collected on the
above mentioned excursions, partly
obtained from third collectors, partly
bred by one of us (W. M.)

All alcohol specimens are listed under the
serial number of the junior author’s collection
(BSRC) and are stored in this collection ex-
cept those transferred to the British Museum
(Natural History) BM (NH) as indicated.

BSRC Geek 7

BSRC Geek 8

BSRC Geek 27

BSRC Geek 28

BSRC Geek 29

BSRC Geek 30

BSRC Geek 31

Majunga, Malagasy Rep.

leg. H. Meier; rec. J. H. Brown

15.8.1975

d. J. H. Brown 30.5.1976.

Praslin Island, Seychelles

leg. H. Meier; rec. J. H. Brown

15.8.1975

d. J. H. Brown 15.2.1976
SC

Felicite or La Digue Island

leg. Anthony S. Cheke November

1976

d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977
SC BM (NH) 1980. 357

probably Felicite Island, Seychelles
leg. Anthony S. Cheke November
1976

d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977
SC BM (NH) 1980. 352

? North Island, Seychelles
leg. Anthony S. Cheke Nov. 1976
d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977
SC

Frigate or Silhouette Island, Sey-
chelles

leg. Anthony S. Cheke Nov. 1976
d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977
SC

Frigate or Silhouette Island, Sey-
chelles

leg. Anthony S. Cheke Nov. 1976
d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977

BSRC Geek 32

BSRC Geek 33

BSRC Geek 35

BSRC Geek 36

BSRC Geek 38

BSRC Geek 40

BSRC Geek 41

BSRC Geek 42

BSRC Geek 43

BSRC Geek 44

BSRC Geek 45

BSRC Geek 46

? Silhouette Island, Seychelles
leg. Anthony S. Cheke November
) 976

d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977
SC

Felicite Island, Seychelles

leg. Anthony S. Cheke 21.11.1976

d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977

Beau Vallon, Mahe Island, Sey-
chelles

leg. Anthony S. Cheke 14.11.1976
d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977
SC

Frigate Island, Seychelles
leg. Anthony S. Cheke 8.11.1976
d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977
SC BM (NH) 1980. 355

Beau Vallon, Mahe Island, Sey-
chelles

leg. Anthony S. Cheke 14.11.1976
d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977
SC BM (NH) 1980. 353

Frigate Island, Seychelles
leg. Anthony S. Cheke 8.11.1976
d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977
SC

Anna La Passe, Silhouette Island,
Seychelles

leg. Anthony S. Cheke 5.11.1976
d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977

La Digue Island, Seychelles

leg. Anthony S. Cheke 19.11.1976
d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977

La Digue Island, Seychelles
leg. Anthony S. Cheke 19.11.1976

d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977

SC BM (NH) 1979. 489

Felicite Island, Seychelles
leg. Anthony S. Cheke 21.11.1976
d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977
SC BM (NH) 1980. 358

La Digue Island, Seychelles

244

TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCARIENSIS SPECIES GROUP

leg. Anthony S. Cheke 19.11.1976
cl. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977
BSRC Geek 47- SC BM (NH) 1980. 356

probably Felicite Island,

Seychelles

leg. Anthony S. Cheke Nov. 1976
d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977
BSRC Geek 48 SC

most probably Beau Vallon,

Mahe Island, Seychelles
leg. Anthony S. Cheke Nov. 1976
d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977

BSRC Geek 49 SC

North Island, Silhouette Island or
Frigate Island, Seychelles
leg. Anthony S. Cheke Nov. 1976
d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977

BSRC Geek 50 SC

North Island, Silhouette Island or
Frigate Island, Seychelles
leg. Anthony S. Cheke Nov. 1976
d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977

BSRC Geek 51 SC

North Island, Silhouette Island or
Frigate Island, Seychelles
leg. Anthony S. Cheke Nov. 1976
d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977
BSRC Geek 68 SC

Menai, Cosmoledo Atoll, Indian
Ocean

leg. P. Niedzwiedski October 1977
d. Anthony S. Cheke 7.9.1980
BSRC Geek 69 SC

Menai, Cosmoledo Atoll, Indian
Ocean

leg. P. Niedzwiedski October 1977
d. Anthony S. Cheke 7.9.1980.
BSRC Geek 70 SC

Mahe, Seychelles

leg. U. Hoesch April 1981

d. W. Minuth July 1981

BSRC Geek 71 SC

La Digue, Seychelles
leg. U. Hoesch April 1981
d. W. Minuth July 1981
BSRC Geek 72 SC

La Digue, Seychelles
leg. U. Hoesch April 1981
d. W. Minuth July 1981

BSRC Geek 73
BSRC Geek 74
BSRC Geek 80
BSRC Geek 81
BSRC Geek 82
BSRC Geek 8

BSRC Geek 13
BSRC Geek 20

BSRC Geek 33

BSRC Geek 36
BSRC Geek 43
BSRC Geek 44

La Digue, Seychelles
leg. U. Hoesch April 1981
d. W. Minuth July 1981
SC

Befotaka, Madagascar

leg. W. & E. Minuth August 1977

d. W. Minuth July 1981

Befotaka, Madagascar

leg. W. & E. Minuth August 1977

d. W. Minuth July 1981

Befotaka, Madagascar

leg. W. & E. Minuth August 1977

d. W. Minuth July 1981

no locality

leg. W. Minuth; rec. J. H. Brown
15.8.1975

d. J. H. Brown 21.5.1976
MC

no locality

d. J. H. Brown 30.5.1976
MC

close vicinity of Diego Suarez,

Malagasy Republic

leg. H. Meier

d. J. H. Brown 30.5.1976

close vicinity of Diego Suarez,

Malagasy Republic

leg. H. Meier; rec. J. H. Brown

2.4.76-19.10.76

d. J. H. Brown 28.4.1977

Diego Suarez, Malagasy Republic
leg. H. Meier; rec. Andre Brunke
d. J. H. Brown 28.4.1977
MC BM (NH) 1980. 351

Seychelles

leg. Anthony S. Cheke Nov. 1976
d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977
MC

could be Frigate or Silhouette
Island

245

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

BSRC Geek 45

BSRC Geek 53

BSRC Geek 55
BSRC Geek 56

Seychelles

leg. Anthony S. Cheke Nov. 1976
d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977
MC

? Mahe Island, Seychelles
leg. Anthony S. Cheke Nov. 1976
d. Anthony S. Cheke 19.6.1977
MC

no locality

leg. Rolf Heckhoff 2.4.1979
d. W. Frank 23.6.1977
MC

no locality

d. G. Terstappen 22.9.1979
MC

no locality

d. W. Frank 23.6.1977

The data for the morphometric tables have
been double-checked to prevent errors. Ab-
breviations in the morphometric tables are the
following :

specimen

SVL

— gives collection number;

— snout-vent-length, calipered to the
nearest millimeter;

— tail-length, calipered to the nearest
millimeter;

— length of head from the tip of the
snout to the distal edge of the ear
opening;

— length from rostral to eye, i.e.
from the tip of the snout to the
distal edge of the eye (eye-ring
included) ;

— length from the nostril to the distal
edge of the eye (eye-ring included);

— width of head, calipered in the
widest point of the head by gently
pressing the calipers to the sides
of the head (scales and skull) ;

— height of head, calipered in the
widest point of the head by gently
pressing the calipers to the sides of
the head (scales and skull);

— average head granules situated on
the snout (nearer to the rostral than
to the eyes, upper side of head);

— nuchal granules close to the occi-
put near the vertebral line;

labials

lamellae

scansors

preanal

pores

— average dorsal granules 1-2 mm
right or left of the vertebral line
near middorsum;

— average lateral granules in the
very center of the flanks (equidi-
stant from dorsals and laterals and
from fore and hind legs) ;

— average ventral scales of the mid-
venter;

— average gular scales equidistant
from a line combining the jaw
angles and the ventral scales
(ventral neck) ;

— all labials and enlarged granules
bordering the mouth;

— all transversally enlarged scales
and all scale rows under the com-
plete rigit;

— all lamellae with adhesive function
including a distal terminal lamella
and excluding a basal non-adhesive
lamella which is set off a little bit
from the adhesive pad;

— all scales with pores and distinct
scutes (= p., mainly in females).

Phelswna of Malagasy and the Indian

OCEAN ISLANDS

1 . Phelsuma andamaneissis

BSRC Geek 12-14 SC
This species is known only from Port Blair,
Andaman Islands, where our three specimens
were also collected. This form being the only
representative in the eastern Indian Ocean
occurs far away from the main distribution of
the genus, which is restricted to Malagasy and
the western Indian Ocean islands. No Phel-
suma has been found on the central Indian
Ocean islands (Lakkadive and Maidive Islands,
Sri Lanka) or on the Chagos Archipelago so
that there is a considerable gap in the distri-
bution of the genus which indicates a strong
chance that Phelsuma andamanensis was acci-
dentally transported to the Andaman Islands.

246

TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA M AD AG ASCARIEN SIS SPECIES GROUP

The morphometric data of our three speci-
mens are given in table 1. The species is
characterized by the absence of enlarged post-
mental scales and the following pattern: Dor-
sally light green. A red stripe (1 mm wide)

from the nostril through the eye to the ear
and there is a pre- and interocular red a -
figure whose tip is in the first third of the
snout; there are various spots on the rear of
the head, which usually tend to extend trans-

Table

Phelsuma andamanensis, Port Blair

Specimen BSRC Geek 12 SC

13 SC

14 SC

Variation

sex

SVL

42 -56

SVL

“59*’

59 -61

1.09

—

1.40

1.09- 1.40

14.3

13.5

13.6

13.5 -14.3

8.1

7.8

7.2

7.2 - 8.1

6.5

6.6

6.3

6.3 - 6.6

9.7

9.0

8.5

... 8.5 - 9.7

5.9

6.3

6.0

5.9 - 6.3

LH/RE

1.76

1.73

1.89

1.73- 1.89

LH/NE

2.20

2.04

2.15

2.04- 2.15

LH/WH

1.47

1.50

1.6

1.47- 1.6

LH/HH

2.42

2.14

2.27

2.14- 2.42

WH/HH

1.64

1.42

1.42- 1.64

NE/HH

1.10

1.05

1.05- 1.10

gran. : II

0.4

0.3

0.3 - 0.4

0.15

0.1

0.1 - 0.15

0.2

0.25

0.2

0.2 - 0.25

0.5

0.25

0.2

0.2 - 0.5

0.7

0.55

0.5

0.5 - 0.7

0.35

0.1

0.1 - 0.35

L/D

2.5

1 - 2.5

H. 1000 /SVL

7.14

6.25

7.14

6.25- 7.14

N. 1000/ SVL

2.69

2.08

2.38

2.08- 2.69

D . 1.000 / SVL

3.57

5.21

4.76

3.57- 5.21

L. 1000./ SVL

8.93

5.21

4.76

4.76- 8.93

V. 1000 /SVL

12.5

11.46

11.90

11.46-12.5

G. 1000 /SVL

6.25

2.08

2.38

2.08- 6.25

scales around midbody

80 : ' .

80 -90

supralabials r / 1

11/9

10/9

9 -11

sublabials r/1

9/8 .

10/9

. 978

8 -10

lamellae 4th toe

— 21. -24

scansors 4th toe

10 -1.5 ■ .

lamellae 4th finger

T ' : 20

7 18 -22 .

scansors 4th finger

: : li

■ TO -14 r;

preanal pores r/1

15/16

14/15

14/13

i3 -i6 :

247

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

versally. Three red longitudinal bands (0.6- 1.0
mm wide) are prominent on the nape, and there
may be another two lateral rows of red spots
or lines, one on each side of the neck. The
anterior and mid-dorsum lack spots. The post-
erior dorsum and sacrum have irregular red
spots (-2.0 mm <£), which tend to enlarge and
fuse transversally. Underneath, the geckos are
yellowish and whitish at least on the throat
and the anal and femoral region.

The dorsal pattern is not always visible, and
there may be true “concolor” — specimens;
they occur in the same Port Blair population.
2. Phelsuma longinsulae ssp.

This complex has its center on the western
group of the Seychelles, the Mahe group, and
on Frigate; Cheke (1982, in press) lists the
locality records for the Amirante Islands, from
where we lack specimens.

Phelsuma longinsulae is a green Neophel-
suma species with a reduced lateral pattern.

a dark red stripe of 1.5 mm width from the
nostril to the eye, a /\ -figure of -1.0 mm
width on the snout, variable red postocular and
on back of head spots, light (whitish or reddish)
spots on the legs and (fading in adults) on the
flanks, a longitudinal pattern of red spots
(transversally fusing near sacrum). The mor-
phometric data are given in tables 2 ff . It lacks
keeled chest scales; and head is more pointed
than in P. sundbergi (cf. Cheke, in press).

The type of this species has been collected
on Long Island near the harbour of Victoria,
Mahe. Cheke has already demonstrated that
this typical form occurs on Frigate, too, and
that this island may be the true center of dis-
tribution of this form. Long Island contain-
ing only a small, maybe even short-lived popu-
lation secondarily transported there, probably
by natives. Rendahl’s taxon pulchra has its
type locality on Mahe and his taxon cousinense
from Cousine Island (near Mahe) is consi-

Table 2

Diagnoses of the Seychelles Phelsuma longinsulae

Subspecies

longinsulae

pulchra

umbrae

rubra

Island

Frigate

Mahe

Silhouette

North

Specimens

36, 40, 41,

35, 38,

32, 42, 30 SC

29, 50 SC

49, 51 SC

48, 70 SC

___

Shape

moderate

moderate to robust

slender

SVL

41 -51

49 -59

43 -55

LH/RE

1.79- 1.87

1.77- 1.89

1.84- 1.91

1.88- 1.94

LH/WH

1.58- 1.62

1.49- 1.58

1.62- 1.72

1.67- 1.71

L/D

1 -2.33

2 - 2,5

1.33- 1.5

1 - 2

H.1000/SVL

6.00- 8.77

8.16-10.01

7.27-11.11

6.98- 7.27

D. 100G/SVL

2.88- 3.70

2.58- 4.08

4.0 - 5.45

3.64- 4.65

L.100Q/SVL

3.66- 7.41

5.17- 9.62

4.65- 7.27

V. 1000 /SVL

9.26-14.81

10.34-13.79

10.91-13.33

9.09- 9.30

G.100q/SVL

1.85- 2.78

2.73- 3.45

1.82- 2.33

2.33- 3.64

scales around midbody

78 -92

76 -88

76 -98

70 -76

supralabials

8 -11

9 -12

7 - 9

8 - 9

scansors 4th toe

10- 15

12 -14

11 -13

lamellae 4th finger

18 -22

21 -23

17 -18

scansors 4th finger

9 -13

12 -14

9 -10

preanal pores

10 -15

8 -16

6 - 9

—

248

TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCAR IENSIS SPECIES GROUP

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spots

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL .81

Table 3A

Phelsuma longinsulae longinsulae, Frigate

Specimen BSRC Geek

36 SC

40 SC

41 SC

Variation

Sex

6 .

SVL

41 -54

“54”

SVL

—

1.15

—

1.15

13.0

13.1

11.0

11.0 -13.1

7.0

6.0

6.0 - 7.0

5.5

6.4

4.7

4.7 - 6.4

8.1

8.3

6.8

6.8 - 8.3

5.0

5.9

4.4

4.4 - 5.9

LH/RE

1.86

1.87

1.83

1.83- 1.87

LH/NE

2.36

2.05

2.34

2.05- 2.36

LH/WH

1.60

1.58

1.62

1.58- 1.62

LH/HH

2.6

2.22

2.5

2.22- 2.6

WH/HH

1.62

1.41

1.55

1.41- 1.62

NE/HH

1.1

1.08

1.07

1.07- 1.1

gran. : H

0.4

0.3

0.3 - 0.4

N |

0.1

0.15

0.1

0.1 - 0.15

0.2

0.15

0.1 - 0.2

0.4

0.35

0.15

0.15- 0.4

0.5

0.6

0.4

0.4 - 0.6

0.1

L/D

2.33

1 - 2.33

H. 1000/SVL

7.41

7.69

7.32

7.32- 7.69

N. 1000/ SVL

1.85

2.88

2.44

1.85- 2.88

D. 1000/SVL

3.70

2.88

3.66

2.88- 3.70

L. 1000/SVL

7.41

5.73

3.66

3.66- 7.41

V. 1000/SVL

9.26

11.54

9.76

9.26-11.54

G. 1000/SVL

1.85

1.92

2.44

1.85- 2.44

scales around midbody

80 -92

supralabials r/1

11/10

10/9

8/10

8 -11

sublabials r/1

6/7

7 - 9

lamellae 4th toe

20 -26

scansors 4th toe

10 -13

lamellae 4th linger

18 -20

scansors 4th finger

9 -12

preanal pores r/1

15/15

12/10

12/11 p

10 -15/

dered to be a synonym. So

far we follow

for morphometric data). The

specimens with a

Cheke’s opinion. In order to

determine the

definite locality

were then

lumped together

subspecific variation of Phelsuma longinsulae, so that a variation was determined. The data
the junior author has drawn up a detailed for the morphometric variation in the four
description of each specimen (cf. tables 3-7 islands Frigate, Malie, Silhouette and North —

250

TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCARIENSIS SPECIES GROUP

Table 3B

Phelsuma longinsulae longinsulae

Specimen BSRC Geek

49 SC

51 SC

Total variation of subspecies

sex

SVL

41 -57

“59”

, “52”

SVL/TL

1.15

14.0

12.0

11.0 -14.0

7.7

6.7

6.0 - 7.7

6.5

5.6

4.7 - 6.5

8.8

7,5

6.8 - 8.8

6.0

5.5

4.4 - 6.0

LH/RE

1.82

1.79

1.79- 1.87

LH/NE

2.15

2.14

2.0 - 2.36

LH/WH

1.59

1.6

1.58- 1.62

LH/HH

2.33

2.18

2.18- 2.6

WH/HH

1.47

1.36

1.36- 1.62

NE/HH

1.08

1.02

1.02- 1.1

gran.: H

0.5

0.4

-■ - ••••'

0.3 - 0.5

0.2

0.1

0.1 - 0.2

0.2

0.1 - 0.2

0.25

0.3

0.15- 0.4

0.6

0.8

0.4 - 0.8

0.1

0.15

0.1 - 0.15

L/D

1.25

1.5

1 -2.33

H. 1000; /SVL

8.77

7.41

6.0-8.77

N. 1000/ SVL

3.51

1.85

1.85- 3.51

D. 1000 /SVL

3.51

3.70

2.88- 3.70

L. 1000 /SVL

4.39

5.56

3.66- 7.41

V. 1000 /SVL

10.53

14.81

9.26-14.81

G.iocqysvL

1.75

2.78

1.75- 2.78

scales around midbody

78 -92

supralabials r/1

8/9

8 -11

sublabials r/1

9/8

7/8

7 - 9

lamellae 4th toe

20 -26

scansors 4th toe

10 -15

lamellae 4th finger

18 -22

scansors 4th finger

9 -13

preanal pores r/1

14/12 p

13/13 P

10 -15/

as derived from these specimens (including
males and females for all islands except North
Island) - — are given in a synoptic table (table
9), Then it was determined, into which vari-
ation each of the morphometric and pattern
data of a given specimen without exact loca-

lity data fitted. As the basic variation data
were derived from males and females (except
those for North Island), a comparison of the
uncertain specimen with a specimen of the
same sex regularly shows even clearer results
of affinity. The process of assessing the sped-

251

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

tendency

a) SVL

North

Silhouette

Mahfc

Menai

Frigate

gap^

b) LH/RE

North

Silhouette

Mah&

Menai

c) LH/WH

North

Silhouette

Mahfe

Menai

(^Frigate

d) H» 1000/S VL

North

Silhouette

Menai

Mah£

e) D* 1000/S VL

North /\
Silhouette

Menai

Mah§

f) L» 1000/S VL

North

Silhouette

Frigate

Mah£

Menai

g) V* 1000/S VL
North

Silhouette

Mah£

Menai

h) G * 1000 SVL

Frigate

Fig. 1. Character divergence in Phelsuma longinsulae.

TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCARIENSIS SPECIES GROUP

FIGURE, 1

l) L/b

j) scales around midbody

North

Silhouette

Mahfe

Frigate

Mahfe

Frigate

Menai

Menai j

It) labials (supralabials)
North

Silhouette
Mahfe

Menai

gate

1) (lamellae and) scansors 4th toe
North

Silhouette

Mahfe Frigate

Menai

m) lamellae and scansors 4th finger
North

Silhouette v

Menai

Mahfe

Frigate

n) preanal pores
North

Silhouette

Mahfe

Menai

Frigate

TOTAL MORPHOMETRIC DIVERGENCE (all tendencies and

North

- Silhouette

Mahfe

Affinities in gestalt and pattern

gaps weighted equally)
(,

Frigate

North.,
Silhouette •

Menai

Frigate

Fig. 1 (contd.)

253

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Table 4

Phelsuma longinsulae pulchra, Mahe

Specimen BSRC Geek 35 SC

38 SC

48 SC

70 SC

Variation

sex

SVL

5.8

5.9

5.5

4.9

4.9 - 5.9

“6.0”

“5.9”

“3.6”

“5.6”

—

SVL / XL

—

14.8

14.0

12.6

12.6 -14.8

8.0

7.9

7.4

6.8

6.8 - 8.0

6.3

6.4

6.1

5.4

5.4 - 6.3

9.6

9.4

9.0

8.0

8.0 - 9.6

6.2

6.4

6.3

5.0

5.0 - 6.4

LH / RE

1.85

1.77

1.89

1.88

1.77- 1.89

LH/NE

2.35

2.19

2.29

2.33

2.19- 2.35

LH / WH

1.54

1.49

1.56

1 . 575

1.49- 1.58

LH/HH

2.39

2.19

2.22

2.52

2.19- 2.52

WH/HH

1.55

1.47

1.43

1.6

1.43- 1.6

NE/HH

1.02

0.97

1.08

0.97- 1.08

gran. : H

0.5

0.55

0.4

0.4 - 0.55

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.1 - 0.2

0.15

0.2

0.15-0.2

0.3

0.5

0.4

0.3 - 0.5

0.6

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.6 - 0.8

0.2

0.15

0.15- 0.2

L/D

2.5

2 - 2.5

H. 1000/ SVL

8.62

9.62

10.01

8.16

8.16-10.01

N. 1000/ SVL

■Tv 72

3.45

3.64

2.04

1.72- 3.64

D . 1 OCCj/SV L

2.58

3.45

3.64

4.08

2.58- 4.08

L. 1000/ SVL

5.17

9.62

9.09

8.16

5.17- 9.62

V. 10OC/SVL

10.34

13.79

12.73

12.24

10.34-13.79

G . 1000 /SVL

3.45

2.73

3.06

2.73- 3.45

scales around
midbody

76 -88

supralabials r/1

11/12

10/11

9/11

9 -12

sublabials r/1

- 1 : 9 ----- =• '

7/8 - - -

7 - 9

lamellae 4th toe

22 -28

scansors 4th toe

■=.: 13

12 -14

lamellae 4th finger

21 -23

scansors 4th finger

12 -14

preanal pores r/1

some p

8/8 p

14/14 p

16/16

8 -16/

mens of uncertain

origin is

shown in table 10;

only. The data

of the specimens

which were

some specimens could not be assigned to any

assessed with certainty are included

in a second

one population, a

.nd consequently their data

synoptic table

giving the variation data for

were included in

the total

specific variation

the different islands. Based on this inductive

254

TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCARIENSIS SPECIES GROUP

Table 5

Phelsuma longinsulae umbrae

Specimen BSRC Geek

Silhouette
32 SC

Sihouette
42 SC

Frigate or
Sihouette
30 SC

Variation

sex

SVL

-55

“20”

“7 y”

SVL/TL

1.31

.31

12.4

12.0

12.9

12,

.0 -12.9

6.5

6.4

7.0

.4 - 7.0

5.1

5.5

5.6

.1 - 5.6

7.5

7.4

7.5

.4 - 7.5

5.0

5.4

.0 - 5.4

LH/RE

1.91

1.87

1.84

,84- 1.91

LH/NE

2.43

2.18

2.30

.18- 2.43

LH/WH

1.65

1.62

1.72

.62- 1.72

LH/HH

2.48

2.40

2.39

39- 2.48

WH/HH

1.5

1.48

1.39

.39- 1.5

NE/HH

1.02

1.1

1.04

02- 1.1

gran.: H

0.4

0.5

0.4

,4 - 0.5

0.1

0.2

,1-0.2

0.2

0.3

,2-0.3

0.3

0.4

,3 - 0.4

0.6

0.1

, 1

L/D

1.5

1.33

33- 1.5

H. 1000/ SVL

8.0

11.11

7.27

27-11.11

N. 1000/ SVL

2.0

2.22

3.64

0 - 3.64

D. 1000/ SVL

4.0

4.44

5.45

0 - 5.45

L. 1000/ SVL

6.0

6.66

7.27

0 - 7.27

V. 1000 /SVL

12.0

13.33

10.91

10.

91-13.33

G. 1000/SVL

2.0

2.22

1.82

82- 2.22

scales around midbody

-98

supralabials r/1

9/8

9/7

9/8

- 9

sublabials r/1

8/7

7/8

- 8

lamellae 4th toe

-24

scansors 4th toe

- 12

-13

lamellae 4th finger

-18

scansors 4th finger

-10

preanal pores r/1

9/8

8/6

—

- 9 -

method, we got the results listed in table
11 and accordingly recognize four subspecies
in the Seychelles:

Phelsuma longinsulae longinsulae
Frigate; tt : Long Island nr. Mahe
BSRC Geek 36, 40, 41, 49, 51 SC

255

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Table 6

Phelsuma longinsulae rubra

specimen BSRC Geek

North
29 SC

North, Frigate
or Silhouette
50 SC

variation

Sex

SVL

43 —

“58”

SVL/TL

1.16

—

1.16

13.4

11.3

11.3 —

13.4

6.9

6.0

6.0 —

6.9

5.5

4.7

4.7 —

5.5

8.0

6.6

6.6 —

8.0

5.5

4.6

4.6 —

5.5

LH/RE

1.94

1.88

1.88 —

1.94

LH/NE

2.44

2.40

2.40 —

2.44

LH/WH

1.67

1.71

1.67 —

1.71

LH/HH

2.44

2.46

2.44 —

2.46

WH/HH

1.45

1.43

1.43 —

1.45

NE/HH

1.02

1 —

1.02

gran. : H

0.4

0.3

0.3 —

0.4

0.1

0.2

0.4

0.2

0.2 —

0.4

0.5

0.4

0.4 —

0.5

0.2

0.1

0.1 —

0.2

L/D

1 —

H. 1000/SVL

7.27

6.98

6.98 —

7.27

N. 1000 /SVL

1.82

2.33

1.82 —

2.33

D. 1000/SVL

3.64

4.65

3.64 —

4.65

L. 1000/SVL

7.27

4.65

4.65 —

7.27

V. 1000/SVL

9.09

9.30

9.09 —

9.30

G. 1000/SVL

3.64

2.33

2.33 —

3.64

scales around

70 —

midbody
supralabials r/1

8/9

-/*

8 —

sublabials r/1

7 _

lamellae 4th toe

■ —

scansors 4th toe

— ■

lamellae 4th finger

—

scansors 4th finger

— .

preanal pores r/1

—

256

TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCARIENSIS SPECIES GROUP

Phelsuma longinsulae pulchra

Mahe, Cousine; tt: Mahe;
Cousin for cousineme Rendahl
BSRC Geek 35, 38, 48, 70 SC

Phelsuma longinsulae umbrae, ssp. nov.
tt : Silhouette (d.n.)

Holotype : BSRC Geek 42 SC

Paratypes : BSRC Geek 32, 30 SC

Table 7

Phelsuma longinsulae sspp. (excl. menaiensis )

longinsulae

Specimen BSRC Geek or pulchra

45 MC

longinsulae
or pulchra
31 SC

longinsulae
or umbrae
44 MC

Seychelles
43 MC

sex

SVL

“50”

“55”

—

SVL/TL

1.15

— •

— -

—

13.6

13.0

—

7.7

6.8

7.0

■ —

6.4

5.8

5.7

—

9.5

8.0

7.8

—

5.8

5.6

5.8

—

LH/RE

1.77

1.91

1.86

• —

LH/NE

2.12

2.24

2.28

—

LH/WH

1.43

1.63

1.7

LH/HH

2.34

2.32

2.24

—

WH/HH

1.64

1.43

1.34

—

NE/HH

1.10

1.04

0.98

—

gran. : H

0.3

0.4

0.3

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.2

0. 1-0.4

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.8

0.5

0.7

0.1

L/D

0. 5-2.0

1.5

H. 1000/SVL

5.45

7.14

6.00

5.6

N. 1000/SVL

1.82

1.79

2.00

1.85

D. 1000/SVL

3.63

3.57

2.00

3.7

L. 1000/SVL

3.63

1.79-7.14

4.00

5.6

V. 1000/SVL

7.27

14.29

10.00

12.96

G. 1000/SVL

1.82

1.79

2.00

1.85

scales around midbody

supralabials r/1

10/9

11/10

—

sublabials r/1

8/7

—

lamellae 4th toe

scansors 4th toe

lamellae 4th finger

—

scansors 4th finger

- — ■

preanal pores r/1

13/12

14/14

14/13

257

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

PheSsiima longinsulae rubra,, ssp. nov.
tt : North Island

(d.n.: the name hints at the conspicuous
pattern)

Holotype : BSRC Geek 29 SC

Paratype : BSRC Geek 50 SC

The types are described morphometrically in
tables 5 and 6. Diagnoses are given in table 2.
3. Phelsuma longiusulae menaiensis
BSRC Geek 68, 69 SC
Cheke (1982) has placed the green Neo phel-
suma from Menai, Cosmoledo Atoll, in the

Table 8

Phelsuma longinsulae menaiensis, Menai

Specimen BSRC Geek

68 SC

69 SC

Variation

sex

9, 2 eggs

SVL

5.8

6.1

5.8 —

6.1

“5.6”

“7.6”

—

SVL/TL

—

14.7

15.4

14.7 —

15.4

RE—

8.0

8.5

8.0 —

8.5

NE-

6.4

7.4

6.4 —

7.4

9.0

11.0

9.0 -

- 11.0

6.0

8.3

6.0 —

8.3

LH/RE

1.81

LH /-NE

2.27

2.08

2.08 —

2.27

LH/WH

1.61

1.4

1.4 —

1.61

LH/HH

2.42

1.86

1.86 —

2.42

WH/HH

1.5

1 . 325

1 . 325—

1.5

NE /HH

1.33

0.89

0.89 —

1.33

gran. : H

0.2

0.4

0.2 —

0.4

0.1

0.15

0.1 —

0.15

0.3

0.4

0.6

0.4 —

0.6

0.8

0.7

0.7 —

0.8

0.15

0.2

0.15 —

0.2

L/D

1.33

1.33 —

H. 1000 /SVL

3.44

5.56

3.44 —

5.56

N. 1000 /SVL

1.72

2.46

1.72 —

2.46

D. 1000/ SVL

5.17

4.92

4.92 —

5.17

L. 1000/ SVL

6,89

9.84

6.89 —

9.84

V. 1000/SVL

13.79

11.48

11.48 —

13.79

G. 1000 /SVL

2.58

3.28

2.58 —

3.28

scales around midbody

88 —

supralabials r/1

8 —

sublabials r/1

8/7

7 —

lamellae 4th toe

21 —

scansors 4th toe

12 —

lamellae 4th finger

18 —

scansors 4th finger

preanal pores r/1

11-1-11

15/15

11 —

15/

TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCARIENSIS SPECIES GROUP

species longinsulae. Indeed this form is hardly
distinguishable from Phelsuma longinsulae
pulchra, which occurs on Mahe. In shape it
comes most closely to this lizard, as it is simi-
larly robust. Its meristic data are given in
table 8, from which a marked sexual dimor-
phism in head proportions is evident. In life
it is dark green with dull red dorsal markings
(-1.6 mm v/ide) in three irregular longitudinal
rows. Legs and flanks are irregularly mottled.
The head shows a a -figure, a dark red stripe
from the nostril to the eye, and a spotted
temple. Underneath the lizard is whitish, the
only marks being a grey semi-circular band on
the inframaxillary reaching to the ear and
some dark gular spots which may form a

second inner semi-circle.

4. Phelsuma chekei, sp. nov.

BSRC Geek 36 MC (Holotype),

20 MC, 33 SC (Paratypes)

These specimens have been purchased from
Mr. H. Meier, who collected them in the
close vicinity of Diego Suarez (pers. comm.).
We therefore design as type locality : vicinity
of Diego Suarez, northern tip of Madagascar;
d.n.: The new species is named after Anthony
Cheke, a long-time friend of ours.

Diagnosis : The diagnostic meristic data are
summarized in table 20.

The new species is rather robust and stout
in shape, comparable to the forms of Menai
and Mahe on the one hand and to the even

Table 9

Phelsuma longinsulae, variation of specimens with certain locality data only

taxon

specimens BSRC Geek

rubra (1)
29 SC

umbrae (2)
32, 42 SC

pulchra (4)

35, 38, 48, 70 SC

longinsulae (3)
36, 40, 41 SC

menaiensis (2)
68, 69 SC

SVL

45 -50

49 -59

41 -54

58 -61

SVL/TL

1.16

1.16- 1.51

—

1.15

—

LH/RE

1.94

1.87- 1.91

1.77- 1.89

1.83- 1.87

1.81

LH/NE

2.44

2.18- 2.43

2.19- 2.35

2.05- 2.36

2.08- 2.27

LH/WH

1.67

1.62- 1.65

1.49- 1.58

1.58- 1.62

1.4 - 1.61

LH/HH

2.44

2.40- 2.48

2.19- 2.52

2.22- 2.6

1.86- 2.42

WH/HH

1.45

1.48- 1.5

1.43- 1.6

1.41- 1.62

1.325-1.5

NE/HH

1.02- 1.1

0.97- 1.08

1.07- 1.1

0.89- 1.33

L/D

1.5

2 - 2.5

1 -2.33

1.33-2

H.1000/SVL

7.27

8.0 -11.11

8.16-10.01

7.32- 7.69

3.44- 5.56

N.1GQ0/SVL

1.82

2.0 - 2.22

1.72- 3.64

1.85- 2.88

1.72- 2.46

D. 1000/ SVL

3.64

4.0 - 4.44

2.58- 4.08

1.92- 3.70

4.92- 5.17

L.1000/SVL

7.27

6.0 - 6.66

5.17- 5.62

3.66- 7.41

6.89- 9.84

V. 1000 /SVL

9.09

12.0 -13.33

10.34-13.79

9.26-11.54

11.48-13.79

G. 1000/SVL
scales around

3.64

2.0 - 3.33

2.73- 3.45

1.85- 2.44

2.58- 3.28

midbody

76 -90

76 -88

80 -92

88 -90

supralabials

8/9

7 - 9

9 -12

8 -11

8 - 9

sublabials

7 - 8

7 - 9

7 - 8

lamellae 4th toe

—

21 -23

22 -28

20 -26

21 -22

scansors 4th toe

—

11 -13

12 -14

10 -13

12 -13

lamellae 4th finger

—

17 -18

21 -23

18 -20

18 -19

scansors 4th finger

—

9 -10

12 -14

9 -12

preanal pores

—

6 - 9/

8 -16/

10 -15/

11 -15/

259

Phelsuma longinsulae, affinities of specimens without certain locality data

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

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260

Table 10 ( Contd .)

TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCARIENSIS SPECIES GROUP

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Table 10 ( Contd .)

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262

TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCARIENSIS SPECIES GROUP

Table 11

VARIATION OF ALL SPECIMENS

taxon

specimens BSRC Geek

longinsulae (5)

36, 40, 41, 49, 51 SC

Seychelles (18)

31 SC, 43, 44, 45 MC

menaiensis (2)
68, 69 SC

all subspecies
(20)

all specimens

SVL

41 -57

58 -61

SVL/TL

1.15

1.15- 1.31

—

LH/RE

1.79- 1.87

1.77- 1.94

1.81

LH/NE

2.05- 2,36

2.05- 2.44

2.08- 2.27

LH/WH

1.58- 1.62

1.43- 1.72

1.4 - 1.61

LH/HH

2.18- 2.6

1.86- 2.42

WH/HH

1.36- 1.62

1.34- 1.64

1.325-1 .5

NE/HH

1.02- 1.1

0.97- 1.1

0.89- 1.33

L/D

1 - 2.33

1 -2.5

1.33-2

H. 1000 /SVL

6.00- 8.77

5. 45-11.11

3.44- 5.56

N. 1000/ SVL

1.85- 3.51

1.72- 3.64

1.72- 2.46

D. 1000 /SVL

2.88- 3.70

1.92- 5.45

4.92- 5.17

L. 1000/ SVL

3.66- 7.41

3.63- 9.62

6.89- 9.84

V. 1000 /SVL

9.26-14.81

7.27-14.81

11.48-13.79

G. 1000 /SVL

1.85- 2.78

1.79- 3.64

2.58- 3.28

scales around midbody

78 -92

70 -98

88 -90

supralabials

8 -11

8 -12

8 - 9

sublabials

7 - 9

7 - 8

lamellae 4th toe

20 -26

20 -30

21 -22

scansors 4th toe

10 -15

10 -18

12 -13

lamellae 4th finger

18 -22

17 -23

18 -19

scansors 4th finger

9 -13

9 -14

preanal pores

10 -15/

6 -16/

11 -15/

taxon

rubra (2)

umbrae (3)

pulchra (4)

specimens BSRC Geek

29, 50 SC

32, 42, 30 SC

35, 38, 48, 70 SC

SVL

43 -55

49 -59

SVL/TL

1.16

1.31

—

LH/RE

1.88- 1.94

1.84- 1.91

1.77- 1.89

LH/NE

2.40- 2.44

2.18- 2.43

2.19- 2.35

LH/WPI

1.67- 1.71

1.62- 1.72

1.49- 1.58

LH/HH

2.44- 2.46

2.39- 2.48

2.19- 2.52

WH/HH

1.43- 1.45

1.39- 1.5

1.43- 1.6

NE/HH

1 - 1.02

1.02- 1.1

0.97- 1.08

L/D

1 - 2

1.33- 1.5

2 - 2.5

H. 1000 /SVL

6.98- 7.27

7.27-11.11

8.16-10.01

N. 1000/ SVL

1.82- 2.33

2.0 - 3.64

1.72- 3.64

D.1000/SVL

3.64- 4.65

4.0 - 5.45

2.58- 4.08

L. 1000/ SVL

4.65- 7.27

5.17- 9.67

V. 1000/SVL

9.09- 9.30

10.91-13.33

10.34-13.79

G. 1000 /SVL

2.33- 3.64

1.82- 2.33

2.73- 3.45

263

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Table 11 ( Contd .)

scales around midbody

-76

-98

-88

supralabials

- 9

-12

sublabials

- 8

- 9

lamellae 4th toe

-24

-28

scansors 4th toe

-13

-14

lamellae 4th finger

-18

-23

scansors 4th finger

-10

-14

preanal pores

—

-v

-16/

stouter form of Assumption (named by Cheke:

redbrown

or greybrown.

Underneath

the ani-

Phelsuma abbotti sumptio, now considered to
be a valid species, see below).

The dorsal and lateral scales of body and
tail are wide spaced, which is a unique charac-
ter of this species. The back is dull green to
dull blue (olive-green to blue-green in life),
sometimes with a dull red-brown broad verte-
bral line or such spots mainly in the verte-
bral region. Flanks and legs are brownish
with lighter yellowish-brown, rounded spots in
a dark grey network. The head has a preocular
red semicircle, which continues interocularly;
this figure is never V-shaped, but always
rounded. On the back of the head there are
some irregular, usually transversally enlarged
dark redbrown spots. A dark redbrown streak
runs from the nostril to the eye and continues
behind the eye towards the occiput in a U-
shaped figure. A second stripe starts on the
second row of postmentals, continues from
the inframaxillariae to the posterior labials and
to the ear and then forms a second, though
interrupted U-figure on the anterior nape. Bet-
ween these two dark stripes the temple is
whitish. A third similar figure is formed by
the inner dark stripe of the anterior throat,
but this stripe continues to the side of the neck
only and is usually not visible there in life.
Usually there is a third dark semicircle on the
inner throat. All these gular stripes are ven-
trally dark grey and laterally and dorsally dark

mal is white, but may be slightly yellowish in
the anal and femoral region.

The meristic data of the holotype, whose
pattern has faded in alcohol, are given in
table 12.

An earlier description is given by Krefft
(1907), cf. also Boettger (1881, part.); Mer-
tens (1964, 1966 part.). Published photos
referred to this species are found in Mertens
(1962, fig.) and Nietzke (1972, fig. 73). All
previous authors have included this species
under the name Phelsuma abbotti.

5. Phelsuma befotakensis sp nov.

BSRC Geek 82 SC (Holotype),

80-81 SC (Paratypes)

Type locality and d.n. : Befotaka, Northwest
Madagascar (s. of Presqu’ lie Radama, c. half-
way between Diego Suarez and Majunga; not
the village on Nosy Be!).

Diagnosis'. The meristic data are given in
table 20.

The adhesive pads of the species are not as
wide as those of Phelsuma chekei.

Ground colour is a bluish green, which in
the light phase may turn to a yellowish bright
green mid-dorsally and on the sacrum.

A dark redbrown stripe runs from the nos-
tril through the eye and continues upwards
through the temple in order to form the dorso-
lateral redbrown stripe on the nape; it con-
tinues as a series of elongated spots which

264

TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCARIENSIS SPECIES GROUP

Table 12

Phelsama chekei, Diego Suarez

specimen BSRC Geek

20 MC

33 MC

36 MC

variation

sex

—

SVL

55 -60

“65”

52 -74

SVL/TL

—

0.945

1.23

0.94- 1.23

15.2

13.7

15.4

13.7 -15.4

7.9

7.2

8.6

7.2 - 8.6

7.2

6.2

6.9

6.2 - 7.2

10.5

10.0

11.0

10.0 -11.0

7.2

6.9

6.7

6.7 - 7.2

LH/RE

1.92

1.90

1.79

1.79- 1.92

LH/NE

2.17

2.21

2.23

2.17- 2.23

LH/WH

1.45

1.37

1.64

1.37- 1.64

LH/HH

2.17

1.99

2.30

1.99- 2.30

WH/HH

1.46

1.45

1.64

1.45- 1.64

NE/HH

0.90

1.03

0.90- 1.03

gran. : H

0.4

0.5

0.4

0.4 - 0.5

0.2

0.3

0.7

0.5

0.5 - 0.7

0.8

0.15

0.1

0.1 - 0.15

L/D

2.33

1.67

1.67- 2.33

H. 1000/SVL

6.90

9.09

6.67

6.67- 9.09

N.1000/SVL

3.45

2.73

3.33

2.73- 3.45

D. 1000/SVL

5.17

5.45

5 - 5.45

L. 1000/SVL

12.06

9.09

8.33

8.33-12.06

V. 1000/SVL

13.79

14.54

13.33

13.33-14.54

G. 1000/SVL

2.59

2.73

1.67

1.67- 2.73

scales around midbody

68 -72

supralabials r/1

7/6

8/7

8/9

6 - 9

sublabials r/1

7/9

7 - 9

lamellae 4th toe

21 -23

scansors 4th toe

10 -12

lamellae 4th finger

scansors 4th finger

10 -11

preanal pores r/1

17/17

—

12/14 p

12 -17

separate dorsum and flanks and which may
fade in the light phase. A red vertebral stripe
starts on the occiput and continues to the
base of the tail. A second smaller redbrown
stripe, which joins the dorsolateral stripe on

the anterior nape, originates in the outer dark
chin stripe and runs through the ear. The in-
ner gular stripe is not evident on the sides of
the neck. Neck and body show greenish, in the
light phase even yellowish rounded spots in

265

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

longitudinal rows: one between the vertebral
and the dorsolateral redbrown stripes, another
below the dorsolateral stripe on the upper
flank and a third indistinct one on the lower
flank. In the dark phase the light spots on the
upper flank are encircled by irregular dark red

spots, which gives the impression of ocelli.
The same sort of spots are present on the legs.
A conspicuous character is a redbrown pre-
frontal stripe from the scales behind the in-
tranasal granule all along the fore head; be-
fore the eyes it merges with a U-shaped inter-

Table 13

Phclsuma befotakensis, Befotaka

specimen BSRC Geek

80 SC

81 SC

82 SC

variation

sex

—

SVL

44 -48

c. 70

c. 60

—

60 -70

SVL/TL

1.46

1.36

—

1.36- 1.46

13.3

13.6

13.0

13.0 -13.6

7.2

7.5

7.0

7.0 - 7.5

6.1

6.4

6.0

6.0 - 6.4

8.1

8.9

9.8

8.1 - 9.8

6.0

5.8

6.3

5.8 - 6.3

LH/RE

1.85

1.81

1.86

1.81- 1.86

LH/NE

2.18

2.12

2.17

2.12- 2.18

LH/WH

1.35

1.52

1.33

1.33- 1.52

LH/HH

2.22

2.34

2.06

2.06- 2.34

WH/HH

1.35

1.53

1.33

1.33- 1.53

NE/HH

1.02

1.10

0.95

0.95- 1.10

gran. : H

0.4

\ 0.5

0.5

0.4 - 0.5

0.15

0.2

0.3

•0.15- 0.3

0.3

0.4

0.3 - 0.4

0.5

0.8

0.75

0.5 - 0.8

0.15

0.25

0.15

0.15- 0.25

L/D

1.67

1.25

1.25- 1.67

H.1000/SVL

8.33

11.36

10.42

8.33-11.36

N. 1000/SVL

3.125

4.54

5.25

3.125-5.25

D.1000/SVL

6.25

9.09

8.33

6.25- 9.09

L. 1000/SVL

10.42

11.36

10.42

10.42-11.36

V. 1000/SVL

10.42

18.18

15.625

10.42-18.18

G. 1000/SVL

3.125

3.41

3.125

3.125-3.41

scales around midbody

74 -78

supralabials r/1

8/7

6/7

6 - 9

sublabials r/1

7/8

7/6

6 - 8

lamellae 4th toe

20 -22

scansors 4th toe

10 -13

lamellae 4th finger

18 -22

scansors 4th finger

10 -12

preanal pores r/1

15/17

—

10 -17/

266

TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCARIENSIS SPECIES GROUP

Table 14

Variation of Phelsuma sundbergi

Praslin (1)

specimens BSRC Geek 8 SC

F61icit6 (4)

28, 33, 45, 47 SC

La Digue (8)

43, 44, 46, 71-74, 27 SC

Total (13)

SVL

54 -67

62 -77

54 -77

SVL/TL

1.19

—

1.27- 1.28

1.19- 1.28

LH/RE

1.84

1.84- 1.96

1.71- 1.93

1.71- 1.96

LH/NE

2.22

2.2 - 2.33

1.95- 2.37

LH/WH

1.47

1.41- 1.6

1.31- 1.61

LH/HH

2.14

2.05- 2.4

2.08- 2.43

2.05- 2.43

WH/HH

1.46

1.41- 1.51

1.37- 1.65

NE/HH

0.96

0.91- 1.09

0.95- 1.39

0.91- 1.39

L/D

1.67

1.67- 2.5

1.13- 2.5

H. 1000 /SVL

13.51

7.4 -10.77

7.58-12.31

7.4 -13.51

N. 1000/ SVL

4.05

1.8-4.24

2.46- 4

1.8 - 4.24

D.1000/SVL

4.05

3.28- 4.48

3.03- 5.38

L. 1000/ SVL

6.76

7.4 - 9.23

5.3 - 8.2

5.3 - 9.23

V. 1000/SVL

13.51

8.26-12.31

9.84-15.38

8.26-15.38

G.1000/SVL
scales aroiind

4.05

3.28- 4.48

2.64- 4.8

midbody

76 -88

88 -100

76 -100

supralabials

10/11

8 -11

8 -10

8 -11

sublabials

7 - 9

lamellae 4th toe

23 -29

21 -31

scansors 4th toe

13 -16

10 -18

lamellae 4th finger

—

19 -26

19 -25

19 -26

scansors 4th finger

11 -16

10 -17

preanal pores

13-14

13 -15

10 -16

ocular series of spots. A second series of spots
forms an opposite U with the tip on the occi-
put and the ends on the supraocular scales.
Underneath the animal is yellowish white, with
a yellowish anal and femoral region.

The meristic data of the holotype, which
shows the characteristic pattern, are given in
table 13.

The female paratype (Geek 81 SC) contains
two well developed eggs.

Earlier references to this species may be
included under the name Phelsuma abbolti.

6 . Phelsuma sundbergi

This green Neophelsuma species is found on
the Praslin Bank of the Seychelles and on

Marie Louise of the Amirante Islands (cf.
Cheke 1982, in press). It is distinguished from
other species by the following characters:
Large size (-8 cm SVL), wider snout angle
(cf. Cheke 1982) keeled chest scales, and unique
pattern: Besides a dark streak from the nostril
to the eye there usually is a shaped pre-

and interocular figure on the head; the distinct
dark red mottling on the posterior dorsum
and sacrum consists of small longitudinal spots
(-2.0 mm wide), which may have fused trans-
versally and longitudinally to form a red net-
work; chin and throat may turn yellowish and
show an outer dark, eventually broken semi-
circle and a few irregular spots in this figure;

267

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 81

1 ABLE 15

Phelsuma sundbergi, Felicite

specimen BSRC Geek

28 SC

33 SC

45 SC

47 SC

variation

sex

-t*

SVL

54 -67

“57”

“81”

“84”

“58”

—

SVL/TL

—

13.4

15.5

16.4

14.7

13.4 -16.4

7.0

8.4

8.8

7.5

7.0 - 8.8

6.0

7.0

7.3

6.3

6.0 - 7.3

8.5

10.6

11.6

9.5

8.5 -11.6

5.5

7.0

8.0

6.3

5.5 - 8.0

LH/RE

1.9

1.84

1.86

1.96

1.84- 1.96

LH/NE

2.2

2.21

2,25

2.33

2.2 - 2.33

LH/WH

1.6

1.46

1.41

1.55

1.41- 1.6

LH/HH

2.4

2.21

2.05

2.33

2.05- 2.4

WH/HH

1.5

1.51

1.41

1.51

1.41- 1.51

NE/HH

1.09

0.91

0.91- 1.09

gran. : H

0.4

0.7

0.6

0.4 - 0.7

0.1

0.2

0.25

0.1 - 0.25

0.2

0.3

0.2

0.2 - 0.3

0.4

0.6

0.5

0.4 - 0.6

0.5

0.8

0.6

0.5 - 0.8

0.2

0.3

0.2

0.2 - 0.3

L/D

1.67

2.5

1.67- 2.5

H. 1000 /SVL

7.4

10.77

9.00

9.84

7.4 -10.77

N. 1000/SVL

1.8

3.08

2.99

4.24

1.8 - 4.24

D. 1000 /SVL

3.7

3.69

4.48

3.28

3.28- 4.48

L. 1000/SVL

7.4

9.23

7.46

8.20

7.4 - 9.23

V. 1000/SVL

8.26

12.31

11.94

9.84

8.26-12.31

G. 1000/SVL
scales around

3.7

3.69

4.48

3.28

3.28- 4.48

midbody

76 -88

supralabials r/1

10/11

10/9

10/8

8/9

8 -11

sublabials r/1

9/8

8/7

9/7

7/8

7 - 9

lamellae 4th toe

23 -29

scansors 4th toe

13 -16

lamellae 4th finger

19 -26

scansors 4th finger

11 -16

preanal pores r/1

—

15/15

c, 15/15 p

c. 1 3/13 p

13 -15

femoral and anal region may

turn yellowish

Our specimens.

also living ones.

were collec-

or orange (especially

in males).

while the usual

ted on Praslin, La Digue and

Felicite and

ventral colour is an

indistinct white; legs are

show the following geographic variation (for

mottled with a slightly darker greyish or
brownish green.

biometric data see
The specimens

: tables 14-17):
from Praslin

are usually

268

TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCAR1ENSIS SPECIES GROUP

Table 16 A

Phelsuma sundbergi, La Digue

specimen BSRC Geek

43 SC

44 SC

46 SC

71 SC

72 SC

sex

SVL

‘‘82”

“72”

“80”

“44”

SVL/TL

1.27

—

15.0

16.6

17.0

16.8

17.0

8.2

9.0

8.8

10.0

9.7

7.6

7.0

7.8

8.1

8.7

9.3

10.5

12.1

11.7

11.0

6.8

7.4

7.9

8.1

7.0

LH/RE

1.83

1.84

1.93

1.68

1.75

LH/NE

1.97

2.37

2.18

2.07

1.95

LH/WH

1.61

1.58

1.40

1.44

1.55

LH/HH

2.21

2.24

2.15

2.1

2.43

WH/HH

1.37

1.42

1.53

1.46

1.57

NE/HH

1.12

0.95

0.99

1.01

1.24

gran. : H

0.6

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.2

0.3

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.2

0.4

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

0.7

0.8

0.9

0.7

1.0

0.25

0.3

0.2

0.3

L/D

1.33

1.13

1.67

1.43

H. 1000/SVL

9.68

7.58

7.79

10.29

12.31

N. 1000/SVL

3.23

3.03

3.90

2.94

3.85

D. 1000/SVL

4.84

3.03

5.19

4.41

5.38

L. 1000/SVL

6.45

6.06

5.84

7.35

7.69

V. 1000/SVL

11.29

12.12

11.69

10.29

15.38

G. 1000/SVL
scales around

4.03

4.54

3.90

2.94

4.62

midbody

supralabials r/1

10/11

9/10

sublabials r/1

8/9

8/7

7/8

lamellae 4th toe

scansors 4th toe

lamellae 4th finger

scansors 4th finger

preanal pores r/i

—

13/14

10/11

—

16/

larger than those from the other islands. They
show a lighter green dorsally, a lighter ventral
coloration (white or slight yellowish) and a
reduced pattern on the throat with fewer and
less distinct markings.

On the contrary the specimens from La
Digue and Felicite are usually smaller, and
show a darker green dorsally, a darker ventral
coloration (dark yellow or orange) and a
broad dark pattern on the throat. The speci-

269

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Table 16 B
Phelsuma sundbergi

specimen BSRC Geek

La Digue
73 SC

La Digue
74 SC

La Digue
variation

La Digue or
Felicite
27 SC

sex

—

SVL

62 -77

“78”

78 -79

“71”

SVL/TL

1.28

—

1.27- 1.28

—

16.6

19.9

15.0 -19.9

15.2

9.7

11.5

8.2 -11.5

8.4

7.7

9.5

7.0 - 9.5

7.1

11.4

15.2

9.3 -15.2

9.8

HLI

7.0

9.3

6.8 - 9.3

7.3

LH/RE

1.71

1.73

1.71- 1.93

1.81

LH/NE

2.16

2.09

1.95- 2.37

2.14

LH/WH

1.46

1.31

1.31- 1.61

1.55

LH/HH

2.37

2.14

2.1 - 2.43

2.08

WH/HH

1.63

1.37- 1.65

1.34

NE/HH

1.39

1.02

0.95- 1.39

0.97

gran. : H

0.5

0.9

0.5 - 0.9

0.6

0.15

0.3

0.15- 0.3

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.2 - 0.4

0.2

0.5

0.6

0.4 - 0.6

0.4

0.6

1.0

0.6 - 1.0

0.8

0.15

0.3

0.15- 0.3

0.3

L/D

1.67

1.5

1.13- 2.0

H. 1000 /SVL

8.20

7.58-12.31

9.5

N. 1000 /SVL

2.46

2.46- 4

3.2

D. 1000/ SVL

4.92

5.3

3.03- 5.38

3.2

L. 1000/SVL

8.20

5.84- 8.2

5.3

V. 1000/ SVL

9.84

13.3

9.84-15.38

12.7

G. 1000/SVL

2.64

2.64- 4.62

4.8

scales around
midbody

100

88 -100

supralabials r/1

8/9

8 -10

sublabials r/1

7 - 9

9/8

lamellae 4th toe

21 -31

scansors 4th toe

10 -18

lamellae 4th finger

19 -25

scansors 4th finger

10 -17

preanal pores r/1

—

10 -16/

—

mens from La Digue and Felicite do not differ
from each other in coloration, but perhaps
the specimens from Felicite are smaller on the
average than those from La Digue. The two

populations may be fairly easily separated by
the number of scales around midbody, which
is less than 88 for Felicite and more than 88
for La Disue. Bv the number of scales around

270

TAXONOMY OF THE PHHLSUMA MADAGASCARIENSIS SPECIES GROUP

Tables 17, 18

P. sundbergi,
Praslin

P. mad. kochi,
Majunga

specimen BSRC Geek

8 SC

7 SC

sex

SVL

SVL/TL

1.19

1.06

18.2

16.8

9.9

9.5

8.2

8.0

12.4

10.8

8.5

7.4

LH/RE

1.84

1.77

LH/NE

2.22

2.1

LH/WH

1.47

1.56

LH/HH

2.14

2.27

WH/HEI

1.46

NE/HH

0.96

1.19

gran. : H

1.0

0.6

0.3

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.4

1.0

0.7

0.3

0.1

L/D

1.67

H. 1000/ SVL

13.51

9.23

N. 1000/SVL

4.05

6.15

D. 1000/ SVL

4.05

6.15

L. 1000/SVL

6.76

7.69

V. 1000/SVL

13.51

10.77

G. 1000/SVL

4.05

1.54

scales around

midbody

supralabials r/1

10/11

sublabials r/1

8/9

lamellae 4th toe

scansors 4th toe

lamellae 4th finger

—

scansors 4th finger

preanal pores r/1

—

14/13

midbody, the Praslin animals can be separated
neither from the La Digue nor from the Feli-
cite animals.

At present we do not think it appropriate

to distinguish subspecies in Phelsuma sundbergi,
and therefore we place the name Phelsuma
madagascariensis (sundbergi) ladiguensis Bohme
& Meier 1982 into the synonymy of Phelsuma
sundbergi (the availability of the name is
doubtful in respect of Artt. 5, 6, 10 lit. b, 11
lit. c International Rules for Zoological Nom-
enclature; this question is definitely left open).
7 . Phelsuma madagascariensis

This species shows considerable variation in
its range, as is demonstrated by our specimens
(cf. tables 18, 19). They seem to stem from
different localities.

BSRC Geek 7 SC is from Majunga and
must be referred to Phelsuma madagascarien-
sis kochi on the basis of its coloration, pattern
and biometric data; the same is true for a living
specimen.

BSRC Geek 8, 13 MC are both Phelsuma
madagascariensis grand is. The specimens be-
long to the series of several generations bred
by the senior author and agree with the vari-
ation known for that subspecies.

The other alcohol specimens should not be
assessed to a subspecies, as we definitely think
that the amount of subspecific and intrasub-
specific variation is not yet reliably described.
These non-assignable specimens are included
to give an idea of the specific variation in
Phelsuma madagascariensis (ex. kochi).

Biogeography and Phylogeny

Madagascar is the center of evolution of the
genus Phelsuma. It has already been shown,
that the subgenus Phelsuma ( Archaeophel -
suma ) on the Mascarene Islands consists of
old relict forms surviving on the ancient peri-
phery of the generic distribution and that the
forms of Neophelsuma found outside Madaga-
scar are more recent invaders (Burner 1972).
As it may be presumed that the rate of evolu-

271

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Table 19

Phelsuma madagascariensis SSPP. (excl. kochi )

specimen BSRC Geek

8 MC

13 MC

53 MC

55 MC

56 MC

variation

sex

semiad., $ ?

iuv.

—

SVL

102

31 -102

“82”

113

“42”

101

30 -113

SVL/TL

—

0.97

1.11

—

1.22

0.97- 1.22

21.4

9.6

23.2

21.8

25.5

9.6 -25.5

13.3

5.3

13.6

12.6

14.7

5.3 -14.7

10.7

4.4

11.5

10.6

12.0

4.4 -12.0

14.5

7.2

16.0

17.0

17.8

7.2 -17.8

10.3

4.3

9.6

12.0

12.3

4.3 -12.3

LH/RE

1.61

1.81

1.71

1.73

1.61- 1.81

LH/NE

2.0

2.18

2.02

2.05

2.13

2.0 - 2.18

LH/WH

1.48

1.33

1.45

1.28

1.43

1.28- 1.48

LH/HH

2.08

2.23

2.41

1.82

2.01

1.82- 2.41

WH/HH

1.41

1.67

1.42

1.45

1.41- 1.67

NE/HH

1.04

1.02

1.20

0.88

0.98

0.88- 1.20

gran. : H

0.7

—

0.7

0.5

0.8

0.5 - 0.8

0.3

—

0.5

0.4

0.5

0.3 - 0.5

0.6

—

0.6

0.4

0.5

0.4 - 0.6

1.0

—

1.7

1.3

1.0

1.0 - 1.7

1.5

—

1.4

0.8

1.0

0.8 - 1.5

0.4

—

0.6

0.4

0.5

0.4 - 0.6

L/D

1.67

—

3.40

4.33

1.67- 4.33

H. 1000/SVL

8.86

—

6.86

5.02

9.64

5.02- 9.64

N. 1000/SVL

3.80

—

4.90

4.82

6.02

3.80- 6.02

D. 1000/SVL

7.59

—

4.90

3.61

6.02

3.61- 7.59

L. 1000/SVL

12.66

—

16.67

15.66

12.05

12.05-16.67

V. 1000/SVL

20.25

—

13.73

9.64

12.05

9.64-20.25

G. 1000/SVL

5.06

—

5.88

4.82

6.02

4.82- 6.02

scales around

midbody 82

supralabials r/1

9/8

sublabials r/1

8/7

lamellae 4th toe

—

scansors 4th toe

lamellae 4th finger

scansors 4th finger

preanal pores r/1

—

• —

tion in the subgenus Neophelsuma and its spe-
cies groups is nearly equal throughout the sub-
genus, it is possible to conclude that the extent
of character deviation in a given taxon proves
the duration of its separate evolution. On this

-92

7/8

9/8

-10

8/7

7/8

- 8

-28

-17

-24

-15

15/17 p

16/16 p

21/21

-21/

scale the

Phelsuma

astriata

ancestor.

a form

related to

Phelsuma

lineata,

was the

earliest

arrival in the Seychelles; Phelsuma astriata is
considered to form a species group of its own
(Borner 1972). The Phelsuma longinsulae

272

TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCARIENSIS SPECIES GROUP

Table 20

Synoptic table of the variation of adult specimens in the Phelsuma madagascariensis species group

taxon

madagascariensis kochi

(1)

madagascariensis ssp.
(4) (excl. kochi)

sundbergi

(13)

SVL

79 -10.2

54 -77

SVL/TL

1.06

1.11- 1.22

1.19- 1.28

LH/RE

1.77

1.61- 1.73

1.71- 1.96

LH./NE

2.1

2.0 - 2.13

1.95- 2.37

LH/WH

1.56

1.28- 1.48

1.31- 1.61

LH/HH

2.27

1.82- 2.41

2.05- 2.43

WH/HH

1.41

1.41- 1.67

1.37- 1.65

NE/HH

1.19

0.88- 1.20

0.91- 1.39

L/D

1.67- 4.33

1.13- 2.5

H. 1000/ SVL

9.23

5.02- 9.64

7.4 -13.51

N. 1000 /SVL

6.15

3.80- 6.02

1.8 - 4.24

D. 1000/SVL

6.15

3.61- 7.59

3.03- 5.38

L. 1000/SVL

7.69

12.05-16.67

5.3 - 9.23

V. 1000/SVL

10.77

9.64-20.25

8.26-15.38

G. 1000/SVL

1.54

4.82- 6.02

2.64- 4.8

scales around midbody

82 -92

76 -100

supralabials

8 -10

8 -11

sublabials

8/9

7 - 8

7 - 9

lamellae 4th toe

18 -28

21 -31

scansors 4th toe

13 -17

10 -18

lamellae 4th finger

16 -23

19 -26

scansors 4th finger

11 -15

10 -17

preanal pores

—

15 -21/

10 -16/

ancestors arrived next, the Phelsuma sundbergi
ancestor last.

Phelsuma sundbergi is closest to Phelsuma
madagascariensis kochi; the Praslin population,
from which the La Digue and Felicite popu-
lations are derived, is hardly distinguishable
from Malagasian Phelsuma madagascariensis
kochi. The main differences are only the con-
dition of the chest scales (usually keeled scales
in Phelsuma sundbergi, unkeeled scales in Phel-
suma madagascariensis kochi), the length of
the tail (long v. short), the flank colour (green
v. brownish green with eventual white spots),
and the dorsal pattern (smaller elements in
vermiculation v. red spots).

The other Malagasian forms of Phelsuma
madagascariensis (ex. kochi) have intermediary
lengths of tails and green flanks like Phelsuma
sundbergi. These resemblances seem to be due
to a convergent evolution, as there are so
many differences between Phelsuma sundbergi
and Phelsuma madagascariensis (ex. kochi) :
Phelsuma sundbergi is smaller, especially its
La Digue and Felicite specimens; its head and
scale proportions, especially the L/D ratio, are
usually closer to Phelsuma madagascariensis
kochi than to Phelsuma madagascariensis ssp.;
Phelsuma sundbergi has a yellow orange belly
colour, a dark chin pattern and dark red dor-
sal pattern elements, being closer to Phelsuma

273

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Table 20 ( Contd .)

taxon

andamanensis

longinsulae spp

/. menaiensis

chekei

befotakensis

(3)

(18) Seychelles

(2)

(3)

SVL

41 <7

-60

44. — __4-q

SVL/TL

1.09-

1.40

1.15- 1.31

*/ •/

0.94-

- 1.23

1.36- 1.46

LH/RE

1.73-

1.89

1.77- 1.94

1.81

1.79-

- 1.92

1.81- 1.86

LH/NE

2.04-

2.15

2.05- 2,44

2.08- 2.27

2.17-

- 2.23

2.12- 2.18

LH/WH

1.47-

1.6

1.43- 1.72

1.4 - 1.61

1.37-

- 1.64

1.33- 1.53

LHj/HH

2.14-

2.42

2.18- 2.6

1.86- 2.42

1.99-

- 2.30

2.06- 2.34

WH/HH

1.42-

1.64

1.34- 1.64

1 . 325-1 . 5

1.45-

- 1.46

1.33- 1.53

NE/HH

1.05-

1.10

0.97- 1.1

0.89- 1.33

0.9 -

- 1.03

0.95- 1.10

L/D

1 -

2.5

1 - 2.5

1.33-2

1.67-

- 2,33

1.25- 1.67

H. 1000/SVL

6.25-

7.14

5.45-11.11

3.44- 5.56

6.67-

- 9.09

8.33-11.36

N.iooq/SVL

2.08-

2.69

1.72- 3.64

1.72- 2.46

2.73- 3.45

3.125-5.25

D. 1000/SVL

3.57-

5.21

1.92- 5.45

4.92- 5.17

- 5.45

6.25- 9.09

L.iooq/SVL

4. 76-

8.93

3.63- 9.62

6.89- 9.84

8.33-

-12.06

10.42-11.36

V. 1000/SVL

11.46-12.5

7.27-14.81

11.48-13.79

13.33

-14.54

10.42-18.13

G. 1000/SVL

2.08-

6.25

1.79- 3.64

2.58- 3.28

1.67

- 2.73

3.125-3.41

scales around

midbody

80 -

70 -98

88 -90

-72

74 -78

supralabials

9 -

8 -12

8 - 9

- 9

6 - 9

sublabials

8 -

7 - 9

7 - 8

- 9

6 - 8

lamellae 4th toe

21 -

■24

20 -30

21 -22

-23

20 -22

scansors 4th toe

10 -

10 -18

12 -13

-12

10 -13

lamellae 4th finger

18 -

■22

17 -23

18 -19

18 -22

scansors 4th finger

10 -

-14

9 -14

-11

10 -12

preanal pores

13 -

16/

6 -16/

11 -15/

-17/

10 -17/

madagascari ensis

kochi

than

to Phelsuma

be considered as the most primitive member of

madagascariensis

ssp. in

these

elements, too.

the subgroup

of large

(6 cm

SVL +) green

Finally, the pattern on the temple, which is a

forms, whose

reduced

dorsal

patterns show

continuation of the chin and throat pattern, is
almost as pronounced in Phelsuma sundbergi
as in Phelsuma madagascariensis kochi, while
it is much less distinct (faded or reddish in-
stead of grey /black) or even lacking in the
Phelsuma madagascariensis ssp.

Because of its smaller size, its dark spotted
flanks, dark (even bluish) green dorsal colour
and brick red pattern elements, its yellow anal
region, its chin pattern, its short tail and short
snout, and its scarcely enlarged laterals (L/D
ratio), Phelsuma madagascariensis kochi should

transversal tendencies, the Phelsuma madagas-
cariensis subgroup.

These above-mentioned characters of Phel-
suma madagascariensis kochi are usually even
more pronounced in the subgroup of small
(-6 cm SVL) dark forms, whose extent dorsal
patterns show longitudinal tendencies, the
Phelsuma abbotti subgroup.

Therefore, Phelsuma madagascariensis kochi
represents a phenotype derived from the taxon
constituting the linkage between the two sub-
groups. Phelsuma madagascariensis kochi may

274

TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCARIENSIS SPECIES GROUP

weil represent a species of its own, but the
final evaluation of its status must be the result
of an extensive study of the total variation of
Phelsuma madagascariensis in Madagascar.

Phelsuma madagascariensis (ex. kochi) and
Phelsuma sundbergi reflect a parallel evolution
from that ancestor in tail length, snout length,
differentiation of laterals from dorsals and
flank colour, and in the yellow factor (which
brightens colour and pattern on the dorsum)
though achieving different degrees of evolution
in these characters. These two species reflect
a divergent evolution from the ancestor in SVL
(tendency towards a smaller size in Phelsuma
sundbergi and towards a larger size in Phel-
suma madagascariensis ) and ventral colour and
pattern (pronounced chin pattern and pro-
nounced anal coloration in Phelsuma madagas-
cariensis) .

The phylogeny of the Phelsuma abbotti sub-
group is even more complicated, but it is re-
vealed by the character divergence of the forms,
their geographic location and contemporary
thinking on probabilities and chances of dis-
persal. In our opinion the clue to the phylo-
geny are the forms occurring on the Sey-
chelles.

On the outer islands North and Silhouette
and to a lesser extent on Frigate there are slen-
der small geckos (c. 5 cm SVL) with a long
head, a smooth transition from the small dor-
sals to the slightly enlarged laterals (L/D = c.
1-2) and few differentiated scales (labials,
scansors, preanal pores). These characters are
shared by the northwest Malagasian Phelsuma
befotakensis as well as by Phelsuma v -nigra
(including Phelsuma robertmertensi) from the
Comoro Islands and also by Phelsuma abbotti
from Aldabra. These forms primarily differ in
their dorsal body pattern:

The forms from North and Silhouette Islands
( Phelsuma longinsulae rubra resp. umbrae)

and to a certain extent those from Frigate
( Phelsuma longinsulae longinsulae) are bright
green dorsally and have bright red dorsal
marks. The forms from the Comoro Islands
and Phelsuma befotakensis may assume a simi-
lar dorsal coloration, but usually show a bluish
hue or are distinctly bluish. In this dark phase,
the dorsal pattern is dark redbrown and the
flanks may be dark grey-blue. The dorsal and
lateral ocelli of Phelsuma befotakensis are
greyish in the dark phase and yellowish in the
light phase.

This survey of the dorsal colours demons-
trates that the Malagasian Phelsuma befota-
kensis here retains the most primitive trait. Its
ancestor gave rise to the Comoro forms, which
are quite close : The yellow ocelli (which
are arranged in longitudinal rows and which
partly may fuse to form stripes, especially a
vertebral stripe) formed the red pattern, while
the tendency to a predominantly bluish ground
colour persisted. The forms from the outer
Seychelles are more advanced, as they intensi-
fied the yellow tendency of the ground colour.
The yellow ocelli of Phelsuma befotakensis
turned red, this state of evolution being de-
monstrated by the geckos from North Island,
the most outlying island; a similar evolution
took place in the Comoro Islands. In a second
stage of evolution the red markings have been
reduced, as they are very conspicuous in
foliage dwelling forms (cf. Borner 1980). This
tendency is demonstrated by the forms occur-
ring on North Island, Silhouette and Frigate;
even their ontogeny shows the reduction of
red pattern: When a specimen of these forms
grows older, the red pattern concentrates on
the mid-dorsum and sacrum. The present day
Phelsuma befotakensis also shows a modem
trait, as its laterals (L/D ratio) are now en-
larged a little more than those of the peripheral
forms on the Comoro Islands and northern

275

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Seychelles, a fact con firming the idea that the
evolution is fastest in the center and slowest
on the periphery of the range of the taxon.

Phelsuma abbotti from Aldabra Island is
also considered to belong to this group. This
latter species shows dark red dorsal markings
on a dull greyish green or bluish grey dorsum
and dark brown, nearly blackish flanks mottled
with white spots; it has no ocelli on the flanks
like Phelsuma chekei. This dark pattern serves
to camouflage the trunk-base-dwelling gecko, of
which Honegger reports that it lives some-
times in close association with the giant turtles,
even taking refuge under their carapaces (cf.
Blanc 1972, 591 referring to Phelsuma barbouri
as a secondary ground dweller; the junior
author has observed in Mauritius that Phel-
suma o. ornata frequents the ground, too). So
two explanations for this dark pattern are
possible:

a) Either it represents a persisting trait of the
ancestor to Phelsuma befotakensis ; then the
ancestor presumably had a darker colora-
tion than Phelsuma befotakensis , which
acquired its more bluish coloration and
its capacity to show a “light”, yellow
phase after the colonization of Aldabra
Island.

b) Phelsuma abbotti underwent a selection
according to the specific conditions pre-
vailing on Aldabra Island, and this selec-
tion has favoured a gecko “in its darkest
phase”.

In our opinion none of these possible theo-
ries may be excluded, and both apply to ex-
plain the current situation: Phelsuma abbotti
is an early off-shoot of the dark Phelsuma
befotakensis ancestor, and subsequent selection
favoured an even darker gecko. This theory is
much more probable than the construction of
an affinity with Phelsuma chekei. Both forms

share only their dark colour, but they differ
in proportions, scalation, and position of ocel-
li, which are characters of much greater con-
sistency in island forms; Phelsuma chekei has
ocelli on the flanks, but not Phelsuma abbotti
(even true for juveniles), and Phelsuma chekei
lacks any dorsal ocelli that may be related
to the dark red ones of Phelsuma abbotti;
juveniles of Phelsuma abbotti show a green
dorsum earlier than those of Phelsuma chekei.
Moreover, Phelsuma abbotti and Phelsuma
befotakensis share the basic pattern (including
the U-shaped stripe on the neck, the vertebral
stripe, and the position of the ocelli, which
are darker in Phelsuma abbotti).

The second assemblage in the Phelsuma
abbotti subgroup is constituted by the large
robust geckos (approx. 6 cm SVL) with a
shorter head, a more abrupt transition from
the small dorsals to the enlarged laterals (L/D:
1.5 -2.5) and more differentiated scales
(labials, scansors, preanal pores). These forms
are found in North Madagascar ( Phelsuma
chekei ), on Assumption Island ( Phelsuma
sumptio ), on Menai Island, Cosmoledo Atoll
{Phelsuma longinsulae menaiensis) and on
Mahe, Seychelles {Phelsuma longinsulae
pulchra) .

They differ from each other mainly in dor-
sal coloration and pattern.

Phelsuma chekei has a greyish blue dorsum
with dark red markings which may turn almost
black in the dark phase, and a greyish pattern
on the flanks. Phelsuma sumptio has a more
bluish dorsum with faded dark red marks, the
same vertebral stripe, and a reduced obscure
mottling on the flanks; this may be described
as “a concolorous type of Phelsuma chekei
But both forms differ in their ventral colora-
tion (slightly yellowish in Phelsuma chekei,
distinctly yellow or even orange in Phelsuma
sumptio).

276

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81

BOrner & Minuth: Phelsuma madagascariensis species group

Plate

*«»% '*»“*_•

Above: P. abbotti\ Aldabara Island. (Photo: P. Niedzwicki).
Below: P. sumptio\ Assumption Island. (Photo: A.S. Cheke)

■ A

TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCAR1ENSIS SPECIES GROUP

Table 21
Labials

sund-

bergi

P. mada-
gascari-
ensis

chekei

P. befo-
takensis

P. longinsulae

P. 1. menaiensis

P. andamanensis

Supralabials 6

mean

9.5

8.9

7.5

7.7

9.5

8.5

8.8

Sublabials 6

mean

difference

6.7

7.5

7.7

7.0

7.7

7.3

8.8

between means

2.8

1.4

-0.2

0.7

1.8

1.2

Phelsuma longinsulae menaiensis and Phel-
suma longinsulae pulchra are dull green dor-
sally and may show a bluish hue; their dorsal
pattern is dull red. While Phelsuma longinsulae
menaiensis usually shows some sort of dark
and light flank mottling, this is usually lacking
in Phelsuma longinsulae pulchra. Both forms
also differ meristically.

Phelsuma longinsulae longinsulae is truly
intermediate between the Mahe form pulchra
and the northern forms umbrae and rubra. This
situation is best explained by secondary inter-
gradation: First the Phelsuma befotakensis —
derivate arrived on the Seychelles and colonized
all islands. Later in a second invasion the
Phelsuma chekei — derivate arrived on Mahe
where it interbred with the earlier arrivals.
Some Phelsuma chekei — derivates or — more
probably — some Mahe lizards of the com-
bined type came to Frigate and influenced

that gene-pool. The bright green colour and the
intensive red markings stemming from the
Phelsuma befotakensis- derivates turned duller
under the influence of the bluish/black-red
trend inherited from the Phelsuma chekei-
derivates. The slender proportions of the early
invaders turned more robust, and the primitive
undifferentiated scalation of the early invaders
turned to a more advanced state under the
influence of the later arrivals. Therefore, the
Mahe lizards now show characters intermedi-
ate between those of the forms from the north-
ern islands and those of northern Malagasy,
and the Frigate form is intermediary in the
even smaller gap between the Mahe geckos and
those from the northern islands. That a simi-
lar intergradation took place on tiny Menai
Island is very improbable. We think it more
probable that Menai was colonised by the new
type from Mahe. This theory would be in

277

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

line with the close relation between the Mahe
lizards and the Menai ones, with the fact that
the Menai gecko shows an advanced scalation
in comparison to the (parental) Mahe gecko
and with the parallel case observed in Phel-
suma astriata : Phelsuma astriata is found on
the Seychelles and — in a derived form — on
the tiny Astove Island (close to Menai Island),
the latter form lacking a close relative on
Madagascar.

This theory of two invasions of the Indian
Ocean, meeting finally in the Seychelles, is in
line with the evaluation of the two parental
mainland forms Phelsuma befotakensis, and
Phelsuma chekei as species. In fact the basic
structure of their patterns and their bluish dor-
sal ground colour (in Phelsuma befotakensis
in the dark phase only) could be arguments
for conspecificity, but on the other hand there
are great differences in proportions, scalation
and actual coloration and pattern, and these
differences are more pronounced than those
usually found in any two sibling species of a
species group of this genus. Furthermore, our
theory would explain the existence of the two
pheno-types in the Phelsuma abbotti -subgroup.

This taxonomic assessment is in accordance
with the species concept outlined by the junior
author (Borner 1976/1982).

Another problem not yet discussed is the
relation of Phelsuma andamanensis. Its posi-
tion in the Phelsuma madagascariensis species
group (Loveridge 1942, Mertens, Blanc 1972)
has never been doubted. Its biometric data
and the quality of its coloration and pattern
clearly belong to the variation shown by the
other forms of this species group, but Phelsuma
andamanensis differs from all other members
of the species group by the lack of enlarged
postmentals.

Phelsuma andamanensis does not belong to the
Phelsuma madagascariensis subgroup. Though

its biometric data usually are in conformity
with those of Phelsuma sundbergi and though
especially the forms from La Digue and Feli-
cite are similar in size and in ventral colora-
tion, Phelsuma andamanensis lacks the wide
head angle and the keeled chest scales of that
species. The keeled chest scales are considered
an advanced character and should therefore
be present in a derived form, as should be the
distinctive head angle. Phelsuma madagascari-
ensis differs by size, shape and scalation (ad-
vanced state of laterals and preanal pores in
Phelsuma madagascariensis). Both, Phelsuma
sundbergi and Phelsuma madagascariensis
(inch kochi) tend to reduce the red pattern
to the sacral region, and both (ex. kochi)
show red patterns v/ith a distinct tendency to-
wards a transversal arrangement. In contrast
to these tendencies Phelsuma andamanensis
has a red neck pattern and an irregularly longi-
tudinally arranged pattern on the posterior
dorsum.

Phelsuma andamanensis is closer to the
Phelsuma abbotti subgroup, in which the
longitudinally arranged dorsal pattern prevails.
Within this subgroup, Phelsuma andamanensis
is nearest to the forms occurring on the islands
Silhouette, North and Frigate. Phelsuma anda-
manensis seems to originate from the first Sey-
chelles invader: The ancestor species of Phel-
suma befotakensis increased its size, the num-
ber of scales (except preanal pores, see be-
low), and the yellow factor in the ground
colour and pattern. The conspicuous neck
stripes of Phelsuma andamanensis are simi-
larly pronounced in the types of the North
Island form ( Phelsuma longinsulae rubra)
where they are part of the longitudinally fused
rows of red blotches, and they may some-
times be seen in other Seychelles specimens as
well. The back pattern of Phelsuma andama-
nensis (except the neck stripes) is very similar

278

TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA M AD AG ASCAKIENSIS SPECIES GROUP

P, anriamaneneis

COMMON ANCESTOR

Fig. 2. Phylogenetic tree.

to that of the Silhouette form. The facts that
in contrast to these Seychelles forms Phelsuma
andamanensis has a more yellowish vent, con-
tains concolorous specimens and has no re-
duced number of preanal pores, may be ex-
plained by the long isolation of Phelsuma
andamanensis : It originated from an ancestor
of the Seychelles forms of nowadays, and it
underwent a separate evolution in a closed
gene-pool during its isolation on the Andaman
Islands.

Phelsuma chekei has a shorter tail, a stouter,
more robust shape, a shorter fore head, and
a coarser scutellation (except the gulars) than
Phelsuma andamanensis. Furthermore, Phel-
suma chekei differs by its prominent blue factor
in colour and pattern and its different chin
and lateral head pattern. Phelsuma chekei is
a more recent invader of the Indian Ocean;
before it spread to the Seychelles it would have
had to travel more than 5600 km NE from the
north tip of Madagascar to the Andaman Is-

279

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

lands, whereas the early Seychelles colonizer
had to cross only 4500 km ENE, favoured by
an ocean current in the same direction.

The theory of the phylogeny of the Phel-
suma madagascariensis species group developed
in this discussion is reflected by the phylo-
genetic tree shown in Figure 2.

Phelsuma parkeri from Pemba is not as-
sessed here. Its uniform green dorsal colora-
tion and its immaculate white colour under-
neath as well as its rather large size (-7.0 cm
SVL) are arguments for placing it in the Phel-
suma madagascariensis subgroup. Its pholidosis,
as far as it is reported, lies within the variation
of the subgroup. In general, its shape seems to
be quite similar to that of Phelsuma sundbergi
from the outer islands. A relation to Phelsuma
befotakensis and the Comoro species seems to
be not so probable, as Phelsuma parkeri shows
no tendency to an ocellated pattern with red
and is too large. Phelsuma chekei and related
forms have the primitive chin pattern, of which
Phelsuma parkeri shows no trace.

Acknowledgements

We should like to thank the contributors of
specimens, partly evident from the list of
museum specimens, and to extend our thanks
to the numerous friends, who kindly furnished
living specimens, photos, data, and the oppor-
tunities for fruitful discussions. Among these
helpers, who are to numerous to mention,

Refer

Blanc, C. P. (1972) : Les reptiles de Madagascar
et des iles voisines in: Battistini, R. & G. Richard-
Vindard (eds) : Biogeography and Ecology of

Madagascar; The Hague (W. Junk), pp. 501-611.

Bqettger, O. (1980-81) : Die Reptilien und Amphi-
bien von Madagaskar, 3. Nachtrag Abh. Senckenb.
Naturf. Ges. 12: 435-558.

(1881): Reliquiae Rutenbergianae

Mrs. Eva Minuth, Ms. Brigitte Schiittler, and
Mr. Anthony S. Cheke deserve special grati-
tude.

Additional remarks

Cheke (in litt. 1983) has drawn our atten-
tion to the fact that due to an unfortunate
muddling of the labels during shipment the
locality data of his specimens from the Sey-
chelles are not sufficiently reliable to base new
names on them. Of course, our method of
assessing the specimens implies a certain uni-
formity of characters in each island population.
Nevertheless, some of his specimens have good
data, and there is some reason in our method,
so that we maintain our opinion. Cheke (in
litt. 1983) does not follow our opinion to
separate Phelsuma longinsulae rubra from
Phelsuma longinsulae longinsulae, as he sees
no difference between these forms. He has
kindly sent us field drawings of two hatchlings,
which differ in juvenile coloration: The

hatchling from North Island (our subspecies
rubra) shows three (reddish) stripes on the
dorsum (except anterior dorsum where only
the vertebral stripe is continued), while the
hatchling from Frigate (our subspecies longin-
sulae) lacks the dorsolateral stripes and in-
stead shows an accumulation of small red
spots on the posterior dorsum. Further obser-
vations will show, whether this difference is
due to individual variation.

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(1913) : Reptilien und Amphibien

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frikas (Sammlung Voeltzkcnv 1889-1895 u. 1903-
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Bohme, W. & Meier, H. (1982) : Eine neue Form

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TAXONOMY OF THE PHELSUMA MADAGASCARIENSIS SPECIES GROUP

der m ad agascari ensi s-G rapp e der Gattung Phelsuma
von den Seychelles (Reptilia: Sauria: Geckonidae).
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Borner, A. — R. (1972): Revision der Geckoni-
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(1976) : Le probleme d'espece et

son importance dans la classification des Sauriens
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— (1980): A new species of the

Phelsuma lineata group. Misc. An. Saurol. 6: 19.

(1982): Der Artbegriff und seine

Bedeutung flir die Klassifkation der Echsen (Repti-
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Boulenger, G. A. (1885): Catalogue of the

lizards in the British Museum (Natural History),
vol. 1. London (Taylor & Francis).

(1911): List of the batra-

chians and reptiles obtained by Prof. Stanley Gardi-
ner on his second expedition to the Seychelles and
Aldabra. Transact. Linn. Soc. London, Zool., (2)
14: 375-378.

Cheke, A. S. (1982) : Day geckos (Phelsuma) in
the Seychelles and neighbouring islands, a reap-
praisal of their taxonomy and description of a new
form from Assumption. Senckenb. biol. 62. 4-6:181-
195, 11 figs.

(in press) : The biogeography and eco-
logy of lizards in the Seychelles Islands. The Hague
(W. Junk).

Krefft, P. (1909): Ostafrikanische Reisebriefe II.
Bl. Aquar. Terror. Kdc., Stuttgart, 20: 485-488.

(1911): Ostafrikanische Reisebriefe V.

Bl. Aquar. Terror. Kde., Stuttgart, 21: 427-430. 440-
446, 460-462.

Loveridge, A. (1942): Revision of the Afro-
Oriental geckos of the genus Phelsuma. Bull. Mus.
Comp. Zool. 89: 439-482.

Meier, H. (1980): Zur Taxonomie und Okologie

der Gattung Phelsuma (Reptilia, Sauria, Geckoni-
dae) auf den Komoren, mit Beschreibung einer neuen
Art. Bonn. Zool. Beitr. 31: 323-332.

(1981) : Phelsuma robertmertensi, ein

neuer Taggecko. Herpetofauna 1981: 6-8.

Mertens, R. (1954): Studien fiber die Reptilien-
fauna Madagaskars II. Eine neue Rasse von Phel-
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lb.

(1962) : Die bisher lebend einge-

ffihrten Taggeckos der Gattung Phelsuma. Aquar.
Terror. Z. 15: 148-153.

(1962) : Die Alien und Unterarten

der Geckonengattung Phelsuma. Senckenb. biol. 43,
2:81-127.

(1964) : Fiinf neue Rassen der

Geckonengattung Phelsuma. Senckenb. biol. 45(2) :
99-112.

(1966): Die nicht-madegassischen

Alien und Unterarten der Geckonengattung Phel-
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(1970) : Neues fiber einige Taxa

der Geckonengattung Phelsuma. Senckenb. biol. 51,
1-2: 1-13.

Nietzke, G. (1972): Die Terrarientiere, Bd. 2.
Stuttgart 1972 (E. Ulmer) 300 pp.

Rendahl, H. (1939) : Zur Herpetologie der Sey-
chellen I. Rcptilien. Zool. Yb. Syst. 72: 255-328.

Smith, M. A. (1935) : The Fauna of British India,
including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphi-
bia, vol. II Sauria. London, 440 pp.

Stejneger, L. (1893): On some collections of
reptiles and batrachians from East Africa and the
adjacent islands, recently received from Dr. W. L.
Abbott and Mr. Williams Aster Chanler, with des-
criptions of new species. Proc. US Nat. Mus. 16:
711-741.

Whitaker, R. & Z. (1981) : Notes on Phelsuma
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gecko. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 497-499.

281

AGASTYAMALAI AND ITS ENVIRONS :

A POTENTIAL AREA FOR A BIOSPHERE RESERVE1

A. N. Henry, M. Chandrabose,

M. S. SWAMINATHAN AND N. C. NAIR2
{With a text-figure)

Agastyamalai, a towering peak of 1868 m in the tail-end of the Western Ghats and
the adjoining forests in Tirunelveli and Kanniyakumari district of Tamil Nadu,
and Trivandrum district of Kerala, covering a total area of about 2000 sq. km. and
skirting the peak, form the most diverse and unknown ecosystem in Peninsular India.
This area has substantial natural vegetation cover ranging from Scrub forests to
Wet evergreen (rain forest) formations. Since Tropical rain forest is entering a
period of rapid decline as a world natural resource, Agastyamalai must be regarded
as a prime example of this ecosystem in Southern India. Further, the complexity
and diversity of flora make it an ideal genepool sanctuary. This area also harbours a
number of endemic species of plants that are unique to Peninsular India. In terms
of uniqueness, number of endemics, endangered species, floral and faunal representa-
tions and the ease of protection, this pocket is an ideal choice for a biosphere reserve.

Introduction

The attempt to set up a world-wide network
of biosphere reserves is a new and important
initiative undertaken by the UN- sponsored
‘Man and Biosphere’ Programme to provide
an assured future for mankind. The emphasis
of the programme is on the relationship bet-
ween man and nature. To be successful, it
must preserve areas of undisturbed nature as
genetic reservoirs and as standards against
which change outside can be measured and
judged. So far 40 nations have set apart 161
such reserves. In India, the Advisory Com-
mittee of the ‘Man and Biosphere’ Programme,
has identified so far twelve biosphere reserves
and has decided to set up two of these, namely
the Nilgiri and the Namdapha in the first in-

1 Accepted March 1982.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore-641 003.

stance. This paper highlights the potentiality
of another site in southern India namely
“Agastyamalai and its environs” which would
best fulfil the objectives of a biosphere reserve.

“The Western Ghats or Sahyadris and the
West Coast sub-region” (also classified as
“The Malabar Rain Forest Province”) is per-
haps the richest biogeographic province of the
Indian subcontinent. The forest tracts of
Agastyamalai and its environs including Mun-
danthurai, Kalakad, Mahendragiri, Muthuku-
zhivayal and Neyyar which are situated at the
southern end of the Western Ghats still retain
substantial natural vegetation cover. The
vegetation occurs in large continuous tracts
above 800 m, forming probably the finest re-
maining example of tropical wet evergreen
forest (rain forest) in the Western Ghats. The
field studies conducted in this region by the
Botanical Survey of India and other agencies
have revealed that all the essential criteria for

282

AGASTYAMALAI AND ITS ENVIRONS

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283

. Map showing the proposed area for the biosphere.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 8!

the choice of a biosphere reserve (UNESCO
1974) could be envisaged in these natural
forests.

I. Location : The total area proposed for
the biosphere reserve is approximately 2000 sq.
km. and falls within the hilly tracts of Tiru-
nelveli and Kanniyakumari districts of Tamil
Nadu and Trivandrum district of Kerala,
lying between 77° 5' and 77° 40'E, and 8° 20'
and 8° 50' N. (Fig. 1). The entire forest area is
hilly, characterised by numerous folds and ex-
tensions engulfing small, narrow valleys. The
altitude varies from 67 m to 1868 m. The coni-
cal Agastyamalai peak, locally known as
“Pothikaimudi” and “AgasthiyarkudanT’ (1868
m) is the highest peak of the range. These
hills form a very compact block comprising
Papanasam R. F., Singampatti R. F., Kala-
kadu R. F., Kottur R. F., Kottur extension
R. F., Mahendragiri R. F., Kalamalai R. F.,
Veerapuli R. F., Nattukkaltheri R. F. and
Ashamboo R. F. This region is drained by
several small perennial streams which join to
form major river systems such as Tambara-
parani, Nevyar, Karamanayar and Kodayar.

The South-West monsoon from June-Septem-
ber, and North-East monsoon in October and
November bring rain to this region, and the
annual rainfall varies at different places from
89 cm to 625 . 7 cm.

The hottest months of the year are April and
May and the cold season prevails from Dec-
ember to February. The temperature varies
between 21 °C and 38°C.

The soils at low elevations consist of red
ferruginous sandy loam of very little depth,
with loose boulders. On hill slopes which are
subjected to heavy wash the soil has a charac-
teristic yellow or red colour. Over the crest
and along the higher slopes of the hills where
the erosion is excessive, the ground is rocky
with the soil shallow and hard. In the wet

evergreen forests, there is a rich collection of
humus.

II. Vegetation : Since the ecosystem diver-
sity is quite high, almost all vegetation types
known from the Western Ghats occur in this
region depending on the altitudinal zonation,
such as Southern tropical thorn forest.
Southern tropical dry deciduous forest. Grass-
lands at low altitudes. Southern tropical moist
deciduous forest. Southern tropical wet ever-
green forest. Subtropical montane forest and
Grassy swards at high altitudes.

i. Southern tropical thorn forest : This type
can be seen at an altitude of about 200 m and
occurs around Papanasam, Kalakadu, Tiruku-
rangudi, etc. In these scrub jungles trees like
Acacia chundra (Roxb.) Willd., A. horrida
(L.) Willd., A. planifrons Wight & Arn.,
Euphorbia antiquorum L., Zizyphus oenoplia
(L.) Mill, and Z. xylopyrus (Retz.) Willd.
are common. Amidst these trees, shrubs such
as Carissa car and as L., Dichrostachys cinerea
(L.) Wight & Arn., Dodonaea viscosa (L.)
Jacq., Securinega leucopyrus (Willd.) Muell.-
Arg. and S. virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Pax &
Hoffm. are frequently met with. The climbers
are represented by Abrus precatorius L., Cissus
quadrangular is L., Jasminum calophyllum
Wall., Tylophora indica (Burm. f.) Merrill, etc.

ii. Southern tropical dry deciduous forest :
These forests occur at an altitude of about 350
m and are located in Kalakadu R. F., Papa-
nasam R. F., Singampatti R. F. and Kottur
R. F. The dominant trees in this type are
Adina cordi folia (Roxb.) Hook. f. ex Brandis,
Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb.) Bedd., Dillenia
pentagyna Roxb., Pterocarpus marsupium
R.oxh., Semecarpus anacardium L.f. and Ter-
minalia chebula (Gaertn.) Retz. Shrubs like
Acacia pennata (L.) Willd., Chassalia ophio-
xyloides (Roxb.) Craib, Desmodium triangu-
lare (R.etz.) Merr. var. congestion (Wight &

AGASTYAMALAI AND ITS ENVIRONS

Arn.) Sant, and Phyllanthus polyphyllus Willd.
are found frequently. Some of the herbaceous
species such as Desmodium trijlorum (L.) DC.,
Indigofera prostrata Willd., Oryza granulata
(Nees) Arn. ex Steud. and RostelluJaria
pumila Nees are common. Along rocky river-
sides, Mangifera indica L. is commonly met
with.

iii. Grasslands at lower altitudes : At lower
elevations below 500 m, vast stretches of grass-
lands occur beyond the scrub jungles and
deciduous forests. Trees like Mnndulea sericea
(Willd.) A. Chaval and Terminalia chebula
Retz. are seen sporadically in these grasslands.
Cymbopogon color at us (Nees) Stapf and
Themeda cymbaria Hack, are the two domi-
nant species of grasses occurring in this type.
Amidst these. Euphorbia cristata Heyne ex
Roth and Rhynchosia rufescens DC. are notice-
able in the dry season.

iv. Southern tropical moist deciduous
forest: This type of vegetation occurs at an
altitude of about 500 m, and covers an exten-
sive area in the proposed biosphere reserve.
The forests are thick and densely populated
with Calamus sp. The top canopy consists of
trees such as Acr onychia pedunculata (L.)
Miq., Dalbergia coromandeliana Prain, D.
latifolia Roxb., Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.,
Scleropyrum wallichianum (Wight & Arn.)
Arn., Terminalia chebula Retz., T. paniculate
Roth and Valeria indica L. Some of the com-
mon shrubs found are Barleria courtallica Nees,
Blachia calycina Benth., Relict ere s isora L.,
Ixora brachiata Roxb., Mussaenda laxa (Hook,
f.) Hutch, ex Gamble and Psychotria connata
Wall. Butea parviflora Roxb. and Gnetum ula
Brongn. are the conspicuous lianas met with.
The notable climbers are Calycopteris flori-
bunda (Roxb.) Poir., Cynanchum tunicatum
(Retz.) Alston, Dioscorea oppositifolia L.,
Jasminum r'ottlerianum Wall, ex DC., Maerua

oblongifolia (Forsk.) A. Rich, and Sarco-
stigma kleinii Wight & Arn. Some of the com-
mon herbs forming the undergrowth are
Alysicarpus rugosus (Willd.) DC., Justicia be-
tonica L. and Waltheria indica L. Musa
superba Roxb. also occurs in this region.

v. Southern tropical wet evergreen forest:
These forests occur roughly between 760 m and
1500 m and are located around Mahendragiri
peak, Agastyamalai peak, Muthukuzhivayal,
Naterikal to Sengaltheri, Upper Kodayar and
Athiramalai. Though some of these areas are
a little disturbed by road formations, irriga-
tion schemes, hydro-electric projects, etc., most
of the areas especially around Agastyamalai
peak are undisturbed. The top canopy is ex-
tremely dense represented by gigantic trees
like Artocarpus hirsutus Lam., Canarium
strictum Roxb., Cullenia exarillata Robyns,
Diospyros ebenum Koen. ex Retz., Elaeocar-
pus tnberculalus Roxb., Hopea utilis (Bedd.)
Bole and Palaquium ellipticum (Dalz.) Bail!.

Under these large trees, medium-sized trees

which love more shade, form a second storey.
Some of the dominant trees in this layer are
Cinnamomum iners Reinw., Decussocarpus
wallichianus (Presl) De Lauben., Eugenia
mundagam Board., Garcinia echinocarpa Thw.
var. monticola Mahesh. and Kingiodendron
pinnatum (Roxb. ex DC.) Harms.

Under this second layer, innumerable shrubs
or small trees such as Agrostistachys indica
Dalz., Antidesma menasu Miq. ex Muell.-Arg.,
Callicarpa lomentosa (L.) Murray, Elaeocar-
pus munroii (Wight) Mast., Eurya nitida
Korth., Lit sea deccanensis Gamble, M allot us
dislans Muell.-Arg. and Tabernaemontana
gamblei Subr. & Henry occur.

Climbers like Ancistrocladus heyneanus
Wall, ex Graham, Aristolochia indica L.,
Piper barberi Gamble, P. nigrum L., Pothos
scandens L. and Senecio walkeri Arn. clothe

285

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

the large tree trunks, shrubs and small trees.

The following herbs and undershrubs form
the ground layer : Acranthera grandiflora

Bedd., Apama barbed Gamble, Begonia mala-
barica Lamk., Car ex filicina Nees ex Wight,
Elatostema lineolatum Wight, Ophiorrhiza
eriantha Wight, Psychotria curviflora Walk,
Saproma corymbosum (Bedd.) Bedd. and
Sarcandra grandifolia (Miq.) Subr. & Henry
are some of the dominant species.

Wild variety of Elettaria cardamomum
(Roxb.) Maton is seen in some patches.
Amongst these moist evergreen forests, dense
tracts of Ochlandra travancorica (Bedd.)
Benth. ex Gamble and Schumannianthus vir-
gatus (Roxb.) Rolfe occur extensively, often
to the exclusion of all other vegetation.

Epiphytic orchids like Coelogyne nervosa
A. Rich., Dendrobium wightii Blawkes &
Heller, Oberonia brunoniana Wight and
Sir hooker a lati folia (Wight) O. Kuntze, are
commonly seen on tree trunks.

Some of the common ferns are Angiopteris
evecta (Forst.) Hoffm., Arachnoides aristata
(Forst.f.) Tindale, Asplenium tenuifolium
Don, Cyathea gigantea (Wall, ex Hook.)
Holttum and Marattia fraxinea Sm.

vi. Subtropical montane forest : There are
very few tracts of montane forest remaining
in the Western Ghats that can match the
Agastyamalai area for its richness of flora
and fauna. This type occurs as continuous
expanse of the evergreen forests generally
above 1500 m around Agastyamalai peak,
Mahendragiri peak and Kakachi. The
sheltered faces and moist depressions of peaks
offer a foothold for these types of forests
where the trees are of stunted nature due to
the high velocity of wind and high altitude.
The height of trees rarely exceeds 6 in, and
are densely clothed with lichens, mosses,
ferns and orchids. Some of the dominant

species are Byrsophyllum tetrandrum (Bedd.)
Flook. f. ex Bedd., Canthium neilgherrense
Wight, Eugenia mabaeoides Wight, Euphorbia
santapaui Henry, Hedyotis purpurascens
Hook, f., Impatiens leschenaultii(DC.) Wall,
ex Wight & Arn., Lasianthus blumeanus
Wight, L. cinereus Gamble, Ligustrum decai-
snei Clarke, Moonia heterophylla Arn. and
Polyscias acuminata (Wight) Seem.

vii. Grasslands at high altitudes : Grassy
swards are seen in smaller dimensions on the
exposed rocky surfaces at high altitudes espe-
cially around Agastyamalai peak, Mahendra-
giri peak, Muthukuzhivayal and Kakachi.
Some of the common grasses met with are
Arundinella purpurea Hochst. ex Steud. var.
laxa Bor, Chrysopogon orientalis (Desv.)
Camus, Eulalia phaeothrix (Hack.) O. Kuntze,
Isaclme walked (Am. ex Steud.) Wight &
Arn. ex Thw., Themeda tremula (Nees ex
Steud.) Hack, and Zenkeria sebastinei Henry
& Chandr. An interesting herbaceous mem-
ber of the Dilleniaceae — Acrotrema arnotti-
anum Wight, and other herbs like Centra-
therum rangacharii Gamble, Exacum travan-
coricum Bedd., Heracleum candolleanum
(Wight & Arn.) Gamble, Leucas vestita Benth.
and Smithia blanda Wall, ex Wight & Arn.
are frequently met with.

III. Fauna i This region is rich in various
species of invertebrates, birds, reptiles and
mammals. It harbours good populations of
such endangered species as the Indian Ele-
phant ( Elephas maximus ), Gaur ( Bos gaums).
Tiger ( Leo tigris). Leopard or Panther
( Leo pardus), Nilgiri Langur ( Presbytis
johni), and notably a good population of
the endangered lion-tailed macaque ( Macaca
silenus). Its bird fauna is particularly rich.

IV. Landscape : This region provides one
of the most magnificent mountain landscapes
including the valleys, peaks and mountains

286

AGASTYAMALA1 AND ITS ENVIRONS

with inaccessible steep rocky slopes covered
with dense forests.

V. Zones o£ the biosphere reserve :

The landscape in general, aids for the organi-
sation of a generalised biosphere reserve
wherein all the components making up the
reserve are contiguous. The forest tracts en-
circling the conical Agastyamalai Peak com-
prise Montane forests. Grassy Swards and
dense evergreen forests which are primary
and undisturbed due to their occurrence in
difficult terrain and steep inhospitable slopes,
and these are to be designated as the “Core
or Natural Zone” of the biosphere reserve.
Around this core zone there are large tracts
of little disturbed evergreen forests and most
deciduous forests (in and around Kannikatti,
Athiramalai, Bonaccord, Upper Kodayar,
Muthukuzhivayal, Manjolai, Kakachi, Sengal-
theri to Naterikal), and dry deciduous forests
(Mundanthurai, Neyyar, Lower Kodayar,
Kalakad to Sengaltheri, Manimuthar and
Papanasam) and these regions will form the
“Manipulative or Buffer Zone”, managed for
research, education and training activities.
Several pockets in these regions are heavily
disturbed for the cultivation of teak and rubber
(Manipulation — Forestry), and cultivation of
Banana, Coffee, Tea, Tapioca, Cardamom,
etc. (Manipulation — Agriculture). In the
foothills heavy natural or human — caused
alterations have taken place, especially in and
around the catchment areas of the four major
river valley projects namely, Papanasam
hydro-electric project, Manimuthar irrigation
project, Kodayar hydro-electric project and
Neyyar irrigation scheme, form the “Recla-
mation or Restoration Zone”. There are
several areas of tribal settlements, namely,
Inchikuzhi, Kanthaparai, Anchinazhiathodu,
Kodumadi, Kilaviarumalai and Lower Koda-

yar which will form the “Stable Cultural
Zone” of the biosphere.

VI. Heman Impact : This proposed bio-
sphere reserve located at the southern end of
Western Ghats is well protected by natural
barriers both by land and seas. The core
region is remotely located and completely free
from human activities. The biosphere reserve
is by and large, already well protected because
of the constitution of three well established
sanctuaries, namely, Mundanthurai Wild Life
Sanctuary, Kalakadu Sanctuary and Neyyar
Wild Life Sanctuary. The area also provides
examples of a number of human activities in
the buffer zone, reclamation zone and cultural
zone.

VII. Tribals : Inchikuzhi, Kanthaparai,

Lower Kodayar and Anchunazhiathodu are
some of the areas where there are settlements
of a hill tribe known as ‘Kanis’. They live
partly on leaves, tubers and fruits of forest
plants and by hunting wild animals. In
recent years some of them are employed in
hydro-electric projects, private estates and
forest departments. Even now many of them
live on wild plants and animals, and they
offer much scope for ethnobiological studies.

VIII. Selection criteria :

1. Representativeness : Broadly, an over-
all representation of the biota of the Western
Ghats, particularly of the southern part, is
found in Agastyamalai and its environs. Out
of about 5000 vascular plant species occurring
in the erstwhile Madras Presidency, the pro-
posed biosphere harbours over 2000. As the
area is located at the southern end of Penin-
sular India, the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea
and Bay of Bengal act as barriers towards
the south, against migration of plants from
other countries. The natural barriers, varied
altitude, habitats, climate and rainfall have

287

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81

resulted in the development of a unique flora
and fauna. About 150 localised endemic
species of plants occur in this region.

In recent years about 25 new taxa of plants
have been discovered from the area, and some
of them are Cheilanthes keralensis Nair &
Ghosh, Euphorbia santapaui Henry, Homa-
lium jainii Henry & Swamin., Hoy a kanya-
kumariana Henry & Swamin., Indotristicha
tirunelveliana Sharma et al., Marsdenia tiru -
nelvelica Henry & Subr., Memecylon subra-
manii Henry, Reidia singampattiana Sebas-
tine & Henry, Rhynchosia jacobii Chandra-
bose & Shetty, Tylophora subramanii Henry
and Zenkeria sebastinei Henry & Chandra-
bose. Janakia arayalpathra Joseph & Chan-
drasekaran, a new genus and species was also
discovered. The following are some of the
endemic trees restricted only in the biosphere
reserve and its neighbourhood: Aglaia elaeg-
noidea (Juss.) Benth. var. bourdillonii (Gam-
ble) K.K.N. Nair, Diospyros barberi Ramas.,
Elaeocarpus venustus Bedd., Eugenia floccosa
Bedd., E. rottleriana Wight & Arn., E. singam-
patliana Bedd., Garcinia travancorica Bedd.,
Humboldtia unijuga Bedd., Symplocos bar-
beri Gamble, S. oligandra Bedd., Syzygium
rnicrophyllum (Bedd.) Gamble. Among the
large number of endemic herbs, shrubs and
climbers localised in this tract, a few are :
Belosynopsis kewensis Hassk., Crotalaria
scabra Gamble, Desmodium dolabriforme
Benth., Eugenia rottleriana Wight & Arn.,
Exacum travancoricum Bedd., Grexvia pan-
daica J. R. Drumm., Hedyotis villosostipulata
(Gamble) Rolla Rao & Hemadri, Impatiens
travancorica Bedd., Knoxia linearis Gamble,
Octotropis travancorica Bedd., Psychotria
globicephala Gamble, Senecio calcadensis
Ramas., Sonerila clarkei Cogn., Symplocos
sessilis Clarke and Vernonia gossypina
Gamble. One striking peculiarity of this area

lies in the large preponderance of several
typical Sri Lanka plants.

2. Ecosystem Diversity : The proposed

reserve displays a tremendous diversity of
plant and animal life due to its geographical
position, variation of altitudinal zones, rain-
fall, presence of large number of tributaries
of the river systems, soil types etc. Almost
all vegetation types known from the Western
Ghats ranging from Scrub forests to Wet
evergreen formations, and subtropical Mon-
tane forests interspersed with Grassy Swards
occur in this region ( vide II. Vegetation).
The complexity and diversity of flora make
it an ideal genepool sanctuary. Further the
area harbours a number of endemic species
of plants that are unique to Peninsular India.

3. Naturalness : The entire region around
Agastyamalai peak and also large patches
especially around Mahendragiri peak and
Muthukuzhivayal possess natural biota. These
areas represent natural forests which had
developed perhaps in course of millions of
years of evolution. Large populations of
wild varieties of cultivated plants occur in
this region. Even inspite of the various irri-
gation and hydro-electric projects in the close
vicinity some of the areas have never been
explored due to the inaccessibility of the
difficult terrains in the region. The Singam-
patti R.F. however, has been considerably
disturbed due to cultivation of tea and other
plantation crops, and irrigation projects.

4. Effectiveness as a conservation unit :
The proposed biosphere reserve still harbours
natural ecosystems in an extensive contiguous
area. Also it is well protected in nature by
its remote location, very dense growth of
vegetational cover and surrounded by large
hilly tracts. Further, the already well esta-
blished three sanctuaries, namely, Mundan-
thurai Wild Life Sanctuary, Kalakad Sanctu-

288

AG AST Y A MA LA 1 AND ITS ENVIRONS

ary and Neyyar Wild Life Sanctuary, protect
about 870 sq. km of forest tracts. Hence it
requires minimal additional management for
the conservation of the biosphere in its tota-
lity. Thus, in terms of compactness of area
and lack of human pressures, the proposed
biosphere reserve is likely to receive adequate
protection, and undoubtedly it forms a very
viable conservation unit in southern India.

5. Knowledge of the areas history : The
Agastyamalai mountain range figures promi-
nently in legends and Hindu Mythology. The
region is known for its rare herbs, still widely
used in ayurvedic medicines. The ‘Pothikai-
mudi’ or ‘Agasthyarkudam’, the tallest peak
in the range is associated with the sage
Agastya who is said to have lived here on
leaves, tubers, fruits and sap of wild plants.
The orthodox belief is that Agasthya Maha-
rishi, regarded by modern scholars as the
pioneer exponent of astronomy and Aryan
civilization in southern India, the originator
of Sidha System of medicine and father of the
hill and Tamil language, still lives on the peak
as a yogi in pious seclusion. It was formerly
an important astronomical station where two
series of observation were taken by Mr. Broun
between 1853 and 1865.

6. Completeness of flora and fauna sur-
veys : Though the area attracted Naturalists
since the 18th century, intensive field studies
were carried out during the last two decades
by the Staff of Botanical Survey of India and
Zoological Survey of India, and other agencies.
The floristic surveys have resulted in the
discovery of many new taxa and several new
records for India {vide VIII. 1.). A con-
solidated account of the flora of this region
is being prepared for publication.

7. Presence of rare and endangered species :

This area has a unique flora with about

150 local endemics ( vide VIII. 1.). About

35 rare, endangered /threatened plant species
occur here. Some of them are Hedyotis
travancorica Bedd., H. barberi (Gamble)
Henry & Subr., H. villosostipulata (Gamble)
Rolla Rao & Hemadri, Knoxia linearis
Gamble, Vernonia heynei Bedd. ex Gamble,
Marsdenia tirunelvelica Henry & Subr.,
Paphiopedilum druryi (Bedd.) Pfitz., Popowia
beddomeana Hook. f. & Thoms., Piper bar-
bed Gamble, Rhynchosia jacobii Chandrabose
& Shetty and Toxocarpus beddomei Gamble.

It is of interest to record a good popula-
tion of the endangered lion-tailed macaque
{Macaca silenus) in this region.

8. Potential for research and training
activities :The occurrence of a large number
of wild relatives of cultivated plants such as
Eletlaria cardamomwn (Roxb.) Maton, Man-
gif era indica L., Musa super ba Roxb., Oryza
granulate (Nees) Arn. ex Steud. and Paphio-
pedilum druryi (Bedd.) Pfitz. prove this area
to be an ideal genetic reservoir of wild
species. All the four contiguous zones of the
proposed Biosphere ( vide V.) have quite a
potential for various research and training acti-
vities. The Core zone with its undisturbed eco-
system offers much scope for monitoring and
non-manipulative research to study the pro-
cesses and changes occurring without human
intervention in the area. The buffer zone
encircling the Core zone is potential for mani-
pulative research activities and training in
various disciplines of Forestry, Agriculture
and Horticulture, and also research into the
scientific basis for ecosystem conservation. It
also provides natural areas for long term
continuous research and monitoring. The
four major river valley projects of this area
offer enormous opportunity for various im-
pact studies in environmental research, as
well as restorative research designed to study
ways of rehabilitating degraded ecosystem.

289

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

The Stable Cultural Zone of the biosphere is
potential for preservation of traditional tribal
approach to harmonious use of environment;
also there is scope for intensive ethnobiologi-
cal studies.

Conclusion

The establishment of the proposed bio-
sphere reserve will serve for the protection
of the non-renewable natural ecosystems
which exist over millions of years. In view
of the fact that both rain forests and wild
populations of non-human primates are be-
coming increasingly rare on a world scale,
it is imperative that an area of the size and
importance of Agastyamalai be given the
fullest study and protection. The area is also
unique in having many endemic species and

is a genetic reservoir of many wild relatives of
cultivated plants. Hence, studies should be
carried out on topographical features, water
flows, geology and soils, natural and man-
modified vegetation types, distribution and
diversity of species, human settlements,
climatology, concentration of atmosphere and
water pollutions, productivity, phenology and
mineral cycling. It is gratifying to note that
the MAB National Committee of the Depart-
ment of Environment, Govt, of India which
has undertaken the task of identifying areas
for designation of biosphere reserves, has al-
ready taken into consideration this potential
area, and we earnestly appeal that speedy
steps for collection of any additional data
required for the conservation of this area
in its totality be undertaken, so that it may
serve as an “ecological protectorate”.

Referen ce s

MAB National Committee, Govt, of India (1979) :
Preliminary inventory on Potential areas for Bio-
sphere Reserves. New Delhi.

Unesco (1974) : Task Force on : Criteria and

guidelines for the choice and establishment of bio-
sphere reserves. MAB Report Series No. 22.
UNESCO. Paris.

290

A PROVISIONAL LIST OF UNRECORDED
SOUTH-EAST ASIAN BIRDS1

D. Couzens, R. J. Quinnell and J. Bass2

This paper is intended as a guide to poten-
tial bird sound recordists in South-East Asia,
suggesting which species deserve particular
attention in the search for a complete record
of the bird vocalisations of the area. It has
been written as a result of a suggestion put
forward by T. C. White at the biennial meeting
of the International Bio-Acoustics Council at
Sussex, England in September 1981. The
proposal was to review progress in bird
sound recording throughout the world and to
publish lists of unrecorded birds for various
regions. A Working Group was subsequently
set by IBAC and this list is the first result
of their research.

The South-East Asian area used is that
delineated by King. Dickinson and Wood-
cock (1975). In compiling the list we used
a base consisting of all birds given a number
in KDW, and omitted each bird whose voice
we found in any one of our sources (see
Appendix 1). The remainder are cited below
with their numbers. Obviously our list does
not represent the complete picture, and we
are most keen to hear from recordists that
have any of the birds in their collection.

It is most important to stress that this list
is not intended to focus undue attention on
the pursuit of recording ‘new1 birds, for most
of the South-East Asian avifauna is not fully
recorded. Indeed, well over half the species
we omitted were very poorly represented in

1 Accepted July 1983.

2 The British Library of Wildlife Sounds, The
National Sound Archive, 29 Exhibition Road,
London SW7 2AS, England.

our main sources, the British Library of Wild-
life Sounds and the Library of Natural Sounds,
Cornell University (less than five recordings
combined). Many of the species which had
been recorded are widespread in distribution
and may not actually have been taped in the
region concerning us; others may have been
recorded in captivity. Moreover, there is no
guarantee that any recordings are of good
technical quality for a given species. Probably
less than fifty mainly South-East Asian birds
have had good coverage of their vocabularies.
Therefore, whilst it is hoped that attention will
be paid to the species herein, this will not
detract from the interest in taping ‘common’
birds.

We are greatly indebted to Ron Kettle,
curator of the British Library of Wildlife
Sounds, and to Dr. lames Gulledge at the
Cornell University Laboratory of Ornithology
for access to collection lists and information
on published recordings. Lt.-Col. Terry
White and Ken Scriven also deserve special
mention. Finally, thanks are due to the
various recordists who have- contributed tape
copies or information to sound libraries and
have, of course, recorded the birds.

The list

Quoted numbers and taxonomy follow King,
Dickinson and Woodcock. The species are
grouped into families, the family name being
succeeded by two figures. The first refers to
the number of unrecorded species, the second
to the total number of species, in South-East
Asia. Endemic birds are indicated by an
asterisk (*), endangered birds by a/.

291

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Hydrobatidae (1. 2)

8 Oceanodroma nionorhis
Pelecanidae (1, 3)

11 Pelecanus philippensis

Phalacrocoracidae (2, 5)
16 Phalacrocorax fuscicollis

19 Anhinga melanogaster
Fregatidae (2, 3)

20 / Fregata andrewsi

22 ariel

Ardeidae (8, 21)

23 Ardea insignis

24 sumatrana

29 Ardeola bacchus

30 speciosa

33/ Egretta eulopholes

38 Gorsachius melanolophus
40 Ixobrychus eurhythmus
42 Dupetor flavicollis
ClCONIIDAE (5, 9)

44 j Ibis cinereus

49 Ciconia episcopus

50 Xenorhynchus asiaticus

51 Leptoptilos dubius

52 javanicus

Threskiornithidae (4, 6)

53 Threskiornis melanocephalus
54/ Pseudibis davisoni

55/* gigantea

58 Platalea minor
Anatidae (3, 35)

79/ Rhodonessa caryophyllacea
83 Ay thy a baeri
93/ Mergus squamatus
Accipitridae (11, 50)

96 Aviceda jerdoni

97 leuphotes

106 Icthyophaga hand

110 Gyps indie us

111 Sarcogyps calvus
119 Circus melanoleucos

121 Accipiter gularis

122 vir gains

1 25 soloensis

127 Butastur liv enter
145 Spizaetus nanus

Falcon idae (7, 13)

146* Polihierax insignis

147 Micr oilier ax caerulescens

148 fringillarius

149 melanoleucos

152 Falco amurensis

155 sever us

156 jagger

Phasianidae (18, 39)

159 Francolinus pintadeanus
161 Melanoperdix nigra

166 Arborophila rufogularis

167 atrogularis

169* davidi

170* cambodiana

172 Galloperdix oculea

174 Bambusicola fytchii
176/ Tragopan blythii
178/ Lophophorus sclateri
181/* Lophura imperialis

182/* edwardsi

183 crylhropthalma

185* diardi

188/ Syrmaticus hiuniae
189 Chrysolophus amherstiae
191 Polyplectron bicalcaratum

192* germaini

Turnicidae (1, 3)

198 Turnix tanki
Gruidae (1, 4)

201 / Grus nigricollis
Rallidae (4, 16)

205 Rallus striatus

206 Rallina fasciata
212 Porzana bicolor
214 Amaurornis akool

Heliornithidae (1, 1)
220 Heliopais per sonata
Otididae (1, 2)

222 Eupodotis bengalensis
Jacanidae (1, 2)

224 Metopidius indicus
Charadriidae (2, 14)
236 Charadrius peronii

240 veredus

SCOLOPACIDAE (3, 39)
251/ Tringa guttifer
259 Gallinago solitaria
267 Calidris tenuirostris
Glareolidae (2, 2)

286 Glareola maldivarum

287 lactea

Laridae (3, 28)

290.1 Earns saundersi

292

UNRECORDED SOUTHEAST ASIAN BIRDS

306

Sterna acuticaiida

Picidae (10, 42)

312/

zimmermanni

502

Picumnus innominatus

Rynchopidae (1, 1)

503

Sasia ochracea

316

Rynchops albicollis

508

Picus xanthopygaeus

COLUMBIDAE (14, 30)

510

rabieri

317

Tier on apicauda

511*

erythropygius

318*

seimundi

518

Dinopium shorii

319

sphenura

521

Gecinulus grantia

322

pom pad ora

524*

Meiglyptes jugularis

323

fulvicollis

532

Picoides atratus

325

vernans

538

Hemicircus canente

327

capellei

Pittidae (6, 12)

328

phoenicoptera

552

Pitta soror

329

Ptilinopus jambu

553

caerulea

331

Ducula bicolor

557*

ellioti

333

Columba leuconota

558

cyanea

335

hodgsonii

560/

* gurney i

337

punicea

561

phayrei

346

Caloenas nicobar'ca

Hirundinidae (2, 11)

PSJTTACIDAE (1, 9)

568/

* Pseudochelidon sirintarae

355

Loriculus galgulus

571

Hirundo cone ol or

Cuculidae (3, 29)

Campephagidae (5, 20)

369

Chrysococcyx maculatus

579

Hemipus picatus

372

mat ay anus

585*

Coracina polioptera

376

Phoenicophaeus sumatranus

592

Pericrocotus cinnamomeus

Tytonidae (1, 3)

593

igneus

386

Tyto capensis

594

erythropygius

Strigidae (2, 23)

Chloropseidae (1, 8)

398

Keiupa flavipes

601

Aegithina lafresnayei

399

ketupu

Pycnonotidae (7, 39)

Apodidae (6,13)

611

Pycnonotus melanoleucos

422

Collocalia gigas

615

cyaniventris

423

fuciphaga

617

xanthorrhous

428

Hirundapus cochinchinensis

626*

blanfordi

429

giganteus

637

Hypsipetes viridescens

430

R h aph id ura leucopygialis

643

castanotus

431

Apus acuticaudus

645*

: thompsoni

Hemiprocnidae (1, 3)

Oriolidae (2, 8)

435

Hemiprocne coronata

655

Oriolus tenuirostris

Trogonidae (1, 7)

659

mellianus

444

Harpactes wardi

Corvidae (6, 22)

Alcedinidae (3, 16)

665

Urocissa whiteheadi

447

Alcedo Hercules

671

Dendrocitta frontalis

449

meninting

672

Crypsirina temia

452

Ceyx rufidorsus

613-

* cucullata

Bucerotidae (2, 13)

471

Ptilolaemus tickelli

674

Temnurns temnurus

473

Acer os nipalensis

682

Corvus torquatus

Capitonidae (1, 16)

Aegithalidae (1, 2)

485

* Megalaima lagrandieri

683

Aegithalos iouschistos

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Paridae (1, 10)

842*

688.1

Pams venustulus

844

Sittidae (5, 9)

846

695

Sitta nagaensis

698*

victoriae

851

700*

solangiae

852

702

magna

853

703

form os a

855

Timaliidae (45, 139)

858

713

Pellorneum al biventre

859

726.1

Pomatorhinus erythrocnemis

860

730

ochraceiceps

861

733*

Jabouilleia danjoui

734

Rimator malacoptilus

866

737

Napothera marmorata

870

743

Spelaeornis troglodytoides

871

744

formosus

872

745

chocolatinus

878

746

Sphenocichla humei

883

747*

Stacliyris rodolphei

885

752*

herberti

891

761*

Macronous kelleyi

892

767*

Turdoides gularis

894

768

longirostris

898

769

Babax lanceolatus

899

778*

Garrulax milled

901

779

maesi

903

781

nuchalis

905

782*

vassal i

907

783

gal banns

910*

784

delesserti

912

785

cineraceus

916

791

mend in us

919

793

— sannio

920

794

virgatus

921

795

— austeni

928

800*

yersini

801

formosus

937

802

milnei

938

803

Liocichla phoenicea

939

809

Pteruthius xanthochlorus

941

815

Actinodura waldeni

945

816

souliei

947

817

Minla cyanouroptera

960

821

Alcippe cinerea

961

824

ruficapilla

969

826

rufogularis

974

833*

Crocias langbianis

834

Heterophasia annectens

yyO

835

gracilis

1002

837

pulchella

1003

Yuhina humilis

diademata

nigrimenta

Panuridae (8, 12)
Paradoxornis unicolor

flavirostris

guttaticollis

— alphonsianus

daviclianus

atrosuperciliaris

nificcps

gularis

Turdidae (23, 71)

Erithacus sibilans

ruficeps

ob sc unis

pectardcns

Tarsi ger hyperythrus
Phoenicians hodgsoni

schisticeps

Grandala coelicolor
Enicurus scouleri

immaculatus

Cochoa purpurea

viridis

S ax i col a leucura

jercloni

Thamnolaea leucocephala
Monticola gularis
Myophonus robinsoni
Zoothera interpres

dixoni

marginata

T urdus clissimilis

hortulorum

feae

Sylviidae (13, 71)

Seicercus poliogenys

castaniceps

montis

Abroscopus schisticeps
Phylloscopus subaf finis

— armandii

cant at or

ricketti

A croce ph a! us concin ens
Graniinicola bengalensis
Cettia major
Brady pterus luteovcntris
seebohmi

294

1005

1008

1010

1011

1014

1019

1022

1023

1027

1031

1033

1034

1035

1036

1037

1042

1065

1077

1078

1081

1083

1085

1086

1087

1090

1091

1095

1098

1100

1102

1107

1110

1112

1118

1121

1124

1125

1126

1128

1130

1132

1136

UNRECORDED SOUTHEAST ASIAN BIRDS

Muscicapidae (16, 53)
Rhinomyias bninneata
Musciccipa griseisticta

williamsoni

muttui

Ficedula zanthopygia

monileger

dumetoria

hodgsonii

sapphira

Niltava davidi

sumatrana

vivid a

Cyornis concreta

— ruecki

hainana

turcosa

Motacillidae (1, 14)
Dendronanthus indicus
Laniidae (3, 7)

Lanins tigrinus

collurioides

sphenocercus

Sturnidae (8, 18)
Saroglossa spiloptera
Star mis sericeus

sinensis

sturninus

contra

nigricollis

Acridotheres javanicus
Ampeliccps coronatus
Nectariniidae (7, 24)
Anthreptes simplex

rhodolaema

Nectarinia calcostetha
Aethopyga gouldiae

christinae

A rachnothera crassirostris

chrysogenys

Dicaeidae (6, 12)
Prionochifns thoracicus

macidatus

percussus

Dicaeum evevetti

melanoxanthum

erythrorhynchos

Zosteropidae (1,4)
Zosterops erythropleura

Ploceidae (6, 17)

1146 Ploceus hypoxanthus

1148 Erythrura prasina

1149 hyperythra

1152 Lonchura leucogastra

1153 leucogastroides

1156 maja

Fringillidae (9, 34)

1157 Serinus thibetanus

1159 Carduelis spinoides

1160 ambigua

1 1 65 Carpodacus eos

1166 vinaceus

1168 rhodopeplus

1169 Pinicola subhimachala
1174 Coccothraustes migratorius
1178 Pyrrhopiectes epauletta

Analysis

309 species of the birds of South-East Asia
have yet to have their voices recorded. This
is some 26% of the avifauna. If South-East
Asia is taken to be representative of the
world as a whole, then about 2300 of the
world’s 9000 bird species are as yet un-
recorded.

32 of the 309 are endemic (they only occur
in South-East Asia), and must obviously be
sought in the area concerning us. Many of
the birds are rare, especially the 17 that are
considered threatened (see King 1981). At
least one of these is generally supposed to be
extinct already, the Pink-headed Duck (Rho-
donessa caryophyllacea, no. 79). Others are
extremely local : both Garndax yersini (800)
and Crocias langbianis (833), for example,
are only found on the Langbian Plateau,
South Annam. It is important that, where
possible, these birds should be recorded be-
fore they become too rare to find or are even
lost to extinction.

Taking the 23 areas of South-East Asia set
out by KDW, about six of them, on average,
make up the breeding range of each bird. To

295

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

give an indication of which areas are most in
need of recording work, the table below
shows the number of unrecorded species that
occur or have occurred in each area. The
number of those which breed is given in
brackets :

West Burma

134

(114)

Northeast Burma

132

(109)

Northwest Thailand

128

(

90)

North Laos

122

(

97)

East Burma

119

(

98)

Tenasserim

115

(

93)

Tonkin

115

(

90)

Malaya

104

(

71)

South Burma

104

(

77)

Peninsular Thailand

(

70)

South Annam

(

79)

Central Burma

(

69)

South Laos

(

70)

Cochinchina

(

69)

Cambodia

(

62)

Central Laos

(

65)

Central Annam

(

56)

King, B. F., Dickinson, E. C. and Woodcock,
M. W. (1975) : A Field Guide to the Birds of
South-East Asia. Collins.

King, W. B. (1981): Endangered Birds of the
World. The I.C.B.P. Bird Red Data Book. Smith-
sonian Institution Press in cooperation with the
International Council for Bird Preservation.

Appendix I: Sources

Libraries

The British Library of Wildlife Sounds, National
Sound Archive, 29 Exhibition Road, London SW7
2AS, England. (Up to September 1981).

The Library of Natural Sounds, Cornell Univer-
sity Laboratory of Ornithology, 159 Sapsucker
Woods Road, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA. (Up to
September 1981).

The Library of Malaysian Bird Song, University
of Malaya, Zoology Department, Lembah Pantai,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. (Up to October 1981).
Discs and Discographies

Boswall, J. (1973): A Discography of Bird
Sound from the Oriental Zoogeographical Region.
Bull. Br. Orn. CL 93 : 170-173.

Boswall, J. and Dickson, W. (1980): Additions
to A Discography of Bird Sound from the Oriental
Zoogeographical Region. Bull. Br. Orn. Cl. 101 :
313-318.

Southeast Thailand

( 49)

North Annam

( 50)

Central Thailand

( 43)

Southwest Thailand

( 44)

Northeast Thailand

( 42)

Hong Kong

( 10)

A similar analysis of the habitats of the
birds reveals that about 60% of them breed
in forests of various kinds. This confirms
the view expressed by T.C. White and others
that it is in forests that the greatest effort
and ingenuity needs to be called upon by
future recordists.

Finally, it is apparent that some families of
birds pose more problems to recordists than
others, for various reasons. Among the most
under-recorded families are Panuridae, Sittidae,
Falconidae, Dicaeidae, Pittidae and Muscica-
pidae and there are also under-recorded genera
such as Garrulax and Treron. Perhaps it would
be of particular interest to search for these.

e n c e s

Roche, J. (1981): Oiseaux d’Asie: Malaisie et
Thailande. Edwards Records.

Stubing, R. (1981): Voices of the Forest.

Malayan Nature Society.

(1982): Dawn Chorus. Malayan

Nature Society.

Private Collections

We have used lists of species recorded by :

H. Bartels and H. Groeneveld
B. and L. Coffey
M. Comar

F. M. Gauntlett
D. A. Holmes

R. Kennedy
B. F. King

G. Madge

J. T. Marshall.

H. E. McClure
T. Roberts

J. Roche
L. Short
R. K. Templeton
F. Vencl

J. W. Wall et al.

D. Wallschlager
R. Watling
T. C. White

296

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE MUGGER
(CROCODYLUS PALUSTRIS)1

Romulus Whitaker2 and Zahida Whitaker3

{With two plates Si five text-figures)

Mugger (Crocodvlus palustris ) were studied in the wild at locations in India and
Sri Lanka and in captivity in Madras. Mugger range from Iran east to Assam
in India and south to Sri Lanka; they have been exterminated throughout most of
their range.

Mugger are adaptable and occupy a wide range of habitats, including streams,
rivers, lakes and saline lagoons. Basking is an important daily activity and was
noted to decrease in the hot season or when a strong breeze was blowing. Mugger
have developed two main strategies to survive their highly seasonal environments :
tunnelling and overland travel. They are strong swimmers and use the high walk
and belly run for terrestrial locomotion.

Mugger can be fast when catching prey; hatchlings were observed jumping to
catch flying insects and captive adults caught wild monkeys, crows and kites. In
some localities they are mainly fish eaters. Other prey items include beetles, rats,
snakes and frogs. Man eating is rare, the Sri Lanka race receiving most credit
for this habit. Gastroliths were often found in mugger stomachs through their
function, if any, remains unknown. Mugger have acute senses of sight, hearing
and smell.

Hatchling mugger averaged 27 cms in total length; the maximum recorded length
for the species was 5.63 m. A captive-reared female of 2.20 m bred at 6 years
8 months.

November to June is the breeding season in South India and a month later in the
north. Mugger are fairly tolerant of conspecifics. Prominent social signals by the
male included head slapping, chasing, tail up swimming, geysering and bellowing.
Females defended nest sites by tail thrashing and chasing. Submission was signalled
by raising the head.

During courtship circling, bubbling and jaw touching preceded copulation. Females
lay an average of 25-30 eggs in holes within 10 metres of the water incubation
averages 66 days. Double clutching was observed for 5 years in captive mugger
in Madras. Nest defence, hatching, release and transport of young was observed
in captivity. Defence of hatchlings was observed in both sexes. Conservation
included egg collection, rearing and release.

1 Accepted March 1983. INTRODUCTION

2 Madras Snake Park Trust, Guindy Deer Park,

Madras 600 022, South India.

By the time formal studies were started on
this crocodile the mugger ( Crocodylus palu-
stris) had been exterminated throughout most
of its range (Whitaker and Daniel 1978).

3 Madras Crocodile Bank Trust, Vadanemmeli
Village, Perur Post, Mahabalipuram Road. Chingle-
put Dist., Tamil Nadu.

297

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Only small, remnant populations remain. In
parts of Sri Lanka however the mugger can
still be found in concentrations of 100 or more
in a single tank (man made lake) (Whitaker
and Whitaker 1979).

Till the 1970’s the only scientific reports on
the species were miscellaneous notes mainly
in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History
Society. McCann (1940) and D’Abreu (1915)
made some of the first observations on breed-
ing and feeding habits of mugger, and M. A.
Smith (1927, 1935) did the first major work
on its systematics and distribution. P. E. P.
Deraniyagala made the first systematic effort
to formally record data on the mugger’s
taxonomy and embryology (1936, 1939).

Yadav (1969) and David (1970) reported
on captive breeding of the mugger. In the
early !970’s mugger were housed at the
Madras Snake Park (MSP) and later (1974)
as a breeding group of the then established
Madras Crocodile Bank (MCB). What
little we know of the behaviour of the mugger
is based mainly on observations of captive
animals. Parker (1880) and Dharmakumar-
sinhji (1947) published the first notes on wild
mugger breeding behaviour. An account of
captive breeding behaviour was made by
Whitaker and Whitaker (1977 a, b).

Other literature on the mugger includes re-
ferences on where and how to shoot them
(for example Shortt 1921) and status survey
reports for N. E. India (Biswas 1970), South
India, Gujarat (Whitaker 1974, 1977) and
Sri Lanka (Whitaker and Whitaker 1979).
The Govt, of India /UNDP/FAO crocodilian
rehabilitation programme is undertaking seve-
ral studies of the mugger, publications on
which are anticipated.

This treatment of mugger biology outlines
current knowledge of their distribution, status,
habits and conservation and concentrates on

reporting results of our studies on the breeding
biology of the species.

Materials and Methods

Studies on wild crocodiles

We have been involved in the survey, study
and captive breeding of mugger in India
since 1970. Day and night census was carried
out in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Gujarat
States, Sri Lanka and western Nepal. Pro-
longed observations were made in Corbett
National Park, Uttar Pradesh, North India.
Wild egg collection was undertaken in Tamil
Nadu and Gujarat.

Captive facility

Captive mugger have bred for seven years
in Madras, South India. At MSP, a breeding
pair resides in a 310 m2 walled enclosure.
The 18 m2 concrete pond is surrounded by
natural scrub. The soil is laterite, hard and
pebbly. The present breeding group of 12
adults (4 males, 8 females) at MCB is housed
in a large (1780 m2) walled and naturally
landscaped enclosure which is planted with
common coastal vegetation (Casuarina, Pan-
danus, grasses). The pond is an excavation
filled by the natural acquifer, varying in area
from 600 to 1200 m2 and 1-2.5 m in depth
in the dry and wet seasons. The substrate
is sea sand and temperatures, rainfall and
feed the same as at MSP. 900 juveniles and
subadults are also being reared at MCB.
Data from these animals has provided much
of the information reported herein. Mugger
at both facilities are fed rats, frogs, fish and
beef. In Madras, rain is confined mainly to
the northeast monsoon (October-December)
with an annual average of 1200 mm. Shade
temperatures throughout the year range from
20° to 45° C.

298

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE MUGGER

Results and Discussion
Distribution

Mugger are found from the Sarbaz River
in southeastern Iran east to Assam and
south to Sri Lanka (Honegger 1971). The
validity of a single record of a mugger
in Thayetmyo, Burma (Annandale 1921) is
doubted by M. A. Smith (1927). The species
occupies a variety of habitats and was appa-
rently once very common in many parts of
its range (Shortt 1921, Deraniyagala 1939).
In Sri Lanka, a single specimen was reported
at Kandy, 450 m. above sea level (Whitaker
and Whitaker 1979) and in India the highest
confirmed record is at Corbett Park, 420 m.
above sea level.

Status

The species is regarded as endangered; ex-
terminated in most of its range, rare in Iran,
and near extinction in Pakistan (Webb 1978).
It is listed in the IUCN Red Data Book and
is on Appendix I of the Convention on Inter-
national Trade in Endangered Species. Mug-
ger are protected by law in all the countries of
their occurrence.

The once large population of captive mug-
ger at Mugger Pir in Pakistan has dwindled
to three adults (H. W. Campbell, pers.
comm.). The two largest known concentrations
of the species on the Indian subcontinent are
at Amaravathi Reservoir, Tamil Nadu State
with about 14 adults and Hiran Lake,
Gujarat State, with about 50 adults.

Habitat

Though named palustris (swamp dwelling),
mugger are mainly river and lake dwellers,
adjusting to a wide range of habitats. We
have encountered mugger in diverse
habitats including hill streams, large man-

made reservoirs, annual tanks, large rivers,
small jungle pools, irrigation channels and
saltwater lagoons. Habitat preference may be
limited by their hole nesting habits. Carr
(1963) proposed that mound nesting would
appear an adaptation to swampland by truly
palustrine species such as Crocodylus novae-
guineae and Alligator mississippiensis. In
fact the Indian mainland has relatively little
freshwater swamp habitat. The present day
largest populations of mugger are found in
the annual tanks of the ‘dry zones’ of Sri
Lanka; only here do they approach what
might be called original concentrations.
Deraniyagala (1936, 1939) notes that mugger
in Sri Lanka are found mainly in lowland
rivers, lakes, forest pools and, remarkably, in
the salt pans and associated lagoons.

On the Indian sub-continent mugger have
been recorded in the salt lakes near Thatta
in the Sind (McCann 1940). Bustard (1974)
notes their “adaptability to village and irriga-
tion tanks in addition to rivers, swamps and
lakes.” He also writes that much of their
habitat has been “affected by dam construc-
tion” as in Sri Lanka where natural habitat
has been altered by thousands of miles of
canals and channels. Sometimes however
these modifications are beneficial to crocodiles,
offering alternate habitat, hunting grounds and
access to other tanks (Whitaker and Whitaker
1979).

Daily Activity

Am ph i bious behaviour

During the 1977/78 breeding season
(December- January) ZW made 55 hours of
behavioural observations on the mugger
breeding group at MCB. Observations were
made from a hide in the enclosure, gene-
rally during the most active period, i.e. early

299

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

morning and late evening. Activities of
seven mugger were recorded during
a week in mid- January. Table 1 shows the
percentage of time spent at each activity.
Most crocodiles spent over half their time
stationary in the water though the dominant
female (Nova) spent more time on the bank.
The dominant male (Perayur) spent more
time swimming than the others. The 4 sub-
dominant females were the least active of all.
During the hot season (April-July) the MCB
mugger spend most of the day under water
and only emerged onto the bank during the
nieht.

April, mugger typically moved onto land from
7 a.m. (air temperature 18-21° C) till noon
(35-39° C). No further emergence occurred
till v/ell after sunset when the largest mugger
(over 3 m.) would emerge on to the rocks
(Whitaker 1979 b).

Burrowing, aestivation and seasonal movement
Writing of mugger in the northern peninsula
of Sri Lanka Baldeus (1671) related, “In
Jafnapatnam there are many crocodiles in the
fens, ponds, and lakes, which if they happen
to dry up in the summer, they dig holes to
live in....” Later Deraniyagala (1936)
writes that the mugger “often excavates bur-

Table 1

Daily activity of captive mugger in south india (mcb) during a week (mid- January) in the breeding

PERIOD (% OF TIME SPENT)

Crocodile
age (years) /
length (cms)

Partly or
fully on
bank

Stationary
in water

Swimming

Courtship

Other social
interaction

Underwater

Perayur (Beta)
male/ 19(282)

28.2

57.7

7.0

1.4

—

5.6

Nova (Alpha)
female/ 17 (200)

52.1

41.1

2.7

1.4

—

2.7

Metty

female/7 (270)

35.3

61.8

2.9

—

4 females
6-9/(152-188)

19.7

78.8

1.5

0.08

Average

33.8

59.8

3.5

0.96

—

4.1

At Vakkaramari

Waterworks

in mid-May,

rows in the

bank.” In

the salt

lakes near

adult mugger took an average of two hours
(0600-0800) to gradually reach shore before
emerging onto land. Then, they spent an
average of 3 \ to 4 hours on shore. Afternoon
emergence was rare, probably because of a
daily brisk northwest breeze (Whitaker 1974).
At MCB a similar schedule has been observed;
diurnal basking is significantly less in the hot
season, when the crocodiles spend most of the
day submerged. At Corbett National Park in

Thatta in the Sind (Pakistan), mugger were
observed occupying burrows on the hills
bordering the lake. The holes were about
60 cm in diameter and 2.5 to 4.5 m. deep,
ending in a chamber wide enough for the
crocodile to turn around in (McCann 1940).

In South India two burrows of about 0.75 m
diameter and 2.5 m. deep were seen at
Kilikudi, Tamil Nadu and described “perhaps
as a hot season refuge” (Whitaker 1974).

300

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE MUGGER

In Kedarhalla stream, burrows up to 6 m.
deep under the supportive root systems of
trees (e.g. Eugenia jambolana ) on the banks
are the only refuges for the mugger there
during the prolonged dry season (Whitaker
and Whitaker 1976). One was horse-shoe
shaped with two openings. We saw similar
burrows in stream banks on the Menik
Ganga river near Kataragama in Sri Lanka
and in the Gir Forest, Gujarat. At Hiran
Lake in the Gir National Park, 16 burrows,
all with flattened openings, averaging 80 cms
in width, 4-5 m. deep and almost every one
containing a mugger were observed on a steep
embankment. Some of the holes were at
water level, and some 3 m. up the bank
(Whitaker 1977). In southern Sri Lanka a
mugger resided in a burrow dug in the sand
bank of a saltwater lagoon (Whitaker and
Whitaker 1979). After several abortive at-
tempts, a 3 m. male mugger at MCB excavated
a burrow under the overhanging roots of
several Casuarina trees in the mugger breeding
pen.

Burrowing has been observed in yearling,
subadult and adult mugger at MCB. Burrow-
ing seems to be a survival tactic in mugger
to withstand the drought conditions which
are a standard feature of the dry season in
many parts of the range. However in some
situations mugger although they frequent the
water, appear to reside permanently in
burrows, emerging to bask by day and hunt at
night.

An adult MCB female mugger ‘Metty’ was
observed several times while burrowing. Insert-
ing her head under the tree roots she would dig
with front feet and propel the sand back with
the hind feet, dispersing sand with swimming
movements of the tail. The dominant female
in the pen would often use the tunnel (which
was located close to her nest site) with no

apparent objection on the part of the Metty.
In the wild in India only one mugger
was observed per tunnel although at
the Menik Ganga study site, it was thought
that many of the mugger observed at night
resided in the 3 tunnels located (Whitaker
and Whitaker 1979). It seems likely that
mugger will group together in a single tunnel
as observed in the Nile crocodile (Guggisberg
1972).

Overland travel by mugger is well docu-
mented. In India they travel overland at
night to the nearest tank v/hen the water dries
in summer (Ahmed 1945). In Sri Lanka,
trans-tank migration is a yearly phenomenon
during the dry season (Whitaker and Whitaker
1979). In the Barda Hills, Gujarat, at least
50 crocodiles were reported to have left a
reservoir as the dry season progressed. The
trail of one subadult was followed for about
2} kms through steep, hot scrub jungle. The
animal was found under a sheltering over-
hanging rock 6 kms from the next tank
(Whitaker 1977). This is not a random move-
ment.

Overland travel is a likely mode of coloni-
zation particularly by subadult and juvenile
mugger. Evidence of single crocodiles present in
small hill streams above waterfalls at Kedar-
halla and Amaravathi in Tamil Nadu demon-
strates the tenacity of the species in seeking
new habitat.

Locomotion

Like other crocodilians mugger use the
powerful, laterally flattened tail to swim,
using the webbed hind feet to stabilize when
still, change direction and aid the ‘reverse
dive’, a typical mode of submerging. Mugger
often waik lightly on the bottom of a pond
or river, using the same ‘belly walk’ as on
land. Where there is a lot of marsh gas it

301

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

is easy to see the bubble trail of a bottom
walking mugger.

Mugger have not been observed galloping,
though the other modes of locomotion on
land, the high walk and belly run recorded
for the Nile crocodile (Cott 1961 a, b) are
the same. Though not classed as a regular
mode of locomotion, climbing has been
observed in mugger of up to 2.8 m. In capti-
vity adult mugger climbed over vertical chain
link mesh fencing 1.75 m. high and small
juveniles climbed up 80 cm rough cement
walls at the corners. In the wild this ability
based on limb and claw strength, is used by
mugger in travelling steep terrain and climbing
up to burrows many metres above drought
water levels.

Feeding

Mugger are heavy set animals and appear
sluggish, but are actually alert and capable
of fast reaction and considerable speed in
defence or when hunting. Hatchlings have
been observed jumping to successfully snap
at winged termites and moths attracted to a
light over their pond.

Mugger are curious animals and will briefly

investigate anv movement in or near their
< — ✓ •>

habitat. If interested, mugger will submerge
and reappear near the potential prey. Prey is
caught with a sudden forward lunge or side-
ways snap. Captive adults at MSP and MCB
have captured monkeys, crows and kites which
entered the breeding enclosures.

Small prey is killed by a quick, crushing bite.
Larger prey is shaken, drowned and/or dis-
membered as a limb (or head) is grabbed
and twisted several times while the mugger
rolls in the water using tail leverage.

In some localities mugger appear to be
mainly fish eaters, particularly where intense
dry seasons create high concentrations of fish.

Spittel (1924) writing about Sri Lanka, stated
that ‘‘salt concentration causes a massive fish
kill and crocodiles, birds and other scavengers
feast.”

The annual drying of most streams and
tanks is characteristic of the geographical dry
zones in the mugger’s range. Large mugger
establish themselves in the last remaining
water, the essential focal point for a vast
range of dependent animal life, and could pro-
bably survive the rest of the year on the dry
month or two of super-abundance of prey.

Crocodiles were observed ‘herding’ fish to
shore in the daytime at Hiran Lake, Gujarat
and at night at Amaravathi Reservoir, catch-
ing them as they leapt in an attempt to escape
from the shallows back to deep water. At
MCB an adult female of 2.00 m. length was
observed to purposefully herd fish after a 60
day fast during brooding. She gradually shift-
ed her body perpendicular to the west finger
of the breeding pond and slowly moved side-
ways, gradually reducing the enclosed end of
the finger. Several bites in quick succession
enabled her to catch a number of Tilapia
mossambica. This behaviour has been observ-
ed in the wild in Nile crocodiles (Graham and
Beard 1973) and the saltwater crocodile
( Crocodylus porosus) (Whitaker, pers. obs.).

On two occasions at MSP a young adult
male (2 m.) mugger was observed catching a
live rat snake ( Ptyas mucosus). Rather than
killing the snake immediately at it would other
prey, the crocodile shook it hard and dropped
it and then repeated the process 3-4 times
until the snake was motionless. The overall
impression was that the mugger was hesitant
with the snake.

Mugger being reared at the Gharial Reha-
bilitation Center in Orissa were fed pigeons
which were stalked and adroitly caught (Singh
1979). In a river in Pakistan a mugger was

302

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE MUGGER

observed catching an otter. A captive speci-
men at Mugger Pir near Karachi was seen to
catch a peacock (Smoothbore 1877). Besides
actively hunting, mugger apparently also
forage for such sedentary food items as snails
and bivalves (D’Abreu 1915; Whitaker, pers.
obs.) and will locate and eat carrion (Cham-
pion 1934).

Stomach contents and feces examination

A 1.35 m. mugger taken from a forest pond
contained 32 water beetles (Cy bister sp.), 15
water bugs ( Belostoma sp.) and 4 snail oper-
cula ( Ampullaria sp.); the stomach of a 3.24
m specimen contained 1 Indian bullfrog ( Rana
tigrina ) (D’Abreu 1915). A specimen from
Powai Lake, near Bombay contained 60 wafer
beetles, 2 fish ( Chela sp.) and an eel (Mc-
Cann 1935). Brander (1927) lists animal re-
mains which he found in mugger shot by him:
men, leopards, wild dogs, hyaenas, spotted deer,
sambar, nilgai, four horned antelope, barking
deer, monkeys, domestic dogs, goats, calves,
pigs, ducks, storks and other birds.

Fish scales, egret feathers and watersnake
( Xenochrophis piscator) scales were found in
a sample of feces at Hiran Lake, Gujarat
State (Whitaker 1977). Sixty fecal pellets re-
presenting about 30 defecations were collected
and examined at Vakkaramari, Tamil Nadu
State. The results indicate selective hunting for
rats during the dry season (May), when rats
live near water.

Prey remains %

occurrence

Fish scales

10%

Rat hair ( Bandicota bengalensis)

100%

Gerbil hair (Tat era indica )

20%

Snakes scales (Xenochrophis piscator

and Amphiesma stolata)

10%

Bird feathers

10%

(Whitaker 1974).

In Sri Lanka, a random sample of mugger
feces contained remains of fish, birds, wild
pig (Sus scrofa) and Russell’s viper (Vi per a
russelli).

Man-eating

It is likely that many of the reports of man-
eating in mugger confuse mugger with salt-
water crocodiles. It is also probable that
attacks on humans are often cases of mistaken
identity. Occasional attacks seem to have
occurred and feeding on corpses was probably
a commonplace event. Shortt (1921) describes
the discovery of an entire corpse in a mugger.
Often, when firewood for cremation is hard
to come by, whole corpses are thrown into the
river. It is likely that this is the source of
ornaments found in mugger stomachs reported
among others by Pitman (1913) and Battye
(1944). In the present day it is common to see
floating corpses on major north Indian rivers
such as the Jumna and Ganga but it is now
the dog packs that fatten on them, in the
absence of mugger.

Deraniyagala (1936) unequivocably states
that mugger in Sri Lanka will take humans
as prey and in fact uses this habit as one of
the criteria for calling it a sub-species separate
from the Indian mugger. In 1977 a young
village farmer who survived a mugger attack
at a small stream in south-eastern Sri Lanka
was interviewed by us. The crocodile
was observed to be a 2 m. adult and this
appeared to be a typical case of mis-predation
(Whitaker and Whitaker 1979).

Gastroliths

While some authors suggest that the pheno-
menon of stone ingestion in crocodilians is an
aid to digestion, Cott (1961, a, b) presents a
case for the theory that gastroliths perform a
hydrostatic function as ballast (a native be-

303

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vo!. 81

lief), the stones averaging 1% of the adult
Nile crocodile’s total weight. McCann (1940)
suggests that the size of the stones is related
to the size of the animal. A 3.42 m. mugger
contained about 1 kg. of stones of assorted
sizes (Simcox 1905). D’Abreu (1915) reports
a 1.35 m. mugger having 16 small stomach
stones and a 3.24 m. mugger with 6 large
stones and 12 smaller ones. A 2.75 m. mugger
found dead in Corbett National Park contained
a few small pebbles and gravel in its stomach
(Whitaker and Ross, unpubl.). A 3.12 m. mug-
ger shot at Jasdan, Gujarat contained an un-
usually large gastrolith weighing 2 . 5 kgs
( Dharmakumarsinhj i 1952). A 3.27 m. mugger
killed at the Krishnarajasagar Dam in Karna-
taka, South India contained 12 stomach stones
of roughly 12.5 mm /diameter (Krishnamurthy
1951). Peaker (1969) observed a captive
American alligator deliberately pick up and
swallow pebbles of 1.5 cm diameter and des-
cribes the habit as “reminiscent of the situation
in granivorous birds.”

Senses

McCann (1940) notes that mugger have
acute senses of sight, hearing and smell. This
is supported by observations by us
on captive and wild mugger. They were ob-
served catching, moving and flying prey with
great precision, demonstrating visual acuity.
Wild mugger at most localities were extremely
difficult to approach closer than several hun-
dred metres; ears and eyes presumably being
the important detecting devices. Mugger were
observed searching for and locating prey ob-
jects on land and under water by ‘feeling’
with their jaws. A blind gharial ( Gavialis gan-
geticus) was observed catching fish and locat-
ing dead fish, obviously by feel (Singh, pers.
comm.). These observations lend support to
Bellairs’ (1969) suggestion that the tactile

Table 2

Growth rate of 12 msp hatchling mugger

Average

Age total

length (cms)

Length

gain

(cms)

Average

weight

(gms)

Weight

gain

(gms)

1 month

32.1

—

48.5

—

9 months

57.2

25.1

650.8

602.3

Table 3

Growth

rate of ;

50 MCB hatchling mugger

Age

Average total

Length

length (cms) gain (cms)

Hatching

28 (26-31)

—

12 months

82 (57-104)

24 monhs

130 (90-170)

(Whitaker and Whitaker 1977 b).

Table 4

Differential growth rates in mugger

Origin

Months

Growth
rate (cms
per

month)

Ahmedabad Zoo, Gujarat

1.6

Kilikudi, Tamil Nadu

7.2

MCB (captive bred)

2.3

Kedarhalla, Tamil Nadu

2.5

Hogenakal, Tamil Nadu

2.7

organs in the scales of the jaws may be specia-
lized for detecting disturbance under water
created by fish.

Size, growth rate

Mugger are 25-30.5 cm (average 27 cm)
in total length when they hatch.

Table 2 demonstrates an average month-
ly length increase of 2.8 cm and an

304

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE MUGGER

average monthly weight increment of 66.9 gm
in 12 hatchlings for 9 months. Table 3 demon-
strates increases in length of 4.25 cm per month
in over 50 hatchlings for 24 months. Six
hatchlings from wild collected eggs averaged
75 gms in weight at one month post hatchling
and 32 months later averaged 10 kg, an in-
crease of 310 gm per month (Whitaker 1974).

D’Abreu (1935) records a captive mugger
growing from 27.5 cm to 210 cm in 19 years.
An escaped mugger grew from 170 cm to 220
cm during 40 months in the wild, the only
existing growth rate of a wild mugger
(Acharjyo and Mohapatra 1977).

The maximum reliably recorded total length
for the mugger is 5.63 m for 2 specimens
killed at Kantalai Reservoir in Sri Lanka
(Deraniyagala 1939). In recent years the ave-
rage adult male size is 3 to 3 . 5 m and female
2 to 2.5 m.

Table 4 shows that mugger hatchlings of
wild collected eggs and captive bred stock from

different localities grew at different rates, in-
dicating population differences in growth rates.
Variable growth rates of different popula-
tions have also been reported by Bustard (in
lift.).

Sexual maturity

A captive reared, 11 year old 180 cm long
female mugger bred at MSP. A captive reared
220 cm female at MCB bred at 6 years 8
months and a male mugger at MSP bred when
8-10 years old and 250 cm in length (Whitaker
1979 a). McCann (1940) examined the gonads
of a 180 cm female mugger which had bred
that season.

Social behaviour and reproductive biology

Timing of breeding season
The breeding season of Crocodylus palustris
(in this paper the period between and includ-
ing courtship, mating, nesting and the hatch-

Fig. 1. Seasonability of mugger reproduction at Madras Crocodile Bank, South India.

305

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

ing of young) extends from November to
June in South India. Courtship and mating
coincide with the north-east monsoon, nesting
with the beginning of the dry season, hatch-
ing with the height of the dry season and the
beginning of the south-west monsoon. Court-
ship and mating commence in late-November-
early December, nesting in February-April,
hatching in April June (Whitaker and Whitaker
1974, 1977 b) (see Figure 1). In northern
India it tends to be one month later. In Jai-
pur, Rajasthan nesting is recorded for 9 May
(Yadav 1969). At Jaipur Zoo from 1967-71,
a female C. palustris nested between 25 April
arid 22 May, and hatching occurred between
26 June and 6 July (Prakash 1971). In Sri
Lanka, June- July are reported as the laying
months (Parker 1880) and August is given as
a hatching date for mugger (Deraniyagala
1936) and later confirmed by Whitaker and
Whitaker (1979).

T erritoriality

Although fighting sometimes occurs on the
introduction of a new individual in an esta-
blished captive group, mugger are fairly tole-
rant of conspecifics, particularly during the
seasonal concentrations which occur in the dry
season. During the breeding (wet) season both
sexes become increasingly territorial. At
MCR, the largest male ‘Beta’ asserts his
dominance by swimming displays in the ‘tail
up’ position, head-slapping and chasing and
biting subordinate males, sometimes on the
shore. This behaviour has been recorded
for males of other species as well, such as
C. novaeguineae (Lang, in press) and C.
niloticus (Modha 1967; Pooley 1976). D’Abreu
(1915) notes that large wild mugger “usually”
have shortened tails, some missing the terminal
9-10 segments. This is not the case with most
wild mugger observed today and could be an

indication of much more frequent interaction
among the adults of once large and concen-
trated populations.

Roaring or bellowing was rarely heard in
mugger but it is reported in the literature; this
vocalization could be a territorial signal.
McCann (1940) reports that a 3 m. mugger
shot in a hole roared like “the roll of a big
drum”. A 3.75 m. mugger on the Indravati
River, Madhya Pradesh, bellowed 2 or 3 times
in quick succession and is described as sound-
ing like a cow bellowing (Battye 1944). In
Sri Lanka a mugger bellowed in response to a
rifle shot (Rossel 1944).

A raised, threatening posture, called ‘slim-
ming’ by Garrick et al. (1978) was frequently
observed in captive juveniles and subadult
males. The animal raises its body by fully
extending its legs, sometimes slightly compress-
ing its body laterally and breathing deeply. This
is occasionally initiated by the approach of
another mugger to a favoured basking spot
but also by apparent individual rivalry, per-
haps an early mechanism of the establishment
of social hierarchy. This posture is rarely used
when confronted by an animal (or human),
the most common threat used being a raised
forebody with open mouth, hissing and leaping
forward if cornered or further threatened. A
challenged subdominant mugger of either sex
may run or raise the head in submission, often
accompanying the signal with a low, open-
mouthed gurgling sound. Other behaviours
observed in mugger which are possible social
signals include ‘yawning’ (as described by
Garrick et al. 1978) and ‘ear flapping’ (Bellairs
1969).

Courtship and mating

Observations on courtship and mating were
made from a hide in the mugger breeding en-
closure at MCB. Often a head slap by a male

306

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE MUGGER

(which starts from the head up position)
signalled approach and courtship. For example
on March 9, 1978 at 0810 Beta head slapped,
approached a female and mounted. The female
submerged. Beta moved away; the female sur-
faced near his head, jaw raised. Male approach
prior to courtship was usually in the tail-up
position, with the single caudal crests arched
well out or slightly out of the water. In one
instance following a head slap geysering was
observed as described by Garrick et al. (1978)
— “a stream (spout) of water about 10 to
20 cm in height resulting from a release of
air from the external nares while the snout is
just under the surface of the water.” Beta was
heard roaring as in Garrick et al. (1978) prior
to a courtship sequence.

During courtship, circling, bubble blowing
and raising and touching jaws was observed.
On 18 January 1978 at 1017 (following a head
slap) Beta swam to tank centre in the tail up
position, nudging a female’s back with his

head. The female raised her jaw, circled, bub-
bled, submerged. Beta raised his jaw, hissed,
submerged. Female raised her jaw, both sub-
merged for 5 minutes. Figure 2 provides a
summary of these behaviours.

Females were observed bubbling at times
other than during mating. Bubbling is perhaps
a female courtship signal. Sometimes it was
associated with a cough. Female mugger occa-
sionally head slapped, as do A. mississippiensis
(Garrick et al. 1978) and were twice observed
to roll over in the water, exposing the belly
as reported by Cott (1961) for C. niloticus.

During a courtship sequence on 14 January
1978 from 0855 to 1010 am a female mugger
was observed repeatedly mock biting (Garrick
and Lang 1977) the male’s head. When the male
mounted the female the pair submerged and
mating progressed while fully or partially sub-
merged, often surfacing and submerging alter-
nately. Copulation lasted from five to fifteen
minutes. During courtship and mating a high

cf HEADS LAP

! 9 APPROACHES 0,-“J»*9 CONTACTS Cf 'S

J CIRCLING BY

9 EXITS

j HEAD/SNOUT

j cf fc 9

1 A

EXHALATION/

GEYSERING

APPROACH BY OTHER SNOUT LIFTING AND
99 AND/OR O’ GURGLING BY $

c? - Cf CHASE

Cf APPROACHES 9
TAIL UP

Cf CONTACTS 9
HEAD/SNOUT

EXITS

SNOUT AND HEAD —PRIDING*
RUBBING BY Cf £< 9 BY 9
(Cf EXHALATION)

Q SUBMERGING,
* BUBBLING &

►RIDING AND — ► COPULATION
MOUNTING BY Cf

RE-EMERGING

Fig. 2. Summary table of mugger reproductive behaviour as observed at Madras

Crocodile Bank (after Garrick and Lang 1977).

307

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

degree of tolerance was shown toward other
animals. Adult females and a sul>adu!t male
were seen circling, nudging and in intermittent
physical contact with a pair during courtship
on several occasions. Courtship and mating
were always observed in water though Yadav
(1969) records copulation on dry land at the
Jaipur Zoological Gardens.

On several occasions during courtship the
throat glands of females in the head raised
posture w'ere briefly everted and withdrawn.
It is possible that the scent glands function
in some stimulatory capacity during pre-mating
courtship. Prater (1933) reports that the scent
glands in the throat and vent secrete a brownish
liquid with a musty odour. He feels that the
secretion is most active during the mating sea-
son and postulates that its release in the
water enables individuals to find each other.
This secretion has been observed as a waxy
brown substance but seems to have very little
detectable odour.

Dharmakumarsinhji (1947) made the first
observations on breeding of wild mugger. He
described the tail up and head emergent pos-
ture of the male and head up posture of the
female prior to copulation. His observations
agree with those of the authors, including the
submerging, re-emerging cycle seen during
copulation.

Nest construction and egg laying

Nesting females were observed at MCB. On
14 February 1979 on arrival at the breeding
enclosure at 2100 a 1\ year old female was
seen lying on her freshly dug nest. At 2130
p.m. an egg (the last of her clutch) was expelled
with a prolonged grunt. After laying the
female inserted both feet into the egg chamber
and gently pushed the entire clutch to the
back of the cavity of the L-shaped hole
(Figure 3). For this manoeuvre and while nest

packing the tail was used for support
(Whitaker 1979 c). She then began a slow

Crocedylus palustris

EGG PLACEMENT WITHIN NEST

Fig. 3. Cross-section of mugger nest showing posi-
tion of eggs before and after female shifts them with

hind feet.

scratching with alternate movements of her
hind legs, gently pushing sand into the nest
hole. Sand was scraped over the nest and then
periodically packed by treading with the hind
feet (Figures 7 and 8). At 2210 she started
turning on her nest, making seven full clock-
wise circles, completely flattening the nest area.

During wild egg collection programmes in
1975 and 1976, field study and surveys, over
50 wild nests were observed. Tables 5 and 6
give some of the physical characteristics of
the nests. Hole length apparently corresponded
to the length of the female mugger’s hind leg.
In most nests the soil at the egg cavity level
was damp.

Locations included artificial reservoirs with-
out shade, small, densely vegetated streams,
and tidal lagoons (Whitaker and Whitaker
1975, 1979; Choudhury et al. 1979). At Ama-
ravathi Reservoir the tracks of a mugger were
followed into a hilly scrub forest over 1 km
from the reservoir to where a 2.4m female
was found (Whitaker 1976 b). She later nest-
ed here (B.C. Choudhury, in lilt.) but un-
successfully, as the soil was too shallow. This

308

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81

Whitaker & Whitaker: Crocodylus palustris

Plate I

Above : Male mugger with arched tail approaches receptive female during courtship
Below. Female mugger at Madras Crocodile Bank laying eggs.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81

Whitaker & Whitaker: Crocodylus palustris

Plate II

Above : Female mugger scraping sand over nest site.

Below. Female mugger packs the finished nest by treading with hind feet.

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE MUGGER

unusual nesting behaviour was postulated to
be due to the excessive human disturbance in
the area. (Before protection, 90% of the eggs
were taken each season by herdsmen and fire-

minutes. She finally appeared to notice Nate-
san’s close presence and entered the water,
watching from 10 m. out as the investigator
checked the nest (Whitaker 1976 a).

Table 5

Data on 50 wild mugger nests in Tamil Nadu

Hole Hole Distance Height above Layer of sand/earth

length (cms) width (cms) from water waterline (m) covering eggs (cms)

35-56 22:14-31 10m:lm-2km 6.2:1.5-10 19.5:13-26

wood collectors). At Amaravathi, nine out of
eleven nests were situated on slopes facing east.

At Amaravathi, Kilikudi and Sathanur trial
nest holes were a common feature near nests.
C. palustris usually digs one or more trial nest
holes before the final egg chamber. At Vakka-
ramari a female was seen making a trial nest
in daylight and 2-3 trial nest holes were found
for each nest (Whitaker 1974).

* Table 6

Soil type and shade at 59 wild mugger nest sites

(% NESTS)

Gravel /sand

Sand

Black clay

Loamy soil

Humus Unshaded

Partly shaded

Fully shaded

1.7

An MSP investigator, V. Natesan observed
a wild female mugger nesting at Vakkaramari,
Tamil Nadu at 0630 on 15 March, 1976. She
faced up the embankment and, eyes closed,
made frequent straining movements as the eggs
were deposited. She then started scraping soil
forward with the front feet, turning while do-
ing so. She continued scraping soil from the
excavation back into the hole using her hind
feet. She then flattened the site with her belly
and lay still on the nest for a further fifteen

Clutch and egg size

Mugger lay 25-30 eggs; details of clutch sizes
in different localities are given in Table 7.
Clutch sizes were similar in north and south
Indian nests. Although not adequately quan-
tified it has been observed that clutch size is
closely related to the size of the female. The
average size of 340 eggs from wild nests in
South India was 7.40 x 4.70 cms and weighed
an average of 128 gms, closely corresponding
to captive bred specimens eggs measured at
MCB.

Table 7

Clutch sizes of mugger nests

Place

Clutch size
x: range

Sathanur Reservoir, Tamil Nadu
Amaravathi Reservoir,

27:17-35

Tamil Nadu

31:26-35

Vakkaramari, Tamil Nadu

32:18-46

Kilikudi, Tamil Nadu

19:16-21

MCB (8 females)

24: 8-39

MCB (1 female)

25: 8-33

Hiran Lake, Gujarat

Powai Lake, Maharashtra

Jaipur Zoo, Rajasthan

32:22-41

Total

26: 8-46

(Whitaker 1974, 1979a, 1977; Whitaker and Whitaker
1975; 1977 b; Prakash 1971).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Incubation period and nest temperature
- In captivity mating begins about two months
before the first egg laying, suggesting a deve-
lopmental period of 40-60 days. Incubation of
mugger eggs averages about 2 months, details
of captive incubated clutches are given in
Table 8 which shows a slightly longer dura-
tion for nests in South India.

Table 8

Incubation periods of mugger nests

Incubation

Place N period (days)

x: range

South India (wild) 20 67:41-80

South India (MCB) 33 68:41-85

North India (wild) 1 74

North India (Jaipur Zoo) 5 54:44-68

(Whitaker 1978, 1979 a, 1980; Whitaker and Whitaker
1975; Prakash 1971).

Nest temperatures in wild nests in South
India ranged from 18°C in the early morning
to 35°C in the early afternoon. In 1980 the
overall nest temperature average at MCB was
31 .3°C for the four months of February-May.

Nest losses

Of the 59 nests observed in the wild, 39%
were collected for hatching in captivity, 36%
were raided by humans for food, 15% hatched
naturally, 3% spoiled, 5% were destroyed by
predators and 1.5%, i.e. one nest, was destroy-
ed by the female crocodile.

Multiple clutches per season

When double clutching was first observed
at MCB in 1976 in a 19 year old female
(Nova) it was thought to be exceptional or
aberrant behaviour. Since then however, the

laying of two clutches per season has become
the norm for 6 females. Table 9 illustrates the

Table 9

Mugger double clutching data at mcb (means
for 1979 and 1980 seasons)

x clutch
size A
nests

x clutch x% hatch-
size B ing success
nests A nests

x% hatch-
ing success
B nests

29.2

23.6 59.1

47.0

x incubation x incubation

x no. days

period A nests period B nests

between

A & B nests

65 days 70 days

(Whitaker 1980)

details of the multiple nesting which occurred
in 1979 and 1980. Clutch size and hatching
success were slightly lower in ‘B’ nests. ‘A’
nests took an average of 5 days less incubation
time, corresponding to lower temperatures pre-
vailing during the ‘B’ nest incubation period.
(Fig. 4).

Double clutching at MCB may be a result
of the combination of high temperatures and
high feeding rates. There seem to be three
possibilities which might explain the pheno-
menon :

a) single mating with arrested development
of second clutch

b) single mating and storage of sperm

c) double mating.

Sporadic mating of mugger was observed
late in the season (March/ April) but no peak
similar to the December activity was noted.
While the period of egg development in first
and single clutches appears to be about 60
days there was an average of only 41 days
between first and second nests. There is no

310

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE MUGGER

Fig. 4. Nest site selection by double clutching mugger in the Madras Crocodile Bank
breeding enclosure. Dotted lines illustrate the tendency for widely separated site

selection by individual females.

evidence of double clutching in wild mugger.
Tribal inhabitants of crocodile habitat have
generally proved to be the most reliable in-
formants on mugger habits and only once
have these egg collectors (Poliyars at Ama-
ravathi Reservoir) indicated that they had
seen fresh nests later than the normal season.
The implications of double clutching for com-
mercial farming are obvious, whether it could
be of some survival value for wild mugger is
a matter for conjecture. The mean distance
between- A.- and B nests was 22.5 m, while
nests' of different females averaged only 5 m
apart (Table 10).

Messel (pers. comm.) suggests that ‘early’
and ‘late’ nests of C. porosus in Australia may
be first and second nests of the same animal.

Graham (1968) noted that over 50% of
mature male C. niloticus had motile semen
for 6 months. In addition, 24% of females
had two or more sets of enlarging ovarian
follicles of greatly differing sizes. He suggests
that maturation of one set of ova may be ac-
companied by development of another set, re-
sulting in the production of two batches of
eggs in one season. Graham’s conclusion is
that “the time sequence of events would per-
mit an animal to breed twice.” According to
Cott (1961), fresh crocodile eggs were Tound
during two periods Of the year in norfherh
Lake Victoria (Uganda) : August and early
September, and again in December and
January.

311

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Fig. 5. Main Crocodylus palustris populations and projects.

A. Gir National Park, Gujarat. B. Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh. C. Madras Croco-
dile Bank, Tamil Nadu. D. Sathanur reservoir, Tamil Nadu. E. Amaravathi reservoir,
Tamil Nadu. F. Wilpattu National Park, Sri Lanka. G. Yala National Park, Sri Lanka.

312

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE MUGGER

Protection of nest

Nest defence has been observed both in
the wild (S. Valliappan, pers. comm.) and in
captivity (Whitaker and Whitaker 1977 a). At
MCB and MSP nesting females defended nest
sites and adjacent water areas and engaged
in threat displays. They often thrashed their
tails from side to side and made repeated
serious charges at intruders, both crocodilian

Table 10

Distances between nests of double clutching

MCB MUGGER

1979

1980

Distance from

No.* Female A to B nest

A to B nest

(in)

(m)

1 . Karruppukann 1 . 90

17.40

2. Chitra 32.00

9.50

3. Stumpy 48.50

20.50

4. Vijaya 5.80

32.00

5. Nova 7.00

—

6. Chidambaram 38.20

34.00

Range and average

1.90-48.50:22.23

9.50-34.00:22.70

Distance to nearest

nest (m)

Range and average

0.75-11.90: 3.57

1.00-20.45: 6.61

* refers to map of MCB mugger breeding enclosure,

Figure 4.

and human. If undisturbed

the female will

spend most of the incubation time at her nest
and in the water near by. One female (Nova)
fasted throughout incubation, while other
younger females were less attentive to nests

and did not fast.

The role of the male C.

palustris in nest

protection has not been clearly established. A

male at Ahmedabad Zoo ignored the female
after copulation (David 1970). Similarly Yadav
(1969) negates participation of the male in

nest protection and defence of young. The
male C. niloticus takes part in nest excavation
and hatchling transport (Pooley 1974) as does
the New Guinea crocodile (Lang, in press).

Hatching, release and transport of young

The female at MSP was observed at 0100
on 22 May 1978 excavating her nest with her
front feet and head, leading 6 hatchlings to
the pond 6 m, away, and communicating with
them through grunts. She later excavated 5
more young. The female and hatchlings were
heard calling sporadically all night up to 0500
(Whitaker 1980).

At 0900 the female chased the keeper from
the enclosure. She pushed hatchlings out on
to the palm leaves outside the pool with her
snout. RW picked up a hatchling and on hear-
ing its distress cry the female charged and
bit the tree behind which he stood.

At 0950 the male was with the hatchlings
in the main pond and the female in the adja-
cent pond. The female picked up a hatchling
in her mouth and carried it to the main pond,
shaking it out of her mouth where the other
hatchlings were grouped (J. Vijaya, pers.
comm.).

At 1010 she went again to her nest (possibly
in response to a call) and dug with her front
and (less often) hind feet. She moved clock-
wise over her nest, sometimes putting her nose
in and biting clods of earth.

An egg was removed with the jaws, jerked
back, and gently punctured by the front teeth.
The hatchling slipped into the buccal pouch,
squirming. She brought it, tail visible between
her teeth, to the pond. It was observed that
the hatchlings spent the first day almost entirely
on dry land.

At 1100 another hatchling was picked up
at the nest and brought to the same spot next
to the pond.

313

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Bone (1943) reports hearing baby mugger
calling for “several days” from inside a nest.
Neill (1971) reports that the grunt or distress
cry of a juvenile will summon an adult but
dismisses as folklore the idea that the mother
crocodile responds to the call of the hatchlings
and digs them out. Campbell (1973) discusses
the probable significance of hatchling vocali-
zation and its importance in attracting the
mother at hatching time.

Table 11

Vernacular names of mugger

Language

Place

Vernacular name(s)

Urdu

Pakistan

Baghori, maggar

Hindustani

North India

Maggar mach

Bihari Hindi

Bihar

Bocha

Bengali

West Bengal

Kumeer

Tamil

Tamil Nadu

Mothalay

Telugu

Andhra Pradesh Mosalay

Kannada

Karnataka

Mosalay

Singhalese

Sri Lanka

Hale kimbula,

gette kimbula

Creche formation and defence of young

At MSP 13 hatchlings remained in the
group or creche initially formed by the female
for two months. They stayed with the male
and female for 12 months through the next
breeding season and no aggression toward the
young on the part of either was observed.
Groups of hatchlings were reported several
times by fishermen and others and one creche
group of 17 mugger hatchlings was found at
Kedarhalla (Whitaker and Whitaker 1976).

At MCB during capture of hatchlings from
an undetected nest, a mature male and female
and a sub-adult male made repeated lunges
and charges at the keepers and demonstrated
a fierce defence of the hatchlings.

Both females and males respond to the juve-

nile distress cry. At MSP a hatchling was held
near the enclosure and its distress cry brought
a female charging out of the water and almost
over the 1.5m wall. Wild mugger, apparently
of both sexes, responded to mimicked distress
cries by approaching, leaving the water and
charging.

Reddy (1978) reports 15 hatchlings eaten
by the parent male and female at Indira
Gandhi Zoological Park. This behaviour could
have resulted from stress in confined quarters.
Conservation

MCB has been established with help from
the World Wildlife Fund, New York Zoologi-
cal Society, Tamil Nadu State Government,
West German Reptile Leather Association and
MSP Trust. It is self sustaining by tourism,
and is a trust for the breeding, rearing
and supply of live crocodiles for restocking
and captive breeding programmes in India.
Since its beginning in 1974 the Bank has
accumulated breeding stock from captive
sources, reared 250 mugger from wild collect-
ed eggs and produced 1100 mugger from cap-
tive breeding. 500 juvenile mugger (mostly one
to two year old) have been supplied to seve-
ral state governments for rearing and/or re-
lease.

The UNDP /FAQ /Government of India
crocodile programme has resulted in the for-
mation of 10 protected habitats specifically for
crocodilians, with 4 states involved in egg
collection, rearing and release piojects. At
present about 800 mugger are being reared
for release mainly in Tamil Nadu, Gujarat
and Andhra Pradesh. To date about 650
have been released in separate habitats.

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank the staff of the
MCB and MSP Trusts for their support

314

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE MUGGER

and participation in these studies. The
cooperation of the Forest Departments of
Tamil Nadu State and Gujarat State is
gratefully acknowledged. We thank Binod
Choudhury and E. Mahadev for their participa-
tion in egg collection. Allen Vaughan, MCB

Manager, J. Vijaya and Bob Larson collected
the captive breeding data for 1979 and 1980.
We are grateful to Alistair Graham for assist-
ance with the manuscript and are deeply in-
debted to Jeff Lang for guiding its shape
and format.

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316

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE MUGGER

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317

MORPHOLOGICAL STUDIES ON THE SYCONIA OF
FICUS BEN GALEN SIS LINN.1

R. Xndra2

AND

K. V. Krishnamurthy3
(With four text figures)

The morphology of the syconia of Ficus bengalcnsis collected during July and
November has been studied. There are male, female and gall flowers in syconia of
both months but in July syconia two types of gall flowers are observed. The first type
of gall flowers are smaller and enclose species of Blastophaga, v/hile the second type
are larger and enclose wasps which resembled species of Apocrypta. Unlike other
species, the male flowers are not restricted to the proximity of the ostiole but are
found here and there throughout the floor of the syconium. The results are dis-
cussed in relation to the previous observations on other species of figs.

Introduction

The genus Ficus, commonly known as the
Fig, is characterised by the specialised type of
inflorescence called Syconium (or Hypantho-
dium) which develops into a compound fruit.

Because of their peculiar morphology, the
syconia of figs have attracted the attention of
a number of researchers who have studied
their constitution, development and pollination
biology (Galil and Eisikowitch 1968a, 1968b,

1969, 1974 and Galil and Yehudit Snitzer
Pasternak 1970, Johri and Konar 1955, 1956).

Special attention has been paid especially to
the pollination biology of the figs and their
pollinating insects like species of Apocrypta,

Blastophaga and Sycophaga. A careful re-
view of the previous literature indicates that
not much work has been done on Ficus

1 Accepted July 1982.

2 Seethalakshmi Ramaswami College,

Tiruchirapalli-620 002.

3 Bharathidasan University,

Tiruchirapalli-620 020.

bengalensis L. which is a common species in
India.

There also exists a lot of variations and con-
fusions regarding the occurrence, location and
distribution of the male, female, neutral and
gall flowers in the syconia collected at different
periods of the year. The object of the pre-
sent study is to investigate the morphology
of syconia and its constituent flowers in Ficus
bengalensis.

Observations

The sessile syconia occur in pairs in the
axils of leaves. There are 3 rounded bracts
which become quite prominent and spreading
at the base of each syconium and these bracts
are glabrous, coriacious at the maturity of
syconia. The syconia when very young are
green but change to orange colour after a
long time only to become red at maturity.
The mature fruits range from 17-20 mm in
diameter. There is also a change in shape
of the inflorescence from the triangular to the
rounded shape during development.

318

SYCONIA OF FICUS BENGALENSIS

Ostiole : Each syconium has an ostiole at
its free end (Fig. 2D). Its position could be
made out as a circular mark. But the opening
becomes very conspicuous only during the
ripening of the syconia, not only by an in-
crease in its diameter but also by its rising
above the surface of the syconia. The ostiole
is lined internally by scales of different types.

There are about 10-14 hard triangular
scales with rounded bases nearer towards the
outer opening of the ostiole and these scales
are so closely arranged that nothing could
find its way out. But with the enlargement of
the syconia these scales loosen to make an
opening. These scales have their epidermal
cells in the upper part drawn out into small
elongated hair like structures whereas the
basal part is devoid of these structures
(Fig. 1A). Away from the external opening
of the ostiole, are elongated hard scales which
form the second category (Fig. IB).

Flowers : The syconia consist of male,

female and gall flowers. Of the two crops

Fig. 1. A — Triangular scale found at the ostiolar
region. B — Scale found away from the external
opening of the ostiole.

of syconia collected, one in November and
the other in July, we could observe two differ-
ences: (1) the number of male flowers in the
syconia collected in November is slightly
more than that of the other. (2) In the
syconia collected in July a few quite unusually
large gall flowers along with the other usual
type of flowers are observed.

Fig. 2. A — Group of exceptionally large gall flowers.
B — Stages in the development of exceptionally
large gall flowers.

Abbreviations : E. H. — Exit hole, I — Insect. C —
A group of female flowers forming Synstigam (SS).
D — L.S. of Syconium. O — Ostiole, S — Staminate
flower.

(a) Male flowers : Male flowers are distri-
buted here and there throughout the floor of
the syconia (Fig. 2D). The number of male
flowers per syconium is considerably less
when compared to that of the female and
gall flowers. All the male flowers are more
or less of the same size. Each flower is
bracteate and pedicellate, the pedicel being
very long. Three perianth lobes arise at the
end of the pedicel, enclosing the single
stamen (Fig. 3A), The perianth is polyphyl-
lous with imbricate aestivation. Each flower
has a short, thick filament dilated at the apex

319

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 81

where the dithecous anther is embedded along
its vertical thecae. The anthers open by
longitudinal slits.

(b) Female flowers : The female flowers

are of the following types: (1) Nearly half
the number of female flowers of the syconium
are sessile or almost sessile, with compara-
tively long styles (Fig. 3B). All these flowers
are well developed. The length of the style
varies from 2-3 mm. These flowers are
bracteate with 3 polyphyllous and imbricate
perianth enclosing the ovary at its base. Style
is lateral. (2) The second type of flowers

Fig. 3. A — Staminate flower.
Abbreviations : A — Anther, B — Bract, P — Pedi-
cel, T — Tepal.

B — Sessile and long styled female flower.
Abbreviations : B — Bract, O — Ovule, S — Stigma,
T — Tepal.

C & D. — Pedicellate and short styled flower.
Abbreviations : B — Bract, O — Ovule, P — Pedicel,
S — Stigma, T — Tepal.

are pedicellate and have comparatively shorter
styles (0.5-1 mm), (Fig. 3C, D). All inter-
mediate forms with respect to style length
are found. All these flowers have the same
number of free perianth lobes enclosing
ovaries with lateral styles. In this second
category a few flowers are underdeveloped.
These flowers in whose ovary parts the insects
lay their eggs, hatch and develop into adults
which escape through apical pores made by them
on the ovary. As these different types of female
flowers intermingle, the styles of these flowers
become interlaced and stuck together, espe-
cially at their stigmatic level forming a
compound or syn-stigma (Fig. 2C).

Fig. 4. A — Blastophaga quadruticeps — Adult in-
sect. B — Apocrypta sp. — Adult insect.

320

SYCONIA OF FICUS BENGALENSIS

(c) Unusually large gall flowers : In syconia
collected in July a variable number of large,
very distinct gall flowers are found in addition
to the usual sized gall flowers (Fig. 2A). They
are without perianth and largely distinct from
other flowers in having a more or less spheri-
cal upper part borne on a hard stalk. The
hardness is evident in such flowers even at
younger stages of development. As they
develop (Fig. 2B), their colour changes from
whitish to pale brownish and the outer surface
of the flowers becomes slightly crinkled. They
all enclose insects which at maturation escape
out through an opening, much in the same
way as in the other type of gall flowers.
After the insect leaves the flowers, the flower
becomes still harder and the colour becomes
dark brown (Fig. 2B).

Gall insects : The insects collected from the
syconia were found to be of two different
types. One type of insect resembles Blasto-
phaga quadruticeps (Fig. 4A) where sexual
dimorphism is exhibited. The males are
wingless whereas the females are winged with
a long filament at the posterior end. The
other insect resembles the species of the genus
Apocrypta (Fig. 4B) whose males do not
have the filament. Careful studies indicate
that the unusually large sized gall flowers
harbour the metamorphic stages of Apocrypta
while the other type of gall flowers seem to
have Blastophaga.

Discussion

The distribution of male flowers in the
syconium has been a matter of discussion in
the past literature. In Ficus religiosa investi-
gated by Johri and Konar (1955, 1956) there
are 11-19 male flowers distributed nearer to
the ostiole region of the syconium. In syconia
of the same species (Galil & Eisiko witch

1968a), collected at Israel, there are only
9-12 male flowers, but their distribution is the
same as in Indian syconia recorded by Johri
and Konar (1956). In Ficus syconiosus
also the male flowers are distributed nearer to
the ostiole (Galil & Eisikowitch 1968b). In
the syconia of F. bengalensis investigated at
present, the male flowers are scattered through-
out the floor of the syconium and are not
restricted to the ostiolar proximity. This is
true of syconia collected both during July
and November. In November syconia there
are more number of male flowers than in
July syconia.

The present study is able to confirm the
presence of different types of female flowers
within the same syconium recorded earlier for
other species of Ficus. The sessile long
styled ones form the one extreme and the
pedicelled short styled ones form the other
extreme. All intergrades in stylar length
could be observed. The present study con-
firms the earlier observations on other species
that the long styled sessile flowers are gene-
rally the seed flowers while the pedicellate
short styled ones invariably develop into gall
flowers. The occasional development of short
styled ones into fruiting stage and the long
styled ones into gall flowers, indicates that
there is no fundamental distinction between
female and gall flowers, a fact already stressed
by Johri and Konar (1956), and Galil and
Eisikowitch (1968b) for other species.

The presence of two types of gall flowers
is a significant point of discussion. One type
of gall flower is found both in the July and
November syconia, while the other is observed
only in July syconia. The latter type is un-
usually large, whitish to start with but be-
coming brownish at maturity, has fairly long
and thick pedicels, perianth lobes could not
be detected in it. It also contains different

321

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

type of gall wasp resembling the genus
Apocrypta while the other type of gall flower
encloses Blastophaga species. Although the
presence of more than a single gall wasp in
the syconium of a few other species (see
Galil and Eisikowitch 1968a) is recorded, as
far as we are aware of, it has not been recorded
in F. bengalensis. This complicates the polli-

R E FE R

Galil, J. & Eisikowitch, D. (1968a) : On the
pollination ecology of Ficus religiosa in Israel.
Phytomorphology 18 : 356-363.

(1968b) : Flowering cycles and fruit

types of Ficus sycomorus. New Phytol. 67 : 745-
758.

(1969): Further studies on the pollination

ecology of Ficus sycomorus L. (Hymenoptera,
Chalcidoidea, Agonidae). Tijid. Voor Ent. 112 :
1-13.

(1974) : Further studies on pollination

ecology in Ficus sycomorus II. Pock filling and
emptying by Ceratosolen arabicus Mayr. New

nation ecology of this species.

Acknowledgement

We are indebted to Prof. K. Peria-
samy of Bharathidasan University, Tiruchira-
palli, for helpful discussions and encourage-
ment.

e n c e s

Phytol. 73 : 515-528.

Galil, J. & Yehudit Snitzer Pasternak (1970):
Pollination in Ficus religiosa L. as connected with
the structure and mode of action of the pollen
pockets of Blastophaga quadriticeps Mayr. ibid. 69:
775-784.

Johri, B. M. & Konar, R. N. (1955) : A contribu-
tion to the morphology and embryology of Ficus
religiosa Linn. Curr. Sci. 24 : 382-385.

(1956) : The floral morphology and

embryology of Ficus relgiiosa Linn. Phytomorpho-
logy 6 : 97-111.

322

DISTRIBUTION OF DROSOPHILA SPECIES AND THEIR
DIVERSITIES IN THE TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS OF

WESTERN GHATS1

H. 8. Prakash and G. Sreerama Reddy2
{With a text-figure)

The studies on the Brosophilid fauna of the tropical rain forests of Western Ghats
have revealed the occurrence of 40 species representing four genera namely Droso-
phila, Scaptomyza, Phorticella and Leucophenga. Majority of the species collected
belong to the genus Drosophila while only three species belong to the latter three
genera. The members of the genus Drosophila are shared by four subgenera namely
Sophophora, Drosophila, Scaptodrosophila and Dorsilopha, of which the former two
include the major bulk of 98.6% of the total population. The analysis of Drosophila
fauna has revealed six new species namely D. giriensis, D. jagri, D. sahyadrii, D.
agumbensis, D. nagerholensis and D. gundensis; and three new records namely D.
elegans, D. rhopaloa and D. grandis, as well as several others which are not reported
from plains of Peninsula indicating the diversity in the species composition.

The collection localities were found to vary a great deal in the composition and
in the relative concentration of different species. Only two species namely
D. malerkatliana and D. nasuta were found to be abundant at almost all the
collection localities and can be adjudged as ecologically versatile. Another species
D. immigrans which was not reported from the semiwiid and domestic localities of
Peninsular India was observed in large numbers in four of the eight localities
indicating its preference to moist and humid climatic conditions. Similarly,

D. pimjabiensis which was occasionally reported from the semiwild localities was
noticed in considerable numbers in three of the eight localities. Other species
were found to be represented in low to moderate numbers.

The sympatric association and ecological dominance of the members belonging to
melanogaster and immigrans species group of two different subgenera, Sophophora
and Drosophila in the area under investigation, the wide spread and endemic charac-
ters of the Drosophila species and the finding of six new species as well as three new
reports encountered in the collection are discussed.

Introduction

The Drosophilidae is a large family of flies
of world-wide distribution. About half of the
known species belong to the very large genus
Drosophila. It is known to contain more than

1 Accepted September 1980.

2 Department of Post-Graduate Studies and Re-
search in Zoology, University of Mysore, Manasa-
gangotri, Mysore 570 006, India.

323

1,300 biologically valid species (Bock and
Parsons 1978). They have been categorised
into nine subgenera namely, Sophophora,
Drosophila, Hirtodrosophila, Scaptodrosophila,
Dorsilopha, Siphlodora, Sordophila, Phloridosa
and Engiscaptomyza. However, only the first
four subgenera contain a substantial number
of species which are generally regarded as
representing major bursts in speciation.
Parallel with the development of genetical and

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

evolutionary knowledge, taxonomic studies in
the genus have advanced a great deal in the
past few decades. As a result of this, several
new species are constantly being described and
the total size of the genus must consist of at
least 2,000 species (Stone et al. 1960).

The Indian sub-continent with its diverse
climatic and varied physiographic conditions
provides large number of natural environs for
colonization by the members of the genus
Drosophila. However, a vast area of great
ecological interest still awaits exploration.
Reference to literature reveals that very little
information is available on several aspects of
Drosophila biology. Inspite of the striking pro-
gress made during the last few years (Parshad
and Paika 1964, Parshad and Duggal 1965, 1966;
Rahman and Singh 1969, Gupta and Ray-
Chaudhuri 1970a, b, c; Singh 1970, 1972; Jha,
Mishra and Singh 1971, Reddy and Krishna-
murthy 1971, 1974, 1977; Vaidya and God-
bole 1971, 1972, 1973, 1976; Godbole and
Vaidya 1972; Ranganath and Krishnamurthy
1972; Siddaveere Gowda and Krishnamurthy
1972; Gupta 1973, 1974; Siddaveere Gowda
et al. 1977 and Gupta and Singh 1977), in-
formation pertaining to the occurrence and
the pattern of distribution of Drosophilid
fauna in various parts of the country is not
clearly understood. Judging from the reports
of Drosophila taxonomy from other parts of
the world, it appears that the number of
species reported thus far from the Indian sub-
continent is too small and does not reflect the
true picture of Drosophila fauna. Until re-
cently almost nothing was known of Droso-
phila inhabiting the tropical rain forests of
Western Ghats extending from river Tapti to
Cape Comorin (Peninsular India). In view
of this we have chose the unexplored
areas of the tropical rain forests of Western
Ghats to get an insight into the diversity in

Drosophila species, their relative abundance
and their dependance on the rain forest type
of vegetation as well as their ecodistributional
pattern of different species inhabiting this
region.

Materials and Methods

Drosophila collections were made during the
monsoon periods of 1976, 1977 and 1978
from eight localities of the tropical rain
forests of Western Ghats (Fig. 1). The gene-
ral ecogeographical features of the area under
investigation as well as the topographical
features and the climatic factors of eight
localities are briefly described below.

Ecogeographical features of Western Ghats

Western Ghats extend along the western
side of Peninsular India, from the mouth of
the river Tapti to Cape Comorin. They in-
clude the humid belt of hilly or mountainous
country. The vegetation of this part of the
country is influenced more by the abun-
dance and distribution of the seasonal rainfall
than the atmospheric temperature. The
western side of the Western Ghats is on the
threshold of southwest monsoon and receives
the maximum rainfall whereas, the eastern
side lies in the rain-shadow area of the hills.
The main types of soils met with in
the Western Ghats are red, laterite,

and black soils. Shifting cultivation, grazing
and indiscriminate lopping have result-
ed in the destruction of some of the
virgin forests, which now survive only in some
of the inaccessible mountain summit areas.
Introduction of plantation crops like tea,
coffee, rubber and extension of teak in south-
ern regions of Western Ghats and cultivation
of Eucalyptus especially in Nilgiri have also
resulted in the destruction of large virgin

324

DISTRIBUTION OF DROSOPHILA SPECIES

Sahyadri Wills A oshimoga

Jagra valley

Cape Comorin

Fig. 1. Map of Peninsular India illustrating eight localities of Western Ghats from

which Drosophila collections were made \ ).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, -Vol 81

forests. Construction of large number of
hydro-electric projects resulting in the sub-
mersion of catchment areas have further ac-
celerated regressive changes in the forest
flora of the region.

The most outstanding feature of Western
Ghats is the development of the tropical rain
forests prominently seen on the windward
side of the southern part, usually between the
altitudes of 500 to 1500 m. The humid
tropic belt of Western Ghats possesses the
following forest types : 1. tropical moist deci-
duous, 2. tropical semievergreen, and 3. tro-
pical evergreen. According to Richards
(1952) (cf. Subramanyam and Nayar 1974),
tropical rain forests have no marked summer
and winter seasons, but only wet and dry
seasons. The seasonal changes of tempera-
ture are quite insignificant in relation to the
seasonal variations in rainfall. The forests
are characterised by multistoried canopies of
vegetation and the various synusiae like :
1. trees and shrubs, 2. herbs, 3. climbers,
4. stranglers and 5. epiphytes. The ground
layer and the trees themselves are carpeted
with mosses, ferns, orchids and lichens and
thus form a characteristic biological spectrum
providing large number of natural environs
for the colonization of the members of the
genus Drosophila. Subramanyam and Nayar
(1974) have divided the Western Ghats into
four phytogeographical regions, namely :
1. the Western Ghats from the river Tapti
to Goa, 2. the Western Ghats from the river
Kalinadi to Coorg, 3. the Nilgiri and 4. the
Anamalai, Palni and Cardamom Hills.

1. Western Ghats from the river Tapti to Goa

This botanical division is dominated by
mountain chains, rising to 1000 m abruptly
within a short distance of 2-3 km and is
characterised by deep ravines, canyons and

flat-topped spurs intersected by valleys. It
receives the full blast of the monsoon rainfall
from June to September. The vegetation
consists of dry deciduous, moist deciduous
and evergreen forests. However, Qureshi
(1965) remarks that the evergreen forests
occurring in this region are not typical tropi-
cal evergreen forests. Hence they are classi-
fied as montane subtropical evergreen forests.
Drosophila collection was made at one loca-
lity namely Khandala Ghats.

Khandala Ghats are located between Poona
and Bombay, situated at 19° 0 ’N latitude and
73° 10’E longitude. The temperature ranges
from 14°C to 30°C, with a relative humidity
of 65% to 30%. The average annual rainfall
is about 3,950 mm. Collections were made
at various altitudes of 760-790 m.

2. Western Ghats from the river Kalinadi to

Coorg

This region is marked by a series of
breaches in the mountain wall by the rivers
Kalinadi, Gangavali Bedti, Tadri and Shara-
vati. The access to the interior is not easy,
since the valleys are surrounded by deep
gorges 3-5 km across and 300 m deep. The
entire area is hot and humid. The heavy
rainfall favours thick tropical forest growth
with best teak plantations in the upper ever-
green zone. The main types of vegetation
observed here are scrub, moist deciduous and
evergreen forests. Five localities namely
Sahyadri Hills’ range, Agumbe, Jagra Valley,
Rababudangiri and Kemmangundi Hills’
range and Nagarhole were chosen to analyse
the Drosophila fauna. The brief description
of these localities are as follows :

i) Sahyadri Hills' range extends towards
the western side of Shimoga and situated at
13° 45’N latitude and 74° 48’E longitude.
It has an average annual rainfall of about

326

DISTRIBUTION OF DROSOPHILA SPECIES

2,978 mm. The temperature ranges from
18°C to 32°C, with a relative humidity of
60% to 81%. The altitudes of the collection
sites range from 590 to 710 m.

ii) Agumbe is located to the southwest of
Shimoga and situated at 13° 18’N latitude and
74° 38' E longitude. It receives very heavy
rainfall with an annual average of 8,275 mm.
Because of the heavy rainfall it is called
‘Cheera PunjT of South India. This has con-
tributed to the growth of dense forest in the
locality. The temperature ranges from 17°C
to 31°C with a relative humidity of 70% to
90%. The altitudes of the collection sites
range from 760 to 800 m.

iii) Jagra Valley is situated at a distance
of 50 km to the west of Chikmagalur and
located at 13° 10’N latitude and 75° 45’E
longitude. It has an average annual rainfall
of about 2,160 mm. The temperature ranges
from 16°C to 30°C, with a relative humidity
of 75% to 90%. Collections were made at
various altitudes of 700-780 m.

iv) Bababudanglri and Kemmangundi Hills ’
range is a picturesque place of Western Ghats
situated at 13° 17’E latitude and 75° 45’E
longitude. The average annual rainfall is
about 2,856 mm. The' temperature ranges
from 12°C to 32°C, with a relative humidity
of 76% to 93%. The altitudes of the collec-
tion sites range from 1000 to 1600 m. Many
of the hills are covered with heavy forests,
while valleys and ravines produce luxuriant
trees known for their great height and size.

v) N agar hole is about 75 km to the west
of Mysore City and situated at 12° 18’N
latitude and 70° 09’E longitude. It has an
average annual rainfall of 1,6 10 mm. The
temperature ranges from 18°C to 30°C with
a relative humidity of 55% to 80%. The
altitudes of the collection sites range from
760 to 790 m.

3. The Nil girl Hills

Nilgiri forms a compact plateau with the
highest elevation of 2,670 m at Doddabetta
and dissected much-worn massif, with steep
hills and rolling downs, interspersed with shola
forests. The forest is evergreen, composed
of tropical and sub-tropical vegetation. The
sholas are characteristically filled with ever-
green forests with thick undergrowth. Droso-
phila collection was made at one locality
namely Kotagiri.

Kotagiri is about 25 km to the southeast
of Ootacamund and situated at 11° 22’N
latitude and 77° 05’E longitude. The average
annual rainfall is about 1,524 mm. The
temperature ranges from 12°C to 30°C, with
a relative humidity of 70% to 85%. The
altitudes of the collection sites range from
1400 to 1960 m.

4. The Anamalai, Cardamom and Palni

Hills

The topography of this region is remark-
ably more complex than the Nilgiris. They
have the highest peak of 2,695 m in the
Peninsula. In the northwest, the hills fray
out into long southeast-northwest ridges. The
types of vegetation on these hills are dry
deciduous type at the lower elevations with
an annual rainfall ranging from 1600-2600
mm; and moist deciduous type between the
altitudes of 500-900 m with a rainfall from
2400-3500 mm. The wet evergreen forest
types are also seen on elevations ranging from
500-2500 m along the windward side of the
Western Ghats, where the rainfall ranges
from 2500 to 5000 mm. Drosophila collec-
tions were made at one locality namely
Anamalai Hills.

Anamalai Hill range is situated at 10°
24’N latitude and 76° 40°E longitude. The

327

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

average annual rainfall is about 4,000 mm. The
temperature ranges from 12°C to 30°C, with
a relative humidity of 80% to 90%. The
altitudes of the collection sites range from
800 to 2,400 m. The collections were made
mostly in moist deciduous type and wet ever-
green forests.

Collection methods

Drosophila collections were made at five
sites in each of the eight localities except for
Bababudangiri and Kemmangundi Hills’ range
where 12 sites v/ere selected. The sites chosen
are 5-10 km apart and have at least one
element in common and that is shade from
the direct sun rays. Collections were carried
out by using 10 traps (250 ml milk bottles)
at each site, enabling the comparison of
quantitative differences among the sites to be
made. The conventional bait such as fer-
menting banana fruit, a technique successful
for most Indian species of the subgenera
Sophophora and Drosophila, but less so for
species of the other subgenera was employed.
Occasionally, sweeping off foliage and leaf
litter was made, which was found to be
successful for the members of the subgenera
Scaptodrosophila and Drosophila.

Bottles containing bait were tied up to the
branches of trees and bushes in the vicinity of
permanent water or moisture. Away from
moist area, especially in dry weather, the
yield of flies was consistently low. Members
of the genus Drosophila have been shown to
be very sensitive to desiccation and high tempe-
rature stresses (Parsons 1977), so that on
sunny days flies are usually found in cool,
damp shaded microniches. Bottles were collect-
ed after two days during cooler hours of the
day. The collected flies were sorted out,
categorized and number of each species was

recorded. The individual females which
could not be assigned to any taxonomic group
were isolated and allowed to breed in separate
vials with a standard Drosophila food medium.
The progenies of such gravid females were
used for detailed studies to assign them to
their respective groups.

Observations

The occurrence, distributional pattern and
the relative abundance of the species collected
in each of the eight localities of four phyto-
geographical regions of Western Ghats are
presented below :

1. Western Ghats from the river Tapti to Goa

Khandala Ghats : A survey of Drosophila

fauna of this locality yielded a total of 2,660
flies comprising of 1 1 species representing
four subgenera, Sophophora, Drosophila,
Scaptodrosophila and Dorsilopha of the genus
Drosophila. The number of individuals of
different species collected at five sites along
with their respective altitudes are given in
table 1. Of the 11 species collected, D. maler-
kot liana and D. punjabiensis were found to
dominate the collections with a total of 111
(29.2%) and 698 (26.2%) flies respectively.
D. jambulina and D. nasuta were next to them
with 342 (12.9%) and 301 (11.3%) flies res-
pectively. Two other species, D. bipectinata
and D. rajasekari with 177 (6.7%) and 122
(4.2%) individuals respectively were found
in moderate numbers in the collections. The
above six species were noticed in almost all
the sites scanned. While other species such
as D. takahashii, D. neonasuta, D. brindavani,
D. krishnamurthyi and D. busckii were less
common and comprise only about 9.5% of
the total flies collected.

328

DISTRIBUTION OF DROSOPHILA SPECIES

Table 1

Distribution of different species of Drosophila in khandala ghats (western ghats)

Collection Site

Total

Altitude (in metres)

760

770

780

790

Subgenus : Sophophora
D. takahashii

D. rajasekari

112

D. malerkotliana

254

157

206

102

777

D. bipectinata

—

177

D. punjabiensis

243

259

698

D. jambulina

120

342

Subgenus: Drosophila

D. nasuta

301

D. neonasuta

—

D. brindavani

—

Subgenus: Scaptodrosophila

D. krishnamurthyi

Subgenus: Dorsilopha

D. busckii

—

Total

499

424

508

643

586

2660

Number of species

2. Western Ghats from the

river

Kalinadi to

moderate frequencies of

109 (7.1%)

and 88

Coorg

i) Sahyadri Hills’ range : The population

sample of this locality yielded a total of 1,531
flies comprising 10 species representing two
subgenera, Sophophora and Drosophila of the
genus Drosophila. The distributional pattern
and the relative numbers of the species collec-
ted along with the altitudes of the collection
sites are shown in table 2. The number of
individuals of different species vary a great
deal from one site to another. Of the 10
species collected, only two namely D. maler-
kotliana and D. nasuta with 678 (44.3%) and
433 (28.3%) flies respectively were found to
dominate in all the sites forming more than
2/3 of the total flies trapped. Two other
species, D. anomelani and D. bipectinata were
also observed in almost all the sites with

(5.7%) individuals respectively. The remain-
ing six species namely D.takahashii, D. eugra-
cilis, D. sahyadrii sp. nov., D. mysorensis, D.
agumbensis sp. nov. and D. neonasuta were
less common and contribute only about 14.6%
to the total population. A noteworthy feature
of this locality is that there is a gradual transi-
tion of scrub type of vegetation to evergreen
flora in east-west direction making the sites
increasingly favourable for the colonization of
Drosophila. This is reflected by the increase
in the variety and the relative numbers of
different species collected in east- west direc-
tion (table 2).

ii) Agumbe : The population sample of

this locality is comparatively small, with a
total of 1,170 individuals consisting of 12
species representing three subgenera, Sopho-
phora, Drosophila and Scaptodrosophila of the

329

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Table 2

Distribution of different species of Drosophila in sahyadri fulls’ range (western ghats)

Collection Site

III

Altitude (in metres)

590

620

650

690

710

Total

Subgenus: Sophophora
D. takahashii

D. eu gracilis

—

D. sahyadrii sp. nov.

—

D. malerkotliana

194

160

230

678

D. bipectinata

—

D. anomelani

109

D. my s or crisis

—

D. agumbensis sp. nov.

—

Subgenus: Drosophila
D. nasuta

182

433

D. neonasuta

—

Total

143

178

328

554

1531

Number of species

Distribution

OF DIFFERENT

Table 3

species of Drosophila in

AGUMBE (WESTERN GHATS)

Collection Site

III

Altitude (in metres)

760

770

785

790

800

Total

Subgenus: Sophophora

D. eu gracilis

D. pseudoananassae

—

D. malerkotliana

105

339

D bipectinata

—

D. anomelani

140

D. montium

—

D. rhopaloa

—

D. agumbensis sp. nov.
Subgenus: Drosophila

—

D. nasuta

278

D. neonasuta

D. grand is

Subgenus: Scaptodrosophila

—

“

—

D. mundagenesis

Total

279

275

162

177

277

1170

Number of species

330

DISTRIBUTION OF DROSOPHILA SPECIES

genus Drosophila. The collection data along
with the altitudes of the sites are shown in
table 3. The low yield of flies from this
locality was due to the disturbance caused by
the heavy rainfall at the time of collection.
Of the 12 species, only three, namely D.
malerkotliana with 339 (29%), D. nasuta with
278 (23.8%) and D. anomelani with 140
(12%) individuals were found to dominate in
all the sites scanned. The remaining nine
species namely D. eugracilis, D. pseudoan-
anassae, D. bipectinata, D. agumbensis sp. nov.,
D. montium, D. rhopaloa, D. neonasuta, D.
grandis and D. mundagenesis were found in
moderate frequencies and form the rest of
the population sampled.

iii) Jagra Valley : Analysis of the Droso-

phila sample of 1,537 flies from this locality
revealed the occurrence of 13 species repre-
senting only two subgenera, Sophophora and

Drosophila of the genus Drosophila. The
number of individuals of each species collected
and the altitudes of the collection sites are
shown in table 4. Nine of the 13 species
observed, belong to the subgenus Sophophora
and four to the subgenus Drosophila. Five
species namely D. malerkotliana (289 or
18.8%), D. immigrans (232 or 15.1%), D.
anomelani (220 or 14.4%), D. mysorensis
(200 or 13%) and D. nasuta (184 or 12%)
were found to be present in all the sites
forming the major bulk of the total population
with 73.3%. While the remaining species
such as D. jagri sp. nov., D. eugracilis, D.
bipectinata, D. jambulina, D. gundensis sp.
nov., D. neonasuta and D. nigra were observed
in moderate numbers in some sites contri-
buting to the rest of the collection.

iv) Bababudangiri and Kemmangundi Hills’
range : Analysis of the population sample

Table 4

Distribution of different species of Drosophila in jagra valley (western ghats)

Collection Site

III

Altitude (in metres)

720

745

755

765

780

Total

Subgenus: Sophophora

D. takahashii

—

D. jagri sp. nov.

—

D. eugracilis

—

D. malekotliana

289

D. bipectinata

—

* 3

D. jambulina

—

D. anomelani

220

D. mysorensis

200

D. gundensis sp. nov.

—

Subgenus: Drosophila

D. neonasuta

184

D. neonasuta

—

102

D. immigrans

232

D. nigra

—

Total

329

268

298

330

312

1537

Number of species

331

Distribution cf different species of drosophilidae in bababudangiri and kemmangumdi hills’ range (western ghats)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

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DISTRIBUTION OF DROSOPHILA SPECIES

Table 6

Distribution of

DIFFERENT

species of Drosophda in

NAGARHOLE

(western ghats)

Collection Site

III

Total

Altitude (in metres)

760

765

780

790

Subgenus : Sophophora

D. takahashii

—

D. eugracilis

—

D. bipectinata

—

D. malerkotliana

118

227

549

D. punjabiensis

D. jambulina

125

D. kikkawai

—

D. anomelani

—

D. mysorensis

—

D. nagarholensis sp. nov.

—

Subgenus: Drosophila

D. nasuta

297

D. neonasuta

—

203

D. rep! eta

—

Subgenus: Scaptodrosophila

D. mundagenesis

—

D. meijerei indicus

—

Total

108

170

407

369

522

1576

Number of species

of this locality yielded a total of 2,415 flies
comprising 22 species, of which 21 belong
to three subgenera, Sophophora, Drosophila
and Scaptodrosophila of the genus Drosophila
and one to the genus Scaptomyza. The occur-
rence, distributional pattern and the relative
numbers of each of the species collected at
12 sites along with the respective altitudes of
the sites are shown in table 5. Among the
Drosophila species collected only four, namely
D. immi grans (581 or 24.1%), D. nasuta
(486 or 20.1%), D. mysorensis (383 or 15.9%)
and D. maler hot liana (220 or 9.1%) were
found to dominate the population of this loca-
lity forming nearly 70%. While three other
species namely D. rhopaloa (176 or 7.3%),
D. giriensis sp. nov. (157 or 6.5%) and D.
eugracilis (110 or 4.6%) were observed in

moderate numbers at some sites, and together
contribute 18.4% to the total. The remaining
14 species of the genus Drosophila namely
D. takahashii , D. suzukii, D. ananassae,
D. bipectinata, D. punjabiensis, D. jambulina,
D. anomelani, D. gundensis sp. nov., D. neona-
suta, D. brindavani, D. meijerei indicus, D.
mundagensis, species ‘U’ and species TV’ (un-
identified members of the genus Drosophila )
were found to occur in very low frequencies
at some sites, forming only 12.4% of the
total population. Scaptomyza elmoi, a mem-
ber of the genus Scaptomyza was represented
by only one individual in the collection.
Considerable variation in the species compo-
sition and the number of individuals of
different species was observed at different
sites.

333

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 81

v) N agar hole : Drosophila sample analysed
from this locality revealed a total of 1,576
flies comprising 15 species representing three
subgenera, Sophophora , Drosophila and Scap-
todrosophila of the genus Drosophila. Collec-
tion data along with the respective altitudes
of the sites are shown in table 6. Only four
species namely D. malerkotliana (549 or
34.3%), D. nasuta (297 or 18.9%), D. neona-
suta (203 or 12.9%) and D. jambulina (125
or 7.9%) form the major bulk with 74.5%
of the total population. The remaining
species namely D. takahashii, D. eugracilis,
D. bipectinata, D. punjabiensis, D. kikka-
wai, D. mysorensis, D. anomelani, D.
nagaraholensis sp. nov., D. repleta, D. munda-
gensis and D. meijerei indicus were found in
comparatively low frequencies and comprise
only about 25.5% of the total population.
Considerable variation in the species compo-
sition and the number of individuals was

noticed among the sites scanned in this
locality.

3. The Nilgiri Hills

Kotagiri : Drosophila survey of this loca-
lity yielded a total of 1,505 flies comprising 11
species representing two genera, Drosophila
and Phorticella. The occurrence and the re-
lative frequencies of the species collected along
with the respective altitudes of the sites are
shown in table 7. The collection record re-
veals considerable uniformity in the species
composition and the number of individuals
among the five sites. Only three species,
namely D. immigrans (598 or 39.7%), D.
malerkotliana (395 or 26.2%) and D. nasuta
(198 or 13.2%) were found to dominate with
79.1%. The other two species, D. kikkawai
(93 or 6.1%) and D. mysorensis (82 or 5.5%)
were found in all the sites. The remaining
five species, D. takahashii, D. elegans. D. anan-

Table 7

Distribution

OF DIFFERENT

SPECIES OF

DROSOPHILIDAE

IN KOTAGIRI

(western ghats)

Collection Site

III

Altitude (in metres)

1400

1660

1725

1830

1960

“■ lOldJ

Genus: Drosophila

Subgenus: Sophophora

D. takahashii

—

D. elegans

—

D. ananassae

—

D. malerkotliana

104

395

D. mysorensis

D. kikkawai

D. seguyi

—

Subgenus: Drosophila

D. nasuta

198

D. immigrans

121

146

153

598

D. nigra

—

■ —

Genus : Phorticella

Phorticella flavipennis

—

Total

281

244

305

330

345

1505

Number of species

334

DISTRIBUTION OF DROSOPHILA SPECIES

assae, D. seguyi and D. nigra were found in
moderate numbers at some sites and absent
from others. Only five individuals of P. flavi-
pennis were observed in two, of the five sites
scanned.

4. The Anamalai, Palni and Cardamom

Hills

Anamalai Hills range : A total of 1,461

flies examined from this locality was found to
comprise 12 species representing two genera.
Drosophila and Leucophenga. The distribu-
tional pattern and the numbers of each species
against the collection sites along with the
respective altitudes are shown in table 8. Of
the 12 species, only three namely D. immi-
grans (605 or 41.5%), D. malerkotliana (435
or 29.8%) and D. nasuta (156 or 10.7%)

were found to dominate the collection with
81.9% While the remaining eight species of
the genus Drosophila namely D. takahashii,
D. sazukii, D. eugracilis, D. kikkawai, D. rufa,
D. rhopaloa, D. repleta and D. busckii were
found in low frequencies and represent only
18% of the total population. Only two indi-
viduals of L. interrupta were observed in one
site, representing the genus Leucophenga .

The Drosophilid survey of the tropical rain
forests of Western Ghats in the aforemen-
tioned localities yielded a total of 13,855 flies
comprising 40 species representing four genera
namely Drosophila , Scaptomyza, Phorticella
and Leucophenga. Majority of the species
collected belong to the genus Drosophila,
while only three species belong to the latter
three genera. Further, the members belonging

Table 8

Distribution of different species of drosophilidae in anamalai hills’ range (western ghats)

Collection Site

III

Total

Altitude (in metres)

800

1360

1640

2100

2400

JL U L CXI

Genus: Drosophila
Subgenus: Sophophora

D. takahashii

—

D. sazukii

— .

—

D. eugracilis

—

D. malerkotliana

101

128

435

D. kikkawai

—

D. rufa

—

D. rhopaloa

—

Subgenus: Drosophila

D. nasuta

156

D. immi grans

131

125

183

605

D. repleta

—

Subgenus: Dorsilopha

D. busckii

—

Genus: Leucophenga

Leucophenga interrupta

—

Total

219

254

291

296

401

1461

Number of species

335

Table 9

Relative abundance of drosophilids in eight localities of western ghats

Khandala Sahyadri Agumbe Jagra Bababudangiri Nagar- Kotagiri Anam-alai

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

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DISTRIBUTION OF DROSOPHILA SPECIES

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Table 9

Relative abundance of drosophilids in eight localities of western ghats

Khandala

Sahyadri

Agumbe

Jagra

Bababudangiri

Nagar-

Kotagiri

Anamalai

Total

Localities

Ghats

Hills’

Valley

& Kemman-

hole

Hills’

range

gundi Hills'

range

Species
D. lakahasliii

399

D. giriensis*

—

157

—

157

D. jagri *

—

D. suzukii

—

D. rajasekari

112

—

112

D. sahyadri i*

—

D. clegans**

—

D. eugracilis

—

110

—

439

D. aiianassae

—

D. pscudoananassae

—

D. malerkoiliana

Ill

678

339

289

220

549

395

435

3682

D. bipcctinaia

177

—

534

D. punjabiensis

698

—

788

D. jambulina

342

—

125

—

516

D. anomelani

—

109

140

220

—

556

D. mysorensis

—

200

383

—

744

D. kikkawai

—

183

D. montium

—

D. rufa

—

D. seguyi

—

D. rhopaloa ••

—

176

—

257

D. gundensis •

—

Table

9 (Contd.)

Khandala

Sahyadri

Agumbe

Jagra

Bababudangiri

Nagar-

Kotagiri

Anamalai

Total

Hills’

Valley

& Kemman-

hole

Localities

range

gundi Hills'

range

Species

D. agumbensis*

D. nagarliolensis *

Species ■[/'*••

—

486

Species 'N'***

301

433

278

184

297

198

156

2333

475

2016

D. neonasula
D. immigrant
D. brindavani

102

232

581

203

598

605

D. rcplcla

—

D. nigra

—

D. grandis *•

—

D. meijerei indicas

—

D. mundagenesis

—

D. krishnamurthyi

—

D. busekii

—

Scapiomyza elmoi **

—

Lcucophenga interrupla

—

Phorticclla flavipcnnis * *

—

2660

1531

1170

1537

2415

1576

1505

1461

13855

Number of species

* New species; •• New reports; ••• Unidentified species.

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

to genus Drosophila are represented by four
subgenera namely Sophophora, Drosophila,
Scaptodrosophila and Dorsilopha, of which the
former two comprise the major bulk with
98.6% of the total population. The species
composition and the relative abundance of
different species in the localities under investi-
gation are summarised in table 9. The loca-
lities were found to differ a great deal in the
composition of the Drosophila species, inspite
of the similarities of the habitats in the environ-
mental factors such as temperature, humidity,
rainfall, vegetation, availability of food, etc.
Similarly, the variations in the number of indi-
viduals of different species was a common fea-
ture among the sites of any one locality (tables
1-8). Perusal of table 9 reveals that only 11
species namely D. malerkotliana, D. nasuta,
D. takahashii, D. eugracilis, D. bipectinata,
D. neonasuta, D. anomelani, D. mysorensis,
D. immigrans, D. jambulina and D. punjabien-
sis were found to occur in considerable num-
bers. Of these only two species D. malerkot-
liana and D. nasuta were observed in large
numbers in almost all the localities. In addi-
tion, D. immigrans was found to be another
abundant species in four of the eight loca-
lities. These three species contribute nearly
58.2 % to the total Drosophila sample analy-
sed. The remaining eight species contribute
32.2% to the total population. Thus the
above mentioned 11 species together comprise
90.4% of the total flies collected in the area,
while the remaining species of the Drosophila
sample were represented by only a few
individuals.

The occurrence and the distributional pat-
tern of Drosophilid species collected in the
present study is shown in table 10. The pat-
tern of distribution of different species was
found to vary a great deal. The abundant
species mentioned above, except D. punjabien -

sis, were found to be present in more than
four localities, while the others were observed
in less than four localities. Only two species
D. malerkotliana and D. nasuta were noticed
in all the localities. But D. takahashii was
observed in seven, D. eugracilis, D. bipectinata
and D. neonasuta in six, /). anomelani and
D. mysorensis in five, D. jambulina and D.
immigrans in four localities. Thus these
species which were observed in more than
four localities have been considered as more
or less widely distributed. The remaining
species which were observed in less than
four localities have been treated as sparsely
distributed.

Among the Drosophilids collected in the
present study, six species namely D. giriensis,
D. jagri, D. sahyadrii, D. agumbensis, D. naga -
raholensis and D. gundensis are new. In ad-
dition, three species D. elegans, D rhopaloa
and D. grandis of the genus Drosophila, one
species S. elmoi, a member of the genus
Scaptomyza, and another P. flavipennis, a
member of the genus Phorticella have been
collected for the first time from India. The
relative numbers and distributional pattern of
these species are shown in table 9 and 10.

Discussion

The study of evolution in any group of
animals or plants implies a knowledge of the
number and distribution of the species in-
volved and the population structure and habits
of the species in relation to their environment
(Heed 1957). Genus Drosophila with its
cosmopolitan nature and complexities in
species composition provides an excellent
material to understand the ecodistributional
pattern of various species. Systematic study
concerning the variations in species composi-
tion and the distributional pattern of the mem-

338

DISTRIBUTION OF DROSOPHILA SPECIES

Table 10

Distribution of drosophilids in eight localities of western ghats

Khandala

Ghats

Localities

Sahyadri

Hills’

range

Agumbe

Jagra

Valley

Bababudangiri Nagar-
& Kemman- hole

gundi Hills’
range

Kota-

giri

Anamalai

Hills’

range

Species

Genus: Drosophila

D. takahashii

—

D. giriensis*

—

D. jagri*

—

D. Suzuki

—

D. rajasekari

—

D. sahyadrii*

—

D. elegans**

—

D. eugracilis

—

D. ananassae

—

D. pseudoananassae

—

D. malerkotliana

D. bipectinata

—

D. punjabiensis

—

D. jambulina

—

D. anomelani

—

D. mysorensis

—

D. kikkawai

—

D. montium

—

D. rufa

—

D. seguyi

—

D. rhopaloa**

—

D. gundensis*

—

D. agumbensis*

—

D. nagarholensis

—

Species ‘17’***

—

Species TV’***

—

D. nasuta

D. neonasuta

—

D. immi grans

—

D. brindavani

—

D. repleta

—

D. nigra

—

D. grandis**

—

— _

—

D. meijerei indicus

—

D. mundagenesis

—

D. krishnamurthyi

—

D. busckii

—

339

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Table 10 ( Contd .)

Localities

Khandala

Ghats

Sahyadri Agumbe
Hills’
range

Jagra

Valley

Bababudangiri Nagar-
& Kemman- hole

gundi Hills’
range

Kota-

ghi

Anamalai

Hills’

range

Genus: Scaptomyza
S. elmoi**

.. . .

Genus: Leucophenga
L. interrupt a

Genus : Phorticella
P. flavipennis**

—

— —

—

— —

—

+ Species present; — Species absent; * New species; ** New reports;
*** Unidentified members of the genus Drosophila.

bers of this genus in different geographical re-
gions of the earth will enable one to under-
stand the principles underlying adaptive radia-
tion and certain mechanisms involved in speci-
ation. Reference to literature reveals that
Drosophila species are not evenly distributed
in nature. The occurrence and the distribu-
tional pattern can be correlated not only with
the type of vegetation and climatic conditions
of the area under consideration but also with
the colonizing abilities of the species con-
cerned.

The eight localities of Western Ghats from
which Drosophila samples were analysed exhi-
bit similarity in the habitats with more or less
uniform macro-environmental factors such as
temperature, humidity, rainfall, vegetation,
availability of food, etc. Inspite of this, the
localities differ from one another with regard
to the species composition and the number of
individuals of different species. Further signi-
ficant variation in the number of individuals
of different species was observed amongst the
sites chosen under study. These observed
differences in the faunal constellation of Dro-
sophila species among the sites of any one
locality and between the different localities

may be accounted for by the differences in the
micro-environmental factors.

Reddy and Krishnamurthy (1974), Sidda-
veere Gowda et al. (1977) have pointed out
that even though several species could be
collected in the orchards, gardens, plantations
and some forested areas of Peninsular India,
only four species namely D. malerkotliana, D.
nasuta , D. rajasekari and D. brindavani were
found to be dominant and more or less widely
distributed. But the present study on the
Drosophila fauna of tropical rain forests of
Western Ghats revealed a different picture in
the composition of the species. For instance,
only two species — D. malerkotliana and D.
nasuta were found to be distributed through-
out the range of Western Ghats dominating
other species in the collections. While the
other two species, D. rajasekari and D. brinda-
vani were shown to be present in only one or
two localities indicating their lack of com-
petence to colonize in the tropical rain forests.
Therefore, based on the distribution and the
dominance of the species in the natural
habitats of the Peninsula only two species,
D. malerkotliana and D. nasuta can be ad-
judged as generalist species. Their wide-

340

DISTRIBUTION OF DROSOPHILA SPECIES

spread occurrence and dominance over others
in the area under investigation can be corre-
lated with their ecological versatility to exploit
diverse habitats. Interestingly, D. immigrans
which was not reported from the semi-wild
and domestic localities of Peninsular India was
observed in large numbers in four of the eight
localities of Western Ghats indicating its pre-
ference to the moist and humid climatic con-
ditions. Further, nine species namely D. taka -
hashii, D. bipectinata, D. pseudoananassae, D.
mysorensis, D. jambulina, D. montium, D.
neonasuta, D. nigra and D. meijerei indicus
which were occasionally reported in the plains of
Peninsula were found to occur more or less fre-
quently in the tropical rain forests indicating
the availability of favourable breeding sites
for their colonization. The domestic species
such as D. melanogaster, D. ananassae and
D. repleta which occur mainly in and around
human habitations obviously as expected were
absent in the tropical rain forests except for
a few individuals of D. ananassae and D. re-
pleta at some sites indicating their inability to
colonize in the tropical rain forests where
other species dominate. The most noteworthy
feature of the Drosophilid fauna of the area
under investigation is the occurrence of many
species such as D. suzukii, D. eugracilis, D.
anomelani, D. punjabiensis, D. kikkawai, D.
rufa. D. seguyi, D. mundagensis, D. krishna-
murthyi and L. interrupta which were not re-
ported from the plains of Peninsula In addi-
tions the collection data revealed the occur-
rence of six new species namely D. giriensis
(Prakash and Reddy, 1977), D. jagri (Prakash
and Reddy, 1979), D. sahyadrii (Prakash
and Reddy, 1979), D. agumbensis (Prakash
and Reddy, 1978), D. nagarholensis (Prakash
and Reddy, 1980) and D. gundensis (Prakash
and Reddy, 1977). Similarly five species, D.
elegans, D. rhopaloa, D. grandis, S. elmoi and

P. flavipennis found in the collections are new
records from the sub-continent. In view of
this, the Drosophilid fauna of Western Ghats
is of special interest and value as it offers a
rich abode for a variety of species. Moreover,
it is clear from the data that the species
diversity in the tropical rain forests of Western
Ghats is exceedingly more complex than that
of other habitats of the Peninsula, thus indi-
cating the dependance of Drosophila species
upon the types of vegetation. Therefore,
we are of the opinion that the complex
natural habitats with diverse plant species
provide large number of breeding sites for the
colonization by diverse species of Drosophila.
The tropical rain forests of Western Ghats are
considered to have played a unique role in
the adaptive radiation and paved the way for
extensive speciation in the members of the
genus Drosophila. This does not, of course,
necessarily mean that no new or rare species
will be found in the habitats other than moist
deciduous and evergreen forests. But the
probability of such discovery must be re-
garded as low. Further, intensive collections
of Drosophila species from this area are need-
ed to decide, if indeed any species is restricted
to one or few sites, and if so, what special
ecological niche is being exploited.

A great majority of the species are endemic
to particular geographical areas of the earth.
Thus it is apparent that each of the six con-
tinental regions (Darlington 1957) appears to
have their own characteristic constellation of
indigenous species. According to Stone et
al. 1960, the endemism may amount to 95%
of the known species of the genus Drosophila.
Carson (1965), recognized three distinct
groups based on the pattern of distribution of
various members of the genus Drosophila.
They are, 1. species having restricted distribu-
tion (endemism of Patterson and Stone 1952),

341

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

2. virtually cosmopolitan species and 3. species
having a tendency to spread widely but not
cosmopolitan. Only eight species, D. melano-
gaster, D. simulans, D. ananassae, D. hydei,
D. repleta, D. busckii, D. immigrans and D.
funebris are listed in the second category. In
addition to cosmopolitan species, a number of
species may be recognized which have some
tendency to spread geographically but still have
not become world-wide. Nine of the species
listed in this category are D. latifascisformis,
D. pseudoobscura, D. kikkawai, D. nebulosa,
D. willistoni, D. virilis, D. buzzatii, D. merca-
torum and D. nasuta. However, this category
should not be taken as a precise one as it
serves only to focus attention on certain
species which have characteristics that place
them in a roughly intermediate position bet-
ween the endemic species on one hand and
the cosmopolitan species on the other.

Of the 37 Drosophila species recorded in
the present study 13 species of which, six are
new, namely, D. giriensis, D. jagri, D. sahyadrii,
D. agumbensis, D. nagarholensis and D. gun -
densis were described by us; and
seven others namely D. anomelani, D. myso-
rensis, D. neonasuta, D. brindavani, D. mei-
jerei indicus, D. mundagenesis and D. krish-
namurthyi have been considered as endemic
to India, since they are not reported else-
where.

With regard to the second category of Car-
son 1965, only four of the eight cosmopolitan
species namely, D. ananassae, D. immigrans,
D. repleta and D. busckii were observed in
the present study. However, D. melanogaster,
another cosmopolitan species, which can be
trapped from almost all the human habitated
localities of Peninsular India was found to be
absent in the collections. The absence of D.
melanogaster and three other cosmopolitan
species, D. simulans, D. hydei and D. funebris

from the collections is a noteworthy feature
and corroborates with the earlier studies on
the Drosophila species inhabiting the forested
areas of the sub-continent (Gupta 1974, Reddy
and Krishnamurthy 1974). Therefore, the
present investigation indicates that the cos-
mopolitan species which have been recorded
mainly from human habitations have hardly
been found to be invaded into an otherwise
unsuitable niche. It is presumed that the re-
sources are fully utilised by other ecologically
versatile species thus preventing the coloniza-
tion of the cosmopolitan species in these
habitats. Several authors (cf. Watts 1971)
have recorded that closed forest communities
rarely receive invading plants, since competi-
tion for niches may be severe. Because of
the dependance of Drosophila on plants as a
resource, the lack of success of cosmopolites
is to be expected in the rain forests (Bock
and Parsons 1977). Thus, the present finding
is in support of the statement of Dobzhansky
(1965) who viewed that none of the cosmo-
politan species are truely so, but have reached
the quasi-cosmopolitan status with man’s
aid.

Of the nine species listed in the third cate-
gory only two species D. kikkawai and D.
nasuta were noticed in the present collections.
However, other species such as D. takahashii,
D. suzukii, D. rajasekari, D. elegans, D. eugra-
cilis, D. pseudoananassae, D. malerkotliana,
D. bipectinata, D. punjabiensis, D. jambulina,
D. montium , D. rufa, D. seguyi, D. rhopaloa,
D. nigra and Z). grandis found in the collec-
tions may also be assigned to the intermediate
position as judged by their occurrence in
other parts of the world.

Brncic (1970), has categorised the Droso-
phila species into two groups namely wide-
spread and endemic species. According to
him the widespread or endemic character of

342

DISTRIBUTION OF DROSOPHILA SPECIES

a species in the absence of geographical bar-
riers is a function of the abundance and dis-
tribution of the ecological resources that the
species may utilize. The existence of ende-
mism may be an expression of the ecological
restriction. For instance, the endemic species
that have been referred to in the present in-
vestigation appear to be closely related to the
tropical moist deciduous and evergreen forests
of Western Ghats except for D. inysorensis,
D. neonasuta and D. brindavani which were
reported to be present in other habitats of the
Peninsula. Similarly, the wide distribution of
a species does not always need to be related
to the ecological versatility. Probably this is
the case for some of the domestic cosmopolitan
species which are adjusted to some human made
habitats. Majority of the species collected
from the Western Ghats have also been re-
ported from other parts of the world indicating
their wide spread nature. The reason for the
widespread occurrence of these species could
be correlated with the ecological versatility
enabling them to live and reproduce in many
different environments.

The most interesting feature of the collec-
tion data is that, although many species could
be collected at any particular locality, members
of the melano paster and immi grans species
groups belonging to two subgenera Sopho-
phora and Drosophila comprise all or practi-
cally all of the catch indicating the sympatric
association and ecological dominance of the
members belonging to these two species groups.
However, certain other species such as D. re-
pleta, D. nigra, D. grandis, D. meijerei indicus,
D. mundagenesis, D. krishnamurthyi and D.
busckii belonging to other subgenera were
also found occasionally in the collection.
Further, it is clear from the present study that
the members of the melanogaster species
group in particular were found to be more

versatile as evidanced by the variety of species.
Thus the ecological dominance of the members
of the melanogaster and immigrans species
groups observed is in conformity with the
earlier reports on the South Indian Droso-
phila fauna (Reddy and Krishnamurthy 1974,
1977 and Siddaveere Gowda et al 1977) and
also with the suggestion of (Bock and Wheeler
1972), who regarded the Indian subcontinent
as the general area for the origin of melano-
gaster species group, and South-East Asia in
general, for the origin and wide speciation for
both melanogaster and immigrans species
groups. Incidentally the finding of six new
species and two new records of species be-
longing to melanogaster species group from
this area further supports the suggestion of
Bock and Wheeler (1972). Based on our
collection data, it is obvious that the
suggested dominance of the members of
the two species groups belonging to two
different subgenera of the genus Drosophila
in a substantial area of the world is in itself a
unique phenomenon. With more intensive
collections of Drosophila in Western Ghats, it
is possible to understand many problems con-
cerning the origin and evolution as well as
the distribution and ecological relationships of
the members of these two subgenera.

Subramanyam and Nayar (1974) have
pointed out that the Western Ghats behave
like an oceanic island in the development of
endemic species of plants as it is protected
by sea on Western side, Vindhya and Satpura
on northern side and semiarid Deccan plateau
on eastern side. Similarly the present investi-
gation has revealed the occurrence of 13 ende-
mic species, of which six species namely D.
giriensis, D. jagri, D. sahyadrii, D. agumbensis,
D. nagarholensis and D. gundensis are new.
In addition, five Drosophilid species namely
D. elegans, D. rhopaloa, D. grandis, S. elmoi

343

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

and P. flavipennis are new reports from the
sub-continent. Further several species which
are not reported from the plains of Peninsula
were observed in the present study. In view
of these findings, the species diversities in
Western Ghats is found to be exceedingly
more complex than that of other habitats of

Peninsular India. Therefore, we are of the
opinion that the Western Ghats with its
luxuriant flora and geographic position not
only acts as a nursery ground for speciation of
Drosophila but also as a centre for the deve-
lopment of endemic species.

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(1978): The subgenus

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Brncic, D. (1970) : Studies on the evolutionary
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Carson, H. L. (1965) : Chromosomal morphism in
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Godbole, N. N. & Vaidya, V. G. (1972): A
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— (1970b):

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(1970c):

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Jha, A. P., Mishra, M. & Singh, V. K. (1971):
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Parshad, R. & Paika, I. J. (1964): Drosophilid
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jab Univ. 15: 225-252.

Parshad, R. & Duggal, K. K. (1965): Drosophi-
lidae of Kashmir, India. Drosophila Inform. Serv.
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(1966): Drosophilid

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Parsons, P. A. (1977): Genes, behaviour and
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Patterson, J. T. & Stone, W. S. (1952): Evolu-
tion in the genus Drosophila. The Macmillan Com-
pany, New York.

Prakash, H. S. & Reddy, Sreerama G. (1977):
Two new species of Drosophila (melanogaster
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— — (1978):

Drosophila agumhensis, sp. nov. from Karnataka,
South India (Diptera: Drosophilidae) . Oriental In-
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(1979):

A new species of the takahashii subgroup of genus
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(1979):

Drosophila fauna of Sahyadri Hills (Western Ghats)
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(1980):

Drosophila fauna of Nagarhole, South India, includ-
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Qureshi, I. M. (1965): Tropical rain forests of
India and their silvicultural and ecological aspects.
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Rahman, S. M. Z. & Singh, V. K. (1969): A
survey of Bhagalpur population of Drosophila. Droso-
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Ranganath, H. A. and Krishnamurthy, N. B.
(1972) : Preliminary survey of Drosophila in Bili-
girirangana Hills (Mysore State, India). Drosophila
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Reddy, Sreerama G. & Krishnamurthy, N. B.
(1971): Preliminary survey of Drosophilids in Nil-
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0974) :

Systematics and distribution of Drosophila fauna of
South India. /. Mys. Univ. Sect. B. 26: 54:- 64.

(1977):

Distribution of different species of Drosophila in
Jogimatti Hills, Chitradurga District, Karnataka State,
India. Drosophila Inform. Serv. 52: 105.

SlDDAVEERE GOWDA, L., & KRISHNAMURTHY, N. B.
(1972) : Report of Drosophila species in Charmadi
Ghats. Drosophila Inform. Serv. 48: 38.

SlDDAVEERE GOWDA, L., RA JASEKARASETTY, M. R.
& Krishnamurthy, N. B. (1977): Studies on the
Drosophila fauna of Peninsular India. Drosophila
Inform. Serv. 52: 35.

Singh, A. (1970): Drosophilidae of South Anda-
man, India. Drosophila Inform. Serv. 45: 106.

Singh, A. (1972): The Drosophilidae of Assam,
India, ibid. 49: 78.

Stone, W. C., Guest, W. C. & Wilson, F. D.
(1960) : The evolutionary implications of the cyto-
logical polymorphism and phylogeny of the virilis
group of Drosophila. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. (U.S.A.).
46: 350-361.

Subramanyam, K. & Nayar, M. P. (1974): Vege-
tation and Phytogeography of the Western Ghats.
In Ecology and Biogeography in India. Dr. W.
Junk, The Hague, pp. 178-196.

Vaidya, V. G. & Godbole, N. N. (1971): Syste-
matic study of Drosophilidae in Poona and neigh-
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II. ibid 42: 93-94; (1973): III. ibid. 44: 41-43;
(1976): IV. ibid. 48: 85-92.

Watts, D. (1971): Principles of biogeography.
McGraw-Hill, London.

345

A SKETCH ON THE SEDGE AND GRASS FLORA OF
JALPAIGURI DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL1

J. K. SlKDAR2

The paper lists 42 species belonging to 10 genera of sedges and 126 species belonging
to 66 genera of grasses occurring in Jalpaiguri district. The precise localities with
reference to forest ranges and forest divisions in this district together with collector’s
name and numbers have been given against each species.

Introduction

The district of Jalpaiguri, is situated bet-
ween 26° 16' & 27 °0' north latitude, and between
88° 15' & 89°53' east longitude. It is bounded
by Assam state in the east, part of Darjeeling
district and Bangladesh in the west, part of
Darjeeling district and Bhutan in the north
and part of Bangladesh and Coochbehar dis-
trict in the south. The total area of the district
is 6,234.13 sq. km. The headquarters is at
Jalpaiguri on the right bank of the Tista river,
situated roughly 32 km. from the nearest forest
reserve. The district is mainly a plain land
with the exception of Buxaduar hills and a
part of Titi area. Sinchula is the highest peak
of Buxaduar hills (± 1912 m).

The district is made up of alluvium with
deposits of coarse gravel near the hills on the
north, sandy clay and sand along the course of
rivers. The beds of Buxa hills consist of
variegated slates, quartzites and dolomites. The
rainfall is heavy in this district and more on
the north-eastern part (towards Buxaduar
hills). The average annual rainfall of the dis-
trict is 3925. 1 mm (154.33"). In the Jalpaiguri
town the mean maximum temperature in
April is 31.7°C.

The first account of sedges and grasses of

1 Accepted January 1982.

J Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey
of India. Howrah-711 103.

Bengal was given by Prain (1903). Among
later works, which deal with only sedges or
only grasses or both sedges and grasses of the
present day West Bengal, the following may
be mentioned — Banerjee (1968), Chakra-
varty (1957), Chaudhuri (1959a, 1960a, 1965),
Dutta & Maiti (1963), Guha (1971), Guha
Bakshi & Sen (1977), Majumdar (1956),
Matthew (1966, 1981), and Paul & Bhatta-
charya (1959). The works of Hara (1966,
1971) and Ohashi (1975) on eastern Hima-
layas also cover Darjeeling hills of this state.
Recently a list of grasses of Bihar, Orissa and
West Bengal was given by Jain et al (1975).
But the complete exploration of sedges and
grasses of many districts of West Bengal has,
not so far been done. The only account of
sedges and grasses of Buxa forest division and
Jalpaiguri forest division of this district was
given by Chaudhuri (1959b, 1960b) but such
records were not represented by a single speci-
men in the Central National Herbarium, How-
rah (CAL) and other Indian herbaria. Moreover
he has not mentioned any precise localities of
the taxa. The other two forest divisions of
Jalpaiguri district, i.e. Baikunthapur and Cooch-
behar still remains unpublished. Mukerjee
(1965) though published a sketch on the vege-
tation of Jalpaiguri district, but it includes
only a few taxa of sedges and grasses.

I have (Sikdar 1981) in connection
with my studies on the “Vegetation and Flora
of Jalpaiguri district. West Bengal” from 1974

346

SEDGE AND GRASS FLORA OF JALPAIGURI DIST.

to 1979 made a thorough collection of
sedges and grasses from twenty different forest
ranges including cultivated fields, barren lands
etc. distributed into four different forest divi-
sions in the district. Besides my own
collections, a few collections of sedges and
grasses by others from this district available
in CAL were examined and incorporated in
this communication. Only a few taxa have been
added here based on literature (Chaudhuri
1959b, 1960b) and (Mukerjee 1965) to pre-
pare a complete account as far as possible.
All the collections have been deposited in the
Central National Herbarium, Howrah (CAL).

Altogether 42 species of sedges (Cyperaceae)
belonging to 10 genera and 126 species of
grasses (Poaceae) belonging to 66 genera have
been enumerated in this paper. In systematic
enumeration, name of each species is followed
by precise locality/localities with symbol in
bracket indicating the name of forest division
and forest range which is again followed by
collector’s name and number. In case of the
species which have been included on the basis
of literature, author’s name is used followed
by page number. The genera and species are
arranged in alphabetical order within the
family. The nomenclature of the taxa has been
given upto date as far as possible. Symbols
as given in the brackets represent the respec-
tive forest ranges in each forest division and
such symbols are used to indicate the localities
of various species, collected during this study.

‘A’ = Baikunthapur Forest Division:
(AO = 7th Mile range;

(A2) = Sarugara range;,

(A3) = Ambari range;

(A4) — Belacoba range and
(A5) = Apalchand range.

TP = Jalpaiguri Forest Division:

(BO = Upper Tondu range;

(B2) = Lower Tondu range;

(B3) = Diana range and
(B4) = Moraghat range.

‘C’ = Coochbehar Forest Division:

(Ci) = Madarihat range;

(C2) = Nilpara range;

(C3) — Jaldapara range and
(C4) = Chilapata range.

‘D’ = Buxa Forest Division:

(Dj) = Nimati range;

(D2) = Damanpur range;

(D3) — Rajabhatkhawa range;

(D4). = Jainti range;

(D5) = Buxaduar range;

(DG) = Raidak range and
(D7) = Bholka range.

The list of various plant collectors who had
collected sedges and grasses from Jalpaiguri
district, as represented by only a few sheets
in CAL, except my own collection with
large number of gatherings and now be-
ing incorporated in this work is given below
indicating the year /years of their collection in
bracket after each name:

Agarwal, S. C. (1956); Biswas, K. P. (1944,
1948, 1949); Burkill, I. H. (1906-1909);

Chaudhuri (1959-1960); Das, C. R. (1959);
Guha, M. P. (1955-1956); Indo-Russ. Expe.
to E. Him, & N. Bengal (1961); Molla, H. A.
& Pal, D. C (1978); Molla, H. A. & Roy, B.
(1979); Mudram, G. H. (1956); Mukerjee, S,
K. (1962); Nanda, P. C. (1956); Narayan-
swami, V. (1949); Ribu & Rhomoo (1911)
and Sikdar, J. K (1975-1977).

The collections of sedges and grasses by the
above mentioned collectors except Chaudhuri
(1959b, 1960b) and Mukerjee (1965) are still
unpublished. Hence this is an attempt to pre-
pare a complete list of sedges and grasses as
far as possible occurring in Jalpaiguri district
mainly based on my own collections from
the district.

347

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

SYSTEMATIC ENUMERATION

Cyperaceae

Bulbostylis barbata (Rottb.) Clarke
Indong (B4), J. K. Sikdar 338.

Carex indica Linn.

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,
l.c. 91.

C. japonica Thunb.

Gajalduba (A5), S. K. Mukerjee 5580.

C* stramentitia Boott. ex Bockeler

Buxa road (D3), K. P. Biswas 1645 (5
sheets); Near Buxaduars (D5), K. P. Biswas
2037 (5 sheets).

C. wallichiana Presc. ex Hook f.

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,
l.c. 91.

Cyperus brevifolius (Rottbl.) Hassk.

North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), J. K. Sikdar
7013.

C. compactus Retz.

Chel, Kathambari (A5), J. K. Sikdar 52;
South Bholka (D7), /. K. Sikdar 4202.

C. compressus Linn.

Murti riverbed (Bi), J. K. Sikdar 365.

C. cuspidatus Kunth

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,
l.c. 91.

C. cyperoides (Link.) O. Kuntze
Mendabari, Chilapata (C4), J. K. Sikdar
638; Chel, Kathambari (A5), S. K. Mukerjee
5573.

C. diffusus Vahl

Laltong (Aj), J. K. Sikdar 199; Santrabari
(D5), 350 m, /. K. Sikdar 7024; Jainti (D4),
V. Narayanswami 3010; Buxa road (D3), K.
P. Biswas 1651.

C. digitatus Roxb.

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,
l.c. 91.

C. distans Linn. f.

Chapramari (Bx), J. K. Sikdar 304.

C. exaltatus Retz.

Baradabri (C4), I ndo- Russian Exped. to E.
Hinial. & N. Bengal 370.

C. flavidus Retz.

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,
l.c. 91; Buxa forest division (D), Chaudhuri,
l.c. All.

C. halpan Linn.

Mendabari (C4), J. K. Sikdar 627; Rajabha-
tkhawa (D3), K. P. Biswas 1637.

C. iria Linn.

Way to Buxaduar hills (D5), 550 m, J. K.
Sikdar 7025; Buxa-Santrabari (D5), 300 m,
V. Narayanswami 2908.

C. lucidus R. Br.

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri
l.c. 91.

C. nutans Vahl

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,
l.c. 91; Buxa forest division (D), Chaudhuri
l.c. All.

C. pilosus Vahl

Mendabari (C4), J. K. Sikdar 631.

C. platystylis R. Br.

Jalpaiguri plains, Terai (B), Ribu & Rhomoo
4969.

C. silletensis Nees ex Wight
Bania (C4), J. K. Sikdar 574; Khairbari
forest (C4), C. R. Das 105.

C. suScinux Clarke

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri
l.c. 91.

C. fenuispica Steud.

Damanpur (D2), J. K. Sikdar 912.
Fimbristylis aestivalis (Retz.) Vahl
Phuljhora (A5), J. K. Sikdar 69; Rajabhat-
khawa (D3), V. Narayanswami 2485; Alipur-
duar (D), C. R. Das 79.

F. dichotoma (Linn.) Vahl
Chapramari (B4), /. K. Sikdar 161 ; Raja-
bhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami 2485; Buxa
camp (D3), V. Narayanswami 2960.

348

SEDGE AND GRASS FLORA OF JALPAIGUR1 DIST.

F. falcata (Vahl) Kunth
Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,
l.c. 91.

F. miliacea (Linn.) Vahl
Damanpur (D2), 7. K. Sikdar 909.

F. schoenoides (Retz.) Vahl

Chilapata (C4), J. K. Sikdar 576; Mendabari
(C4), 7. K. Sikdar 606.

Kyllinga nemoralis (Forster) Dandy ex Hutch.

Mendabari (C4), 7. K. Sikdar 623.

K. tenuifolia Steud.

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,
l.c. 91; Buxa forest division (D), Chaudhuri,
l.c. 422.

Mariscus cyperinus (Retz.) Vahl
Chapramari (B4), J. K. Sikdar 242.

Pycreus globosus (Allioni) Reichb.

Jalpaiguri forest division (D), Chaudhuri,
l.c. 91.

P. pumilus (Linn.) Nees

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,
l.c. 91.

P. stramineus C. B. Clarke
Near Buxaduars (D5), K. P. Biswas 2037.
Rikliella squarrosa (Linn.) J. Roynal

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,
l.c. 91.

Scirpus articulatus Linn.

Chel, Kathambari (A5), J. K. Sikdar 7167.
S. comosus Wall, ex Roxb.

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,
l.c. 91.

S. juncoides Roxb.

Chilapata (C4), 7. K. Sikdar 578.

S. mucronatus Linn.

Apalchand, Tista bank (A5), J. K. Sikdar
173.

Scleria terrestris (Linn.) Fass.

Mech basti, Apalchand (A5), Molla & Pal
20375.

S. tessellata Willd.

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,
l.c. 91.

POACEAE (= GrAMINEAE)

Acroceras zizanioides (H. B. K.) Dandy
Garam (D2), 7. K. Sikdar 899.

Alloteropsis cimicina (Linn.) Stapf

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,

l.c. 90.

Apluda mutica Linn.

Jaldapara game sanctuary (C3), 7. K. Sikdar
719.

Apocopis paleacea (Trin.) Hochr.

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,

l.c. 90.

Amndinella bengalensis (Spreng.) Druce
Jaldapara game sanctuary (C3), 7. K. Sikdar
716; Jalpaiguri (B), /. H. Burkill 29011 &

27391.

A. decempedalis (O. Kuntze) Janowski

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,

l.c. 89; Jalpaiguri district, Mukerjee, l.c. 134.
Arundo donax Linn.

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,

l.c. 89.

Axonopus compressus (Sw.) P. Beauv.

Buxa-santrabari (D5), 200 m, V. Narayan-
swami 2940.

Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.) Willd.

Titi-3 (Ci), 225 m, 7. K. Sikdar 4560.

B. balcooa Roxb.

Jalpaiguri district, Mukerjee, l.c. 136.

B. pallida Munro.

Jalpaiguri district, Mukerjee, l.c. 136.

B. tulda Roxb.

Jalpaiguri district, Mukerjee, l.c. 136.

B, vulgaris Schrad.

Jalpaiguri district, Mukerjee, l.c. 136.
Brachiaria distachya (Linn.) Stapf

Buxa-Santrabari (D5), 200 m, V. Narayan-
swami 2937.

B. oiilliformis (Presl) A. Chase
Gorumara II (B2), P. C. Nanda 264.

B, ramosa (Linn.) Stapf
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), 7. K. Sikdar 7187.

349

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

B. reptans (Linn.) Gard. et Hubbard
Bania (C4), /. K. Sikdar 555; Bhutanghat
(D6), V. Narayanswami 3094.

B. setigera (Retz.) C. E. Hubb.

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,
Ac. 89.

Capillipedium assimile (Steud.) A. Camus
Bhutanghat (D0), V. Narayanswami 3068.
Centotheca lappacea (Linn.) Desv.

Poro (D4), J. K. Sikdar 789 & 803; South
Bholka (D7), /. K. Sikdar 4180.
Cephalostachyem capitalism Munro.

Jalpaiguri district, Mukerjee, Ac. 136.

Chloris dolichostachya Lagasca
Bhutanghat (D0), V. Narayanswami 3018.
Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin.

Chapramari (B4), /. K. Sikdar 245; Raja-
bhatkhawa (D3), J. K. Sikdar 7020.
Coelorhacliis khasiana (Hack.) Stapf ex Bor.

Bichabhanga IT, Lataguri (B2), M. P. Guha
260.

C. striata (Nees ex Steud.) A. Camus

Buxa forest division (D), Chaudhuri, l.c.
472.

Coix lacryma-jobi Linn.

Jaldapara game sanctuary (C3), J. K. Sikdar
725.

Cymbopogon fiexuosus (Nees ex Steud.) Wats.
Lataguri (B,), M. P. Guha 255.

C. jwarancusa (Jones) Schult.

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,

Ac. 88.

C. nardus Linn.

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,

Ac. 88.

C. sdioenarathus (Linn.) Spreng.

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,

Ac. 90.

Cynodon dactylon (Linn.) Pers.

Apalchand (As), J. K. Sikdar 7164; Buxa-
duar (D5), 750 m J. K. Sikdar 7175.

Cyrtococcum accrescens (Trin.) Stapf
Bhutanghat (D6), V. Narayanswami 3104.

C, oxyphylliim (Steud.) Stapf
Road to Murichom, 37th mile (D5), 1400
m, V. Narayanswami 2825.

C. patens (Linn.) A. Camus
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), J. K. Sikdar 7138;

Buxa-Santrabari (D5), 350 m, V. Narayan-
swami 2910.

Dactyloctensum aegypticum (Linn.) P. Beauv.

Chel, Kathambari (A5), J. K. Sikdar 7177.
DendrocaSamus hamiitonii Nees et Arn.

Jalpaiguri district, Mukerjee, Ac. 136.
Desmostachya bipinnafa (Linn.) Stapf
Central Moraghat (B4), J. K. Sikdar 7189.
Dichanthium anmilatum (Forssk.) Stapf
Buxa prison (D5), 800 m, V. Narayanswami
2980.

Dtgitaria longifolia (Retz.) Pers.

North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), J. K. Sikdar
7073.

D. preslsi (Kunth) Henr.

Ambari (A3), /. K. Sikdar 7022.

13. sanguinalis (Linn.) Scop.

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,

Ac. 89.

D. setigera Roth apud Roem. et Schult.

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,

Ac. 86.

Echiaiochloa colonum (Linn.) Link.

Balapara (D7), J. K. Sikdar 4181; Bhutan-
ghat (D0), V. Narayanswami 3111.

E. cmsgaSH (Linn.) P. Beauv.

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,

Ac. 89.

E, stagenina (Retz.) P. Beauv.

Simulbari, Jalpaiguri, 300 m, K. P. Biswas ,
s.n.

Elensine coracana (Linn.) Gaertn.

Garam (D2), J. K. Sikdar 878 & 879.

E. indica (Linn.) Gaertn.

Chapramari (Bx), J; K. Sikdar 246; Buxa,

350

SEDGE AND GRASS FLORA OF JALPAIGURI DIST.

Santrabari (D5), 200 m, V. Narayanswami
2916; Bhutanghat (Dc), V. Narayanswami 3105
& 3019.

Elytrophorus spicatus (Willd.) A. Camus
Central Moroghat (B), /. K. Sikdar 7155.
Eragrostis cilianensis (All.) Vignolo-lutali
Chel, Kathambari (A5), J. K. Sikdar 56.

E. coarctata Stapf

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), J. K. Sikdar 7048.

E. diarrhena (Schult.) Steud.

North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), /. K. Sikdar

7071.

E. gangetica (Roxb.) Steud.

Patgram, Jalpaiguri, I. H. Bur kill 30706.

E. japonica (Thunb.) Trin.

Moynabari (DG), 200 m, J. K. Sikdar 4143;
Balapara (D7), J. K. Sikdar 4222.

E. nigra Nees ex Steud.

Buxa-Bhutan Road, 36th mile (D5), 1200 m,
V. Narayanswami 2562.

E, pilosa (Linn.) P. Beauv.

North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), /. K. Sikdar

7072.

E. tenella (Linn.) P. Beauv. ex Roem. et Schult.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), /. K. Sikdar 7070.

E. uniloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud.

Apalchand (A5), J. K. Sikdar 164; Chilapata
(C4), J. K. Sikdar 575; Poro (D^, J. K. Sikdar
768; Garam (D2), /. K. Sikdar 858; South
Bholka (D7), J. K. Sikdar 4233.

Erianthus longisetosus Anderss.

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,
l.c. 89.

Eriochloa proeera (Retz.) C. E. Hubb.

Bhutanghat (D6), V. Narayanswami 3087.
Eulalia trispicata (Schult.) Henr.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), K. P. Biswas 1560.
Hemarthria compressa (Linn, f.) R. Br.

North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), J. K. Sikdar
7000.

Hygroryza aristata (Retz.) Nees ex Wight
Khutimari (B4), /. K. Sikdar 7191.

Isnperata cySindrica (Linn.) P. Beauv.

Chapramari (Bi), J. K, Sikdar 243; Raja-
bhatkhawa (D3), C. R. Das 4.

Isachne giobosa (Thunb.) O. Ktze.

Gorumara game sanctuary (D2), /, K. Sikdar
7211.

I. miliacea Roth

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), /. K. Sikdar
89.

Ischaemum rugosum Salisb.

Chel, Kathambari (As), /. K. Sikdar 7167.
Leersia hexandra Sw.

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri
l.c. 89.

Microstegium ciliatum (Trin.) A. Camus
Poro (D7), J. K. Sikdar 795; Bhutanghat
(D6), J. K. Sikdar 4115; Balapara (D7), J. K.
Sikdar 4171; Gorumara game sanctuary (D2),
S. C. Agrawal 270.

M. vagans (Nees ex Steud.)

Garam (D2), J. K. Sikdar 863.

Narenga faliax (Balansa) Bor

Bhutanghat (D0), V. Narayanswami 3112.

N. porphyrocoma (Hance) Bor
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), J. K. Sikdar 7069;

Laltong (A2), K. P. Biswas 6489.

Neyraudia arundinacea (Linn.) Hern.

Jaldapara game sanctuary (C3), J. K. Sikdar
737; Buxa road (D3), K. P. Biswas 1679.

N. reynaudiana (Kunth) Keng
Bhutanghat (D6), 300 m, J. K. Sikdar 4120.

Opiismenus bumiannii (Retz.) P. Beauv.
Bhutanghat (Dc), 300 m, J. K. Sikdar 4116.

O. composite (Linn.) P. Beauv.

Poro (D7), J. K. Sikdar 794; Garam (D2),

J. K. Sikdar 859; Way to Buxaduars (D5),
800 m, K. P. Biswas 1796; Bhutanghat (D6),
V. Narayanswami 3095.

Oryza minuta J. S. Presl ex C. B. Presl
Mechbasti, Apalchand (A5), Molla & Pal
20380.

351

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

0. sativa Linn.

Kathambari (A5), J. K. Sikdar 4586.
Ottochloa nodosa (Kunth) Dandy
Bhutanghat (Dc), V. Narayanswami 3108,
Panicum auritum Presl ex Nees
Jaldapara east (C4), Molla & Roy 20853.

P. humidonun Buch.-Ham. ex Hook. f.
Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,

1. c. 89.

P. notatum Retz.

Poro (Di), J. K. Sikdar 798; Rajabhatkhawa
(D3), K. P. Biswas 1562; Barodabri (C4),
Indo-Russian Exped. to E. Himal. & N. Bengal
360.

P. pa I u do sum Roxb.

North Rajabhatkhawa (D3), /. K. Sikdar
7074.

P. psilopodium Trin.

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,
l.c. 89.

P. repens Linn.

Bhutanghat (Dc), V. Narayanswami 3087.
P. sarmentosum Roxb.

Churabhija, Apalchand (A5), J. K. Sikdar
113.

P. trypheron Schult.

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,
l.c. 89.

Paspalidium flavidum (Retz.) A. Camus
Buxa-Santrabari (D5), 200 m, V. Narayan-
swami 2941; Buxa camp (D5), 800 m, V.
Narayanswami 2941.

P. punctatum (Burm.) A. Camus
Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,
l.c. 89.

Paspalum conjugation Berg.

South Diana (B3), /. K. Sikdar 374; Buxa-
Bhutan Road, 36th mile (D5), 1200 m, V.
Narayanswami 2564; Rajabhatkhawa Depot
Road (D3), V. Narayanswami 2416 & 2417.

P. orbiculare Forst.

Chapramari (B4), J. K. Sikdar 241; Jalda-

para game sanctuary (C3), /. K. Sikdar 111 .
P. scrobiculatum Linn.

Buxa-Bhutan Road, 36th mile (D5), 1200
m, V. Narayanswami 2554; Bhutanghat (D6),
V. Narayanswami 3075; Buxa camp (D5), 800
m, V. Narayanswami 2955.

Perotis indica (Linn.) O. Ktze.

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,
l.c. 90.

Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud.

South Bholka (D7), J. K. Sikdar 4224;
Apalchand (A5), J. K. Sikdar 168.

Poa annua Linn.

Sinchu, near Bhutan border (D5), 1800 m,
J. K. Sikdar 6918.

Pogonatherum crinitum (Thunb.) Kunth
Gosaihat (B4), J. K. Sikdar 455; Rajabhat-
khawa (D5), C. R. Das 103.

P. paniceum (Lamk.) Hack.

Saraswatipur (A2), J. K. Sikdar 211; Titi
(C4), 200 m, J. K. Sikdar 4535.

Polytoca digitata (Linn, f.) Druce
Bhutanghat (D0), V. Narayanswami 3109.
Pseudechinolaena polystachya (H. B. K.) Stapf
Tista valley, Jalpaiguri, I. EL. Bur kill 34072.
Pseudostachyum polymorphum Munro.

Jalpaiguri district, Mukerjee, l.c. 136.
Rottboellia exaltata Linn. f.

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,

l.c. 89.

Saccharum arundinaceum Retz.

Rajabhatkhawa (D3), /. K. Sikdar 7068.

S. bengalense Retz.

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,

l.c. 89.

S. officinarum Linn.

Apalchand (A5), J. K. Sikdar 7166.

S. procerum Roxb.

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,

l.c. 88; Jalpaiguri district, Mukerjee, l.c. 134.

S. ravennae (Linn.) Murray

Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,

352

SEDGE AND GRASS FLORA OF JALPAIGURI DIST.

l.c. 88; Jalpaiguri district, Mukerjee, l.c. 134.

S. spontaneum Linn.

Jaldapara game sanctuary (C3), 7. K. Sikdar
73 6.

Sacciolepis indica (Linn.) A. Chase
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayanswami
2365; Tista sand banks, Jalpaiguri, G. H.
Mudram 250.

S. interrupta (Willd.) Stapf
Apalchand (A5), S. K. Mukerjee 5618;
Dukshin Kar Dighi, Lataguri (B2), S. C. Agra-
wal 257.

S. myosuroides (R. Br.) A. Camus
Chapramari (Bi), J. K. Sikdar 281.
Schizachyrium brevifolium (Sw.) Nees ex Buse
Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,
l.c . 89.

Sclerostachya fusca (Roxb.) A. Camus
Gorumara game sanctuary (B2), V. Nara-
yanswami 3132.

Setaria glauca (Linn.) P. Beauv.

Chapramari (Bi), J. K. Sikdar 240; Jaldapara
game sanctuary (CO, 7. K. Sikdar 738; Buxa-
Santrabari (D6), 250 m, V. Narayanswami
2936.

S. italica (Linn.) P. Beauv.

Simulguri (A3), J. K. Sikdar 510.

S. pallide-fusca (Schum.) Stapf et Hubb.

Madarihat (CO, 7. K. Sikdar 698.

S. palmifolia (Koen.) Stapf
Bania (CO, 7. K. Sikdar 4336.

S. plicata (Lamk.) T. Cooke
Laltong (AO, K. P. Biswas 6528.

Sorghum halepense (Linn.) Pers.

Poro (DO, 7. K. Sikdar 116.

Sporobolus diander (Retz.) P. Beauv.

Chapramari (BO, 7. K. Sikdar 244; South
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), 7. K. Sikdar 4271; Buxa-
Santrabari (D5), 200 m, V. Narayanswami
2917.

S. fertilis (Steud.) W. D. Calayton
Rajabhatkhawa (D3), 7. K. Sikdar 7047; 21

miles from Rajabhatkhawa (D3), V. Narayan-
swami 2349.

Themeda arundinacea (Roxb.) Ridley
Buxa road (D3), K. P. Biswas 1620.

T. caudata (Nees) A. Camus

Hanskhali, Apalchand (A5), 7. K. Sikdar
102; Laltong (AO, 7. K. Sikdar 200; South
Bholka (DO, 7. K. Sikdar 4198.

T. villosa (Poir.) A. Camus
Jalpaiguri forest division (B), Chaudhuri,
l.c. 88.

Thysanolaena maxima (Roxb.) O. Kuntze
Buxaduar (D5), 800 m, 7. K. Sikdar 4657;
Way to Sinchu (D5), 1600 m, 7. K. Sikdar
6917; Buxa-Bhutan road, 36th mile (D5), V.
Narayanswami 2519.

Yetiveria zizanioides (Linn.) Nash

Garam (D2), 7. K. Sikdar 903; Balapara
(DO, 7. K. Sikdar 4151.

Triticum aestivum Linn.

Chel (A5), 7. K. Sikdar 80; Chengmari (A5),
7. K. Sikdar 117.

Zea mays Linn.

Chengmari (A5), 7. K. Sikdar 129; Raja-
bhatkhawa (D3), J. K. Sikdar 4602; Rajabhat-
khawa Depot road (D3), V. Narayanswami
2457.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to the Director, Botanical
Survey of India for awarding me a scholarship
during the tenure of which this work has been
carried out and to Deputy Director, Central
National Herbarium, Howrah for all neces-
sary facilities for these studies. My sincerest
regards go to Prof. R. S. Rao, Andhra Uni-
versity for his untiring and useful guidance
during the course of district flora studies.
Thanks are also due to Dr. R. B. Ghosh, Cen-
tral National Herbarium for going through the
manuscript.

353

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 81

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bution to the study of Cyperaceae in West Bengal.

ibid. 31 : 90-97.

Kara, Hiroshi (1966): The flora of eastern

Himalayas. Univ. of Tokyo, Japan.

— (1971) : The flora of eastern

Himalayas. 2nd report. Univ. of Tokyo, Japan.

Jain, S. K., Banerjee, D. K. & Pal, D. C. (1975) :
Grasses of Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal. /. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(3) : 758-773.

Majumdar, R. B. (1956): Studies on the grasses
of 24-Parganas. Bull. bot. Soc. Bengal 10: 1-114.

Matthew, K. M. (1966): A preliminary list of
plants from Kurseong. Bull. bot. Surv. India 8:
158-168.

(1981): An enumeration of the

flowering plants of Kurseong, Darjeeling District,
West Bengal. Dehradun.

Mukerjee, S. K. (1965): A sketch of the vege-
tation of Jalpaiguri district of West Bengal. Bull. bot.
Surv. India 7: 134-137.

Ohashi, Hiroyosiii (1975) : Flora of eastern
Himalayas. 3rd report. Univ. of Tokyo, Japan.

Paul, A. K. & Bh attach arya, R. K. (1959) : Paddy
field weed flora of the State Agricultural farm,
Chinsurah, West Bengal. /. Ind. bot. Soc. 38: 249-
253.

Prain, D. (1903) : Bengal Plants. 2. Calcutta.

Sikdar, J. K. (1981): Studies on the Vegetation
and Flora of Jalpaiguri District, West Bengal. Thesis
for D. Phil. (Sc.), Univ. Calcutta (Unpub.).

354

RHESUS MONKEY DISTRIBUTION IN THE LOWER
HIMALAYAS AND SECONDARY FOREST SUCCESSION1

Kazuo Wada2
( With a text -figure)

Rhesus monkeys are found throughout Southern Asia in various habitat conditions, and
utilize actively artificial habitats such as terrace fields and streets. They prefer Pinus-
dominated forest and secondary mixed broad-leaved forests which are affected by
human activity.

It seems that the Pmws-dominated forest expanded by the cutting of previous primary
forests, and was maintained by continuous human activity. At present, deciduous
broad-leaved forests are distributed patchily, whereas before expansion of Pinus-
dominated forests, broad-leaved forests were common.

Rhesus monkeys would predate humans in inhabiting the deciduous and evergreen
broad leaved forest with conifers, so after expansion of human activity, the monkeys
would have acquired terrace fields and streets as newly appeared habitat, and their
distribution area and population levels would not have been remarkably reduced.

process acquiring terrace fields as a habitat
of Rhesus monkeys.

Habitat Condition of Rhesus Monkeys

The Rhesus monkey is distributed widely
through South Asia (from Afghanistan in the
west to the south-central part of China), in
various habitats ranging from dry forest to
humid forest, and from tropical to temperate
or sometimes alpine zones vertically. The dis-
tribution map of Rhesus monkeys was made
referring to Tan et al. (1965), Puget (1971),
Fooden (1971), Zhang et al (1981), Koyama
& Shekar (1981), and Wada (1983) (Fig. 1).
It is possible to define that this species inhabits
a variety of habitats.

Rhesus monkeys utilize not only various
types of forest but also cultivated fields and
streets. The monkeys are common along
streets and temples (Mukherjee 1969), and
Wada (1983) pointed out that forest-occupy-
ing troops include fields in each home range,

355

Introduction

Recently, ecological studies of Rhesus mon-
keys are increasing in the Indian Subcontinent
focussing on distribution, troop structure and
habitat utilization etc. (Mandel 1964, Neville
1968, Lindburg 1971, Mukherjee & Mukherjee
1972, Lindburg 1976, Makwana 1978, Teas
et al. 1980, Koyama Sc Shekar 1981 and Wada
1983). We can also find studies of typology
of vegetation and forest succession (Puri 1960,
Kanai 1966, Mumata 1967, Stainton 1972, and
Ohsawa, Shakiya Sc Numata 1973).

I found Rhesus monkeys utilizing terrace
fields and forests (Wada 1983). If Rhesus
monkeys are forest inhabitants, it is a most
interesting problem to determine how Rhesus
monkeys acquired the newly appeared field as
a habitat.

Based on Wada (1983), I try to presume the

1 Accepted October 1981.

2 Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University,
Jnuyama City, Aichi, 484 Japan.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 81

356

Distribution area of Rhesus monkeys

RHESUS MONKEY DISTRIBUTION IN THE LOWER HIMALAYAS

and they are distributed continuously in both
habitats, avoiding Cedrus deodara-dominated,
and Quercus dominated huge forests.

Rhesus monkeys prefer fruits, seeds, leaves
of trees and grasses, especially seeds of Pinus
wallichiana and P. roxburghii, leaves1 of Ber-
beris aristata, leaves and stems of Trifolium
repens and fruits of Vitis himalayana in the
temperate forest, and corn, potatoes, peas and
young leaves of wheat in fields. Lindburg
(1976) listed 92 species of their foods in the
subtropical forest, Wada (1983) listed 35 species
in forests and 14 species in fields and streets in
the temperate forest. But, they met with a
scarcity of foods in Cedrus deodar a and
Quercus-domindLtQd forests, so they moved to
mainly Pmws'-dominated forests and secondary
mixed broad-leaved forests where they can
easily obtain food.

Generally, when human activity deteriorates
the habitats’ condition for animals by the ex-
ploitation of forests and utilization of domestic
animals, their distributional area will shrink,
and their activity also will be weakened. But
the Rhesus monkeys’ attitude is different from
that of other animals, it seems that the monkeys
adapted to the newly appeared habitat, and did
not reduce their distribution range.

Crops are important food for Rhesus mon-
keys in the lower Himalayas. This may be
related to changes in the secondary forest suc-
cession resulting from human activities.

Discussion

Origin of Ymws-dominated Forests in the lower

Himalayas

Pinus-dommdXQd forests containing Cedrus
deodara, Picea and Quercus are common not
only in Himachal Pradesh but also in the lower
Himalayas in India and Nepal. In Himachal

Pradesh, P/mw- dominated forests form a zone
between 500 m above sea level (a.s.l.) and
2,500 m a.s.l.

The forest types in Nepal were classified by
Stainton (1972) as follows: (1) tropical and
subtropical, (2) temperate and alpine broad-
leaved, (3) temperate and alpine coniferous,
and (4) minor temperate and alpine associ-
ations. As the survey areas ranged from warm
temperate to subtropical zones, little natural
forest remained due to human impact. It is
possible to estimate natural forest characteris-
tics from the remaining secondary forest.

The existence of the deciduous broad-leaved
forest (cold temperate forest) can be presumed
on the basis of the small deciduous broad-
leaved forest remaining around Hatoo Peak
(3,200 m a.s.l.), 64 km North-East of Simla
and along the Kulu valley, 100 km North-West
of Simla. Directly under Hatoo Peak, there is
a deciduous broad-leaved forest including
dominant Acer and Betula. In the areas bet-
ween 2,500 m a.s.l. and the upper limit of the
forest zone along Kulu valley, coniferous forest
is distributed with Acer and Salix in the lower
region, changing to Betula- dominated forest in
the upper region. It seems reasonable to con-
clude that the deciduous broad-leaved forest
would have been distributed in nearly the same
forest zone as Quercus semecar pifolia forests.

According to Puri (1960), in the western
and central Himalayas there is a middle oak
zone (1,500-2,400 m a.s.l.) where Quercus
dilatata- dominated forests occur with Q. incana,
Acer, Aesculus and Litsaea etc. My observa-
tions confirm that Kulu valley contains coni-
ferous mixed forests with Aesculus indica and
Acer.

There are locally mixed forests of Quercus
and deciduous broad-leaved trees in the Quer-
cus semecar pifolia- dominated (2,400-3,800 m
a.s.l.) and Aesculus-Juglans-Acer forests (1,900-

357

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

2,800 m a.s.l.) of Humla, Jumla and the west
midlands, and in the lower and upper temperate
mixed broad-leaved forests (1,500-3,200 m
a.s.l.) (Stainton 1972). Ohsawa, Shakya and
Numata (1973) noted the existence of Acer -
dominated forests in the cold temperate zone
in eastern Nepal.

Kanai (1966) described 5 forest types in a
vertical distribution in the Singalila range. East
Nepal, where deciduous broad-leaved forests
are distributed patchily in evergreen oak forests
(1,700-2,800 m a.s.l.) and in Rhododendron
conifer forests (2,500-4,000 m a.s.l.).

Deciduous broad-leaved forests, which domi-
nate in the northern part of the Japanese Islands,
are distributed in the northern and central
parts of China, and have become rare in the
eastern parts of the Elimalayan ranges. There,
this forest is mixed with oak or coniferous
forests without forming an original vegetation
zone, but sometimes constitutes a locally domi-
nant zone.

The Oak forest occupies the temperate zone
as climax in the Kumaon Himalayas and Cen-
tral Himalayas (Puri 1960, Stainton 1972). In
these areas, Pinus wallichiana-dominated forest
appeared as a secondary forest. After desola-
tion of terrace fields and overgrazing of under-
growth or burning of the forest, P. wallichiana
invaded these areas to form a dominant forest.
Numata (1967) suggested that at 900-2,300 m
a.s.l. in eastern Nepal, Pinus roxburghii be-
comes dominant as secondary forest, while at
2,300-2,800 m a.s.l. P. wallichiana is dominant.
The undergrowth is poor due to chemicals
released from pine leaves, and strong erosion
in the monsoon season.

These authors do not mention the changing
process from oak forest to pine forest in
detail. One factor may be the over utilization
of undergrowth by domestic animals, inhibiting
young tree growth of the dominant species.

and another may be accelerated surface layer
erosion. Thus, natural forest regeneration is
first inhibited by overgrazing of domestic ani-
mals, and erosion leads to loss of the fertile
ground surface layer. In such areas, pine trees
can grow more easily than other kinds of trees,
so secondary succession to pine-dominated
forests would be favoured.

We can refer to the secondary pine forest
formation process in Japan in discussing the
conversion process to pine forest in the Hima-
layas. From the standpoint of secondary forest,
Pinus roxburghii and P. wallichiana occupy an
ecological niche similar to that of P. densi-
flora in Japan.

The ecological character of Pinus densiflora
was described by Kato (1972) as follows :
P. densiflora is widely distributed from the
lower plains to the alpine zone in Honshu, Shi
koku and Kyushu. This pine can flourish even
in poor soil conditions where other kinds of
trees cannot invade. Pinus densiflora-dommaAod
forests are regenerated with the pine trees
growing quickly as sun trees fixed to almost
naked substratum after cutting or burning. The
pine forests gradually change to broad-leaved
forests with the undergrowth of the pine forest
as the lower layer.

In the Indian subcontinent, oak forests,
Cedrus-Picea- Abies coniferous forests and
mixed forests are exploited as grazing areas
for domestic animals until the timberline abuts
against the glaciers; the undergrowth is com-
pletely grazed, and the animals’ paths form a
downtrodden mesh. Oak-tree leaves, including
branchlets, around villages are utilized as food
by domestic animals in winter.

Thus, it can be concluded that oak forests
or mixed forests are destroyed by long-term
nomadism of domestic animals and by the
forest-exploiting activities of humans and burn-
ing, then at an altitude of 1,500-3,000 m a.s.l..

358

RHESUS MONKEY DISTRIBUTION IN THE LOWER HIMALAYAS

pine forests penetrate them as secondary for-
ests in regions where natural regeneration is
inhibited and soil erosion has occurred in warm
temperate and cold temperate zones. If pine
forest once formed is neglected, it changes to
other types of forest, but it is normally main-
tained by incessant activity.

Such secondary pine forests are distributed
all over the Himalayan and Mahabharat ranges.
Stainton (1972) indicated that secondary
forests of Pinus wcdlichiana are well distributed
in central and west-central Nepal, and Puri
(1960) mentioned that similar forests are
widely distributed in the temperate zone of the
Punjab and Garhwal Himalayas. At the western
parts of the Himalayas from Sikkim the human
population is denser, and the secondary forest
area of pine trees should be more extensive.

Rhesus monkey distribution in the

ALPINE ZONE

Rhesus monkeys should be distributed up to
the upper boundary of crop cultivation. Japa-
nese trekkers who have visited Nepal have said
that Rhesus monkeys are found in all regions
of Nepal. The upper boundary of crop culti-
vation is in the areas between 2,400 m and
3,000 m a.s.l. in Nepal (Kanai 1966, and my
unpublished data), and this upper boundary
nearly coincided with the upper limit of Rhesus
monkey distribution in Nepal (Richie et al.
1978, Teas et al. 1980, and my unpublished
data).

In Shanshi, China, near the northern limit
of Rhesus monkey distribution, Betula- and
Quercus-dominsitQd deciduous broad-leaved
forests at 1,000-2,000 m a.s.l. provide a habitat
for monkeys, since areas below 1,000 m are
occupied by cultivated fields (Tan et al 1965).
In South-west China, Rhesus monkeys reach
at 3,400 m a.s.l. in altitude (Zhang et al. 1981 ).

Evergreen broad-leaved forests in the southern
and eastern parts and deciduous broad-leaved
forests in the central part of China provide
habitats for Rhesus monkeys. As Rhesus mon-
keys also take many kinds of crops for food
in these areas (Shaw ed., 1962), it is thought
that Rhesus monkeys inhabit the natural forest
(Tan et al. 1965), areas of mixed natural forest
and cultivated fields, as found in the highlands
of India and Nepal.

As in China, Rhesus monkeys inhabit deci-
duous and evergreen broad-leaved forests.
There are oak forests including deciduous
board-leaved forests and coniferous forests in
the Mahabharat as well as the Himalayan
ranges, and if forest destruction due to human
activity was less in such areas. Rhesus monkeys
could inhabit mixed oak-dominated forests with
deciduous broad-leaved trees and conifers.

As regards the vertical distribution of Rhe-
sus monkeys, the upper limit may rise to the
level of the upper boundary of crops, but there
have been other opinions: within deciduous
broad-leaved forests (1,000-2,000 m a.s.l.) in
Shanshi, China, Rhesus monkeys occupied
alpine zones before humans expanded their
activity into these regions.

Rhesus monkey adaptation to

ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES

Rhesus monkeys have been faced with the
problem of adaptation to increasing areas of
terrace fields and waste lands newly formed
by humans. It may be suggested that more
kinds of trees were present in evergreen forests,
deciduous broad-leaved forests, or in mixed
forests than in coniferous forests, so that fruits,
nuts and leaves in the former were more abun-
dant than in the latter during all seasons. It is
very difficult to estimate the availability of
fruits or leaves to monkeys in such forests, but

359

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Table 1

Vertical distribution of vegetation zones in the Nepal Himalayas ( after Stainton, 1972 with

some modifications by the author)

Kind of vegetation zone

(1)

No. of tree species
(2)

in each

(3)

forest storey
(4)

Sal forest

Bhabar and Terai Sal fr.

Hill Sal fr.

Tropical Deciduous Riverain fr.

Tropical Evergreen fr.

East Nepal

- 32

West Nepal

Subtropical Evergreen fr.

Subtropical Deciduous Hill fr.

Schima-Castanopsis fr.

Subtropical Semi-evergreen Hill fr.

Pinus roxburghii fr.

West Midlands

Quercus incana-Q. lanuginosa fr.

West Midlands

Quercus dilatata fr.

West Midlands

Quercus semecarpifolia fr.

West Midlands

Castanopsis tribuloides-C. hystrix fr.

Quercus lamellosa fr.

Central and East Nepal

Lithocarpus pachyphylla fr.

Aescuhis-Juglans-Acer fr.

West Midlands

Humla-Jumla area

Lower Temperate mixed Broad-leaved fr.

West Midlands

Central and East Midlands

Upper Temperate mixed Broad-leaved fr.

Betula utilis fr.

Central Midlands

Humla-Jumla area

Abies spectabilis fr.

Central and East Midlands

Jumla area

West Midlands

Tsuga dumosa fr.

West Midlands

Pinus excelsa fr.

Humla-Jumla area

360

RHESUS MONKEY DISTRIBUTION IN THE LOWER HIMALAYAS

Table 1 (Contd.)

Picea smithiana fr.

Rara lake
Humla area
Abies pindrow it.

Humla area
Cedrus deodara fr.
Cupressus torulosa fr.
Populus ciliata woods
Juniperus wallichiana fr.
West Midlands

(1) Trees which form the top canopy

(2) Trees forming a second storey

(3) Smaller trees and shrubs

(4) Climbers and epiphytes

it is possible to compare the kinds of trees in
each forest. Stainton (1972) divided the forest
structure into 4 layers which were described
as follows: (1) trees constituting the top can-
opy, (2) trees forming the second layer,
(3) lower trees and scrubs, and (4) vines and
epiphytes. In areas at 1,500-2,500 m a.s.l. sur-
veyed this time, there are lower and upper
temperate mixed broad-leaved forests, Tsuga
dumosa forests, Pinus wallichiana forests, Picea
smithiana forests, Abies pindrow forests and
Cedrus deodara forests. Among these forests,
the number of tree species in different conifer-
ous forests is fewer than in broad-leaved forests
(Table 1). However, Rhesus monkeys may
take the bulk of their food from the bigger and
more abundant seeds of Pinus wallichiana.
There are no monkey troops with their entire
home ranges in pine forests alone, and it may
be very difficult to maintain troop movement
in such a forest only because of the simplicity
of monkey habitat condition.

The other change of habitat for Rhesus mon-
keys is the appearance of terrace fields. Grass-
lands would have existed before the human ad-

(1) (2) (3) (4)

vance to the midland and alpine regions, but
they did not greatly influence the habitat condi-
tions of Rhesus monkeys, since the forest fringe
would supply abundant food. The destruction
of forests and forest undergrowth by domestic
animal grazing and the disappearance of for-
ests due to the expansion of terrace fields
caused deterioration and disappearance of the
original habitat of the monkeys. However,
Rhesus monkeys were able to find food in
terrace fields as a new habitat. Further, the
quantity and quality of monkey food were
high even under the original, relatively primi-
tive agricultural conditions.

At present, the monkey troop distribution is
continuous, and monkey troops are abundant
throughout survey areas. Thus, the species is
dominant even now. Human activity has affect-
ed their habitat, but food is still available, i.e.,
seeds of pine trees, some kinds of undergrowth
and fruits of vines. Thus, their distribution area
and population level would not have been
remarkably reduced.

The ability of monkeys to accommodate
newly appearing habitat conditions into their

361

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

modes of life may be closely related to the fact
that they were originally, eating young leaves,
buds, fruits, nuts, seeds and roots of plants.
Langurs inhabiting the same forests as Rhesus
monkeys rarely enter terrace fields.

Active acquisition of terrace fields as habi-
tats by Rhesus monkeys was found during
feeding within fields. When there are no watch-
men, monkey troops feeding in fields are dis-
persed, even near the farmers’ houses. If
farmers or dogs pursue the monkeys, they
escape to trees around the terrace fields, then
wait there. Sometimes, highly ranked males
face dogs without running away. The above-
mentioned behaviour was found in the case of
Japanese monkeys. Such behaviour may be
related to the acquisition of new habits or

R E FE

Fooden, J. (1971) : Report on primates, collected
in western Thailand January- April, 1967. Fieldiana
Zoology. 59 (1): 1-62.

Kanai, H. (1966) : Phytogeography of eastern
Himalaya, with special reference to the relationship
between Himalaya and Japan. 13-38, Hara, H. ed.
The flora of eastern Himalaya. University of Tokyo.

Kato, R. (1972) : New natural regeneration techni-
que of Akamatsu ( Pinus densiflord). 253-300. Yana-
gizawa, S. et al. New natural regeneration technique.
Sobun. 340 pp. (in Japanese).

Koyama, N. & Shekar, P. B. (1981): Geographic
distribution of the Rhesus monkeys and the Bonnet
monkeys in west-central India J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 78(2): 240-255.

Ltndburg, D. G. (1971): The Rhesus monkey
in North India: an ecological and behavioral study.
1-106. Rosenblum, L. A. ed. Primate Behavior 2.

(1976): Dietary/ habits of Rhe-
sus monkeys (Macaca mulatto Zimmermann) in
Indian forests. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73(2):
261-269.

Makwana, S. C. (1978) : Field ecology and be-
haviour of the Rhesus macaque ( Macaca mulatto ) :
I. Group composition, home range, roosting sites,

population dynamics in response to the impact
of human activities.

Acknowledgements

A part of this study was financed by Japa-
nese Ministry of Education Grants for scientific
research (Project serial number 7221).
This study based on the field study of
Indian Rhesus monkeys covered 6 months
from August, 1972. Mr. J. C. Daniel, curator
of Bombay Natural History Society, Mr. K.
L. Mehta, warden of the Wildlife Department,
Himachal Pradesh, Mr. R. P. Jaiswal, officer
of that Department, provided generous help
and advice. Mr. A. Komiyama, the staff of
Department of Agriculture, Gifu University
offered candid and careful advice. To all these
people, I wish to express my sincere thanks.

E N C E S

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Uttar Pradesh, ibid. 65(1) : 47-56.

Mukherjee, R. P. & Mukherjee, G. D. (1972):
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Sciences, Chiba University, Natural Sciences Series,
5(1): 58-74.

Ohsawa, M. vShakya, P. R. & Numata, M.
(1973): On the occurrence of deciduous broad-
leaved forests in the cool-temperate zone of the

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RHESUS MONKEY DISTRIBUTION IN THE LOWER HIMALAYAS

humid Himalayas in eastern Nepal. Japanese Journal
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Puget, A. (1971): Observations sur le macaque
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Puri, G. S. (1960) : Indian forest ecology. I. Ox-
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Richie, T., Shrestha, R., Teas, J., Taylor, H.,
& Southwick, C. (1978): Rhesus monkeys at high
altitudes in Northwestern Nepal. Journal of Mam-
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Shaw, T. H. (1962) : Chinese economical animal
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Stainton, J. D. A. (1972): Forests of Nepal.
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Tan, S. T., Ma, Y., Ban, T. S., Ban, T. Y., &
Chow, H. Y. (1965) : Birds and mammals in the
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17(1): 86-102. (in Chinese).

Teas, J. Richie, T., Taylor, H. & Southwick, C.
(1980): Population patterns and behavioral ecology
of Rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatto) in Nepal.
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logy, behaviour and evolution. Van Nostrand Rein-
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Wada, K. (1983): Ecological adaptation in Rhe-
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nat. Hist. Soc. 80(3) : 469-498.

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On the geographical distribution of primates in
China. Journal of Human Evolution. 10: 215-226.

363

MATERIAL FOR THE FLORA OF M AHAB ALESHW AR-5

P. V. Bole and M. R. Almeida
[Continued from

Myrsinaceae

1 . Fruits many seeded; calyx thick and enclosing

the fruit Maesa

1 . Fruits 1-seeded; calyx not thick, not enclosing

the fruit Embelia

Embelia Burm. f.

1 . Flowers tetramerous E. basaal

1 . Flowers pentamerous 2

2. Leaves oblong-lanceolate; lateral veins

indistinct E. ribes

2. Leaves broadly elliptic; lateral veins

prominent E. tsjeriam-cottam

1. Embelia basaal (Roem. & Schultz.) DC.,
in Trans. Linn. Soc. (London) 17: 131, 1834;
Dalz. & Gibs. 136; Mez, in Pfreich 9: 328,
t. 54, 1902.

Ardisia basaal Roem. & Schultes, Syst. 4:517, 1819.
Samara rheedii Wight, Icon. t. 1591, 1852.

E. viridiflora Clarke, in Flora Brit. India, 3: 516,
1882 (non SchefL, 1867); Cooke, T. 2:86 (2: 145);
Santapau, 399, 1962 & 392, 1963; Puri & Mahajan,
126.

Common rambling climbers with warted
branches found at Dhobi’s falls, Kate’s point,
Arthur seat, Lodwick point, Chinaman’s Falls
and near Madhu Kosh.

flowers: June-November; fruits: Dec-

ember-April.

2. Embelia ribes Burm. f.. Flora Ind. 62,
t. 23, 1768; Graham, 104; Dalz. & Gibs. 137;
FBI 3: 513; Cooke, T. 649 & 2: 84 (2: 143);
Markham, 386; Birdwood, 17; Puri & Maha-
jan, 126.

E. glandulifera Wight, Icon. t. 1207, 1848; Dalz.
& Gibs. 137.

It is a rare species in Fitzgerald Ghat. We

Vol. 79(3): 619]

have only collected it in sterile condition.
local names: Waiwarang, Vavding.

3. Embelia tsjeriam-cottam (Roem. &
Schult.) DC., in Trans. Linn. Soc. (London)
17: 131, 1834; Wight, Icon. t. 1209, 1848; Mez,
in Pfreich 9: 319, t. 52A-J, 1902; Santapau,
399, 1962 & 301, 1963.

Ardisia tsjeriam-cottam Roem. & Schultes, Syst.
4: 518, 1819.

E. robusta Brandis, For. FI. 2: 284, 1874 (non
Roxb. 1832); FBI 3: 515; Cooke, T. 2: 85 (2: 44);
Birdwood, 17.

A large rambling or scandent shrub. Very
common along the edges of the forest.

flowers: September-December; fruits:

September-March.

local names: Ambuti, Wauri.

Maesa Forsk.

1. Maesa indica (Roxb.) DC., Trans. Linn.
Soc. (London) 17: 134, 1834; Dalz. & Gibs.
136; Lisboa, 216; FBI 3: 509; Cooke, T. 649
& 2: 82 (2: 141); Birdwood, 17; Markham,
386; Lee, 646; Puri & Mahajan, 126.
Baeobotrys indica Roxb., FI. Indica, 2: 230, 1824.
M. perottetiana DC., Prodr. 8:8, 1844.

M. indica var. perottetiana (DC.) C. B. Clarke, in
FI. Brit. India 3:509, 1882.

Common and abundant shrub along the
fringes of forests and along road-sides in ghat
areas. It is especially common at Bombay
point. Tiger path, Dhobi’s falls, Chinaman’s
falls, Fitzgerald ghat, Falkland point and Lod-
wick point.

flowers & fruits: August-March.
local name: Atki.

364

MATERIAL FOR THE FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR — 5

Sapotaceae

1. Sepals uniseriate; stamens 5-6 Xantolis

1 . Sepals biseriate 2

2. Petals 8 Mimusops

2. Petals 6 Manilkara

Manilkara Adans.

1. Manilkara zapota (Linn.) van Royen, in

Blumea, 7: 410, 1953.

Achras zapota Linn. Sp. PI. 1190, 1753; FBI 3:
354; Cooke, T. 2: 96 (2: 156).

Cultivated occasionally in private gardens.
flowers: Throughout the year.
local name: Chiku.

Mimusops Linn.

1. Mimusops elengi Linn., Sp. PI. 349, 1753;
FBI 3: 548 Cooke, T. 2: 95 (2: 155); Puri
& Mahajan, 126.

A rare tree. Occasionally planted in gardens.
flowers: June-October; fruits: Septem-
ber-March.

local name: Bakuli.

Xantolis Raf.

1. Xantolis tomentosa (Roxb.) Raf., Sylv.
Tell. 36, 1838; van Royen, in Blumea 8: 226,
1957; Santapau, 142.

Sideroxylon tomentosum Roxb., PI. Corom. 1:28,
t. 28, 1795; Graham, 105; FBI 3: 538; Cooke, T. 2:
90 (2: 150).

Poutcria tomentosa Baehni, in Candollea 9: 368,
1942.

Common tree all over Mahabaleshwar.
Some trees possess sharp, more than 3 cm.
long spines, but very often trees are spineless.

flowers: November-May; fruits: Through-
out the year.

local names: Kumbhal, Kate-kumbhal.
Ebenaceae

Diospyros nigrescens (Dalz.) Saldanha {Maba
nigrescens Dalz.,) has been reported by Mar-

kham and Diospyros montana Roxb. and Dio-
spyros assimilis Bedd. have been reported by
Birdwood, in his catalogue (p. 17), but there
are no specimens in any of the herbaria con-
sulted to support the presence of these species
at Mahabaleshwar.

Symplocaceae
Symplocos Jaquin

1. Drupe ampuiil'orm, ribbed S. laurina

1 . Drupe ellipsoid S. beddomei

1. Symplocos beddomei C. B. Clarke, in
Hook, f.. Flora Brit. India 3: 582, 1882;
Nairne, 174; Cooke, T. 648 & 2: 108 (2:
109); Lee, 646; Puri & Mahajan, 126.

S. racemosa Graham, cat. Bombay PI. 104, 1839
(non Roxb., 1832); Lisboa, 217.

Hoppca racemosa Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI. 140.
1861. Markham, 386.

Very common tree at Lodwick point. Tiger
path, Lingmala, Chinaman’s falls. Dhobi’s
falls, and Carnac point. Graham describes it
as the most ornamental tree of Mahabaleshwar.

flowers: December- January;

fruits : April-May.

local names: Kauli, Lodhra, Lenda.

This species has been merged with Symplo-
cos racemosa Roxb. by T. P. Ramamurthy, in
Flora of Hassan District (p. 200, 1976). Clarke
(1. c.) expressed his doubt about its being a
variety of that species and gave a number of
points which distinguish it from Roxburgh’s
plant, a major point being that the fruit is
ovoid and wider near the base. Ramamurthy
does not give any reason for merging the
two species. His decision seems to have been
based on opinion of Dr. H. P. Nooteboom
(Leiden), rather than the type studies of the
Indian species. Our materials show ovoid-
oblong fruits and we prefer to keep it under
S. beddomei Clarke, until the status of this
name is proved to the contrary.

365

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

2. SympSocos Saurina (Retz.) Wall, ex
Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 1839; Puri & Maha-
jan, 126; Santapau, 143.

Myrtus laurina Retz., Obs. 4:26, 1786.

S. spicata Roxb. FI. Ind. 2: 541, 1832; FBI 3: 573;
Wight, 111. t. 150; Cooke, T. 2: 108 (2: 169).

S. spicata var. laurina C. B. Clarke, in Flora Brit.
India 3:573, 1882.

Hoppea spicata Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI. 140,
1861; Markham, 386.

S. cochinchinensis ssp. laurina (Retz.) Noote-
bcom, Apud Ramamurthy, in FI. Hassan Dist. 198,
1976.

This species is recorded here on the autho-
rity of Puri & Mahajan’s report from
Mahabaleshwar. We have not seen it growing
on the plateau.

In Flora of Flassan District, T. P. Rama-
murthy treats this taxon as a subspecies of
S. cochinchinensis (Lour.) Moore, the name
of which is based on Drupatris cochinchinensis
Lour. (1790). In fact Myrtus laurina Retz.
(1786), the basyonym of this subspecies,
has a priority over Loureiro’s name.

Oleaceae

1 . Climbing shrubs > Jasminum

1 . Erect shrubs or trees 2

2. Inflorescence terminal Ligustrum

2. Inflorescence axillary 3

3. Petals all connate Olea

3. Petals connate in pairs Chionanthus

Chionanthus Gaertn.

1. Chionanthus malabarica (Wall, ex G.
Don) Bedd. For. Man. Bot. 154, 1872; Bed-
dome, FI. Sylvat. t. 239, 1872; Nair & Janar-
danan, Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78(2):
331, 1981.

Linociera malabarica Wall, ex G. Don, Gen. Syst.
4: 53, 1837; Graham, 109; Wight, Icon. t. 1246,
1848; FBI 3: 607; Cooke, T. 2: 117 (2: 178).

Rare tree at Mahabaleshwar.
flowers : November-February.
local name: Heddi.

Jasminum Linn.

1 . Leaves simple 2

2. An erect or sub-erect shrub /. sambac

2. Climbing shrubs 3

3. Bracts linear, subulate J. malabaricum

3. Bracts foliaceous J. multiflorum

1. Leaves compound J. officinale

1. Jasminum malabaricum Wight, Icon. t.
1250, 1848; FBI 3: 594; Cooke, T. 2: 111
(2: 172); Santapau, in Journ. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 46: 563 & 302, 1963; Puri & Maha-
jan, 126.

J. latifolium Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 110, 1839
(non Roxb., 1832); Dalz. & Gibs. 138; Lisboa, 216.

J. arboresccns var. latifolia Talbot, Trees Bombay
(ed. 2) 216, 1902; Cooke, T. 649; Birdwood, 17.
Common climber all over Mahabaleshwar.
flowers & fruits: February- June.
local name: Kusar.

2. Jasminum multiflomm (Burm. f.)
Anders. Bot. Rep. 8, t. 496, 1801; G. L. Shah,
FI. Gujarat, 411, 1978.

Nyctanthus multiflora Burm. f., FI. Indica, 5, t.
3, f. 1, 1763.

J. pubescens Willd., Sp. PI. 1: 37, 1797; FBI 3:
592; Cooke, T. 2: 112 (2: 173).

Ornamental shrub, cultivated for its flowers.
flowers: Throughout the year.
local name: Mogra, Jui.

3. Jasminum officinale Linn. Sp. PL 7,
1753; FBI 3: 603; Cooke, T. 2: 114 (2: 175).

Cultivated shrub with white fragrant flowers.
flowers: Throughout the year.
local names: Chameli, Jati-Jaie.

5. Jasminum sambac Ait., Hort. Kew 1: 8,
1789; Graham, 110; Dalz. & Gibs. 137; Wight,
Icon. t. 704; FBI 3: 591; Cooke, T. 2: 111
(2: 172).

Cultivated for its fragrant flowers.
flowers: Throughout the year.
local name: But-mogri.

Ligustrum Linn.

1. Ligustrum perottettii A. DC, in DC.

366

MATERIAL FOR THE FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR — 5

Prodr. 8: 294, 1844. var. obovatum (C. B.

Clarke) Gamble, FI. Madras 2: 798 (561),

1923.

L. neilgherren.se var. obovata C. B. Clarke, in
FI. Brit. India, 3: 615, 1882; Cooke, T. 2: 119 (2:

181); Santapau, 399, 1962 & 302, 1963; Puri &

Mahajan, 126.

L. neilgherrense Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI. 159,

1861; (non Wight, 1848); Markham, 386; Nairne,

177; Ccoke, T. 649; Birdwood, 17.

Common shrub all over Mahabaleshv/ar.

Stem used for making walking sticks.
flowers : August-November.
local name: Lokhandi.

Apocynaceae

1 . Plants armed with spines Carissa

1 . Plants spineless 2

2. Scandent shrubs or climbers 3

3. Leaves in whorls Allamanda

3. Leaves opposite Anodendron

2 . Erect shrubs or trees 4

4. Leaves alternate 5

5. Plants evergreen; fruit a drupe Thevetia

5. Plants deciduous; fruits a pair of follicles Plumeria

4. Leaves opposite or in whorls 6

6. Leaves in whorls 7

7. Leaves linear along whole length of branches; fruits elongated

follicles Nerium

7. Leaves oblanceolate or obovate, near the ends of the branches; fruits ellipsoid drupes
Rauwolfia

6. Leaves opposite 8

8. Corolla with coronary scales Wrightia

8. Corolla without coronary scales 9

9. Small garden herbs Catharanthus

9. Large shrubs or small trees 10

10. Plants deciduous; seeds cosmose, arillate Holarrhena

10. Plants evergreen; seeds with orange-red aril, not cosmose Ervatamia

Allamanda Linn. Anodendron DC.

1. Allamanda cathartica Linn , Mant. 2:
214, 1771; Cooke, T. 2: 144 (2: 207).

A. aubletii Pohl, PI. Brass. 1:75, 1827; Graham,
116; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 53.

Cultivated ornamental shrub, flowering
throughout the year.
local name: Bote.

1. Anodendron panicuSatum DC., Prodr.
8; 444, 1944; Dalz. & Gibs. 147; FBI 3: 668;
Cooke, T. 2: 141 (2: 204); Birdwood, 18.

Echites paniculata Roxb., FI. Ind. 2: 17, 1832;
Wight, Icon. t. 396 (non Poir, 1812).

Gymnema nepalensis Graham, Cat. Bombay PI.
120, 1839 (non Wight, 1824).

Olea Linn.

1. Olea dioica Roxb., FI. Ind. 1: 105, 1820;
Graham, 109; Dalz. & Gibs. 159; Wight, 111.
151; Lisboa, 216; Markham, 386; FBI 3: 612;
Cooke, T. 648 & 2: 118 (2: 179); Birdwood,
17; Santapau, 398, 1962; Puri & Mahajan, 126.

One of the common trees at Mahabaleshwar.
Very often infested by the parasite Viscum.
flowers : J anuary- April.
local names: Par Jambhal, Karamba.

367

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 81

This species is included here on authority
of Birdwood.

Carissa Linn. (nom. cons.)

1. Carissa cosigesta Wight, Icon. t. 1289,
1848; Hains, in Indian Forester, 45: 385, 1919.

C. carandas Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 116, 1839
(non Linn., 1767); Dalz. & Gibs., 143; FBI 3: 630
(pro parte); Cooke, T. 2: 124 (2: 186); Lisboa,
217; Birdwood, 17.

Common spiny shrub along Kelger Ghat.
Ripe fruits are eaten and raw fruits are used
for pickles.

flowers : February- J une.
local name: Carvanda.

Catharanthus G. Don

1. Catharanthus roseus (Linn.) G. Don,
Gen. Syst. 4: 95, 1837; Graham, 115; Dalz.
& Gibs, suppl. 53; Santapau, 147.

Vinca rosea Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. 10, 944, 1759;
FBI 3: 640.

Lochnera rosea Reich., Consp. Regn. Veg. 134,
1828; Cooke, T. 2: 129 (2: 192).

An ornamental garden plant, bearing pink
or white flowers.

flowers: Throughout the year.
local name: Sadaphuli.

Ervatamia Stapf

1. Ervatamia divaricata (Linn.) R. Br., in
Roem. & Schultes, Syst. 4: 420, 1819; Burkill,
in Rec. Bot. Surv. India, 10: 320, 1925.
Nerium divaricatnm Linn., Sp. PI. 209, 1753.

N. coronarium Jacq., Coll. 1: 138, 1786; Bot. Mag.
t. 1865.

E. coronaria (Jacq.) C. Stapf in This. -Dyer, FI.
Trop. Africa, 4: 127, 1902; Cooke, T. 2: 134 (2:
197).

T. coronaria Willd. Enum. Hort. Berol. 275, 1809;
Graham, 115; Dalz. & Gibs. 144; FBI 3: 646;
Wight, Icon. t. 477.

Cultivated for its flowers which are offered
for religious worship.
local name: Tagar.

Holarrhena R. Br.

1 . Holarrhena antidysenterica (Heyne ex
Roth.) DC, Prodr. 8: 413, 1844; Dalz. &
Gibs. 145; FBI 3: 644; Cooke, T. 2: 133 (2:
195): Birdwood, 18; Santapau, 287, 1963; Puri
& Mahajan, 127.

Echites antidysenterica Heyne ex Roth., Nov. PI.
Sp. 138, 1821.

Wrightia antidysenterica Graham, Cat. Bombay PI.
249, 1839 (excl. Syn.).

H. codaga G. Don, Gen. Syst. 4: 78, 1837; Wight,
Icon. t. 1297, 1848.

Rare shrub in open forests on the ghat
region.

flowers : March-October.
local name: Kuda.

Nerium Linn.

1. Nerium indicum Mill., Gard. Diet. (ed.
8), no. 2, 1768; Santapau, 150.

N. odorum Soland, Apud. Ait. Hort. Kew. 1 :
297, 1789; Graham, 114; FBI 3: 655; Cooke, T.
2: 143 (2: 206).

Ornamental garden plant.
flowers: Throughout the year.

Plumeria Linn.

1. Plumeria rubra Linn., Sp. PI. 209, 1753;
Woodson, Ann. Missouri Bot. Garden, 25 :
297, 1938.

P. acuminata R. Br., in Ait. Hort. Kew. ed 2,
2: 70, 1811; Graham, 119; Santapau, 149.

P. acutifolia Poir., in Lam. Encycl. Meth. Suppl.
2: 667, 1812; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 52; FBI 3: 641;
Lisboa, 217; Cooke, T. 2: 142 (2: 206).

P. rubra Linn, forma acuminata (Ait.) Santapau
& Irani ex Shah, in Journ. Univ. Bombay, 30: 35,
1962.

Cultivated in gardens and generally planted
near temples.

flowers: December- June.

local names: Khair Champa, Deo-champa.

Rauwolfia Linn.

1. Rauwolfia densiflora (Wall, ex Ed-

368

MATERIAL FOR THE FLORA OF MAHABALESHW AR — 5

ward) Benth. ex Hook. 1, FI. Brit. India, 3:
633, 1882; Nairne, 179; Cooke, T. 649 & 2;
127 (2; 189); Birdwood, 18; Santapau, 287,
1963; Puri & Mahajan, 127.

Tabernamontana densiflora Wall., in Edwards Bot.
Reg. 15: t. 1273, 1829.

Ophioxylon neilgherrense Wight, Icon. t. 1292,
1848; Dalz. & Gibs. 144.

Quite common shrub in partially shaded
places among the undergrowths near Lingmala
and Tiger’s path.
flowers : March- April.

Thevetia Linn. (nom. cons.)

1. Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum., in
Pfam. 4(2): 159, 1895; Merrill, in Phil. Journ.
Sci. Bot. 9: 130, 1914; Santapau, 150.

Cerbcra peruviana Pers. Syn. 1: 267, 1805.

T. nehifolia Juss. ex Steud. Nom. ed 2, 2: 680,
1841.

Cultivated ornamental plant. Flowers are
said to be very poisonous and only used for
religious offering.

flowers: Throughout the year.
local name: Karanda.

Wrightia R. Br.

1. Wrightia tinctoria R. Br., in Mem.
Werm. Soc. 1: 47, 1811; Graham, 114; Dalz.
& Gibs. 145; Lisboa, 217; Lee, 646; Birdwood,
18; Cooke, T. 2: 137 (2: 200).

A rare tree at Mahabaleshwar.
flowers: March- June;
fruits: April-December.

Asclepiadaceae

1 . Pollen masses granular, solitary; filaments partlyor wholly free 2

2. Corolla 4 mm long, lobes valvate Hemidesmus

2. Corolla 10-15 mm long, lobes imbricate Cryptolepis

1. Pollen masses smooth, paired; filaments connate ,3

3. Plants with underground tubers; corolla lobes connate at tips Ceropegia

3. Plants without tubers; corolla lobes free 4

4. Epiphytes; rooting at the nodes Hoy a

4. Terrestrial plants, not rooting at nodes 5

5. Erect herbs or scandent shrubs 6

6. Fleshy succulent plants, leafless when in flowers 7

7. Plants upright erect, less than 15 cm. long Frerea

7. Plants scandent, 2-3 metres long Sarcostemma

6. Plants not succulent, leafy when in flowers 8

8. Plants erect 9

9. Stem and leaves glabrous; leaves lanceolate Asclepias

9. Stem and leaves cottony pubescent; leaves broadly ovate Calotropis

8. Scandent shrub Gymnema

5. Twining climbers 10

10. Pollen masses erect or horizontal 11

11. Corona lobes spreading; corolla green Dregea

11. Corona lobes adnate to the staminal column; corolla not green Tylophora

10. Pollen masses pendulous 12

12. Corolla divided to half its length Holostemma

12. Corolla divided up to the base Cynanchum

369

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Asclepias Linn.

1. Asclepias curassavica Linn. Sp. PI. 215,
1753; Edward, Bot. Rot. Reg. t. 81, 1815;
Graham, 120; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 54; FBI 4:
18; Cooke, T. 2: 180 (2: 245); Santapau, 178.

Rare weed on banks of rivers and streams.
Sometimes cultivated in gardens.
flowers: Throughout the year.

Calotwpis Linn.

1. Calotropis gigantea (Linn.) R. Br., in
Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2, 78, 1811; Edward, Bot.
Reg. t. 58, 1815; Wight, 111. tt. 155, 156A;
Graham, 120; Dalz. & Gibs. 149; Bot. Mag. t.
6862; FBI 4: 17; Lisboa, 217; Birdwood, 18;
Cooke, T. 2: 151 (2: 214); Santapau, 171.

Asclepias gigantea Linn. Sp. PI. 214, 1753.

Rare shrub in waste-lands. Leaves offered
for worship.

flowers: Throughout the year.

Ceropegia Linn.

1 . Stems erect C. lawii

1 . Stems twining 2

2. Corolla lobes as long as the tube

C. vincaefolia

2. Corolla lobes 1/3 length of the tube...
C. hirsuta

1. Ceropegia hirsuta Wight & Arn., in

Wight, Contrib. 30, 1834; FBI 4: 71; Cooke,
T. 2: 137 (2: 242); Blatter & McCann, in
Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36: 535, 1933;
Santapau, 177; Santapau & Irani, Bull. Bot.
Soc. Bengal 12 (1 & 2) : 10-11, 1958.

C. hispida Blatter & McCann, in Journ. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 409, 1931.

Rare species on rocky ground on way to
Panchgani.

flowers : J uly- August.

2. Ceropegia lawii Hook., in Bot. Mag. t.

4093, 1844; FBI 4: 72; Cooke, T. 2: 177 (2:
240); Blatter & McCann 36: 535; Santapau,
176; Huber, in Mem. Soc. Broter 12: 64, t.
3, f. 31, 1957.

Quite common species at Lingmala, among
the undergrowth in shady places.
flowers : J uly-October.

3. Ceropegia vincaefolia Hook, f., Bot.
Mag. t. 3740, 1839; Ansari, in Bull. Bot. Surv.
India, 13: 190, 1971.

C. hirsuta var. vincaefolia Hook, f., in FI. Brit.
India 4: 74, 1883.

C. polyantha Blatter & McCann, in Journ. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. 34: 936, 1931 & 36: 535, 1933.

C. oculata var. subhirsuta Huber, in Mem. Soc.
Broter, 12: 65, 1952.

Rare species found at Lingmala and near
Venna Lake.
flowers: July-Gctober.

Cryptolepis R. Br.

1. Cryptolepis buchanani Roem. & Schul-
tes, Syst. 4: 409, 1819; Graham, 113; Dalz.
& Gibs. 148; Wight, Icon. t. 194; FBI 4: 5;
Cooke, T. 2: 147 (2: 210); Puri & Mahajan,
127; Santapau, 151.

Rare. Only reported by Puri and Mahajan.
flowers : April- J une.

Cynanchum Linn.

1. Cynanchum caliialata Ham., in Wight,
Contrib. 56, 1834; Wight, Icon. t. 1279; FBI
4: 24; Cooke, T. 2: 157 (2: 221); Santapau,
152.

A rare climber near Lingmala.
flowers : September-December.

Dregea E. Meyer (nom. cons.)

1 . Suberect undershrubs; leaves lanceolate; pedi-
cels more or less 1 cm. long

D angustifolia

1. Climbing shrubs; leaves broadly ovate; pedicels

— 3 cm: long D. volubilis

1. Dregea angustifolia (Hook, f.) Santapau
& Irani, in Bot. Mem. Univ. Bombay 4: 41,
1900.

D. volubilis var. angustifolia Hook, f., in FI. Brit.
India, 4: 47, 1883; Birdwood, 18.

Marsdenia volubilis var. angustifolia Blatter &
McCann, Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36: 167, 1904.

370

MATERIAL FOR THE FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR — 5

This species is reported by Birdwood from
Rotunda Ghat and Babington point.
flowers : May- J une.
local name: Dudhli.

2. Dregea volubilis (Linn, f.) Benth. ex
Hook, f., in FI. Brit. India, 4: 56, 1883; lal-
bot 2: 254; Birdwood, 18; Santapau, 154.
Asclepias volubilis Linn. f. suppl. 1/0, 1781.
Marsclenia volubilis Cooke, T., FI. Pres. Bombay.
2: 166, 1904; FBI 4: 47; Santapau, 289, 1960; Puri
& Mahajan, 127.

Hoya viridiflora R. Br., in Mem. Wern. Soc. 1 :
27, 1809; Graham, 119; Wight, Icon. t. 586; Dalz.
& Gibs. 153; Lisboa.

Wattakaka volubilis (Linn, f.) Stapf, in Curtis
Bot. Mag. sub. t. 8976, 1923.

Climbing shrub, frequent near Lingmala.
flowers: April-June; fruits: August-
October.

local names: Dhora, Amri, Hirandoti.
Frerea Dalz.

1. Frerea indica Dalz., in Journ. Linn. Soc.
London, 8: 10, t. 3, 1865; FBI 4: 76; Blatter
& McCann, 36: 535; McCann, Journ. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 41: 143, tt. 1-3, 1939.

Only Bishop R. D. Acland has reported to
have seen this species among the rocks near
Kate’s point.

flowers : September-December.
fruits: December- January.

Gymnema R. Br.

1. Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) R. Br. ex
Schultes, in Roem. & Schult. Syst. Veg. 6: 57,
1819; Wight, Icon. t. 349; Graham, 120; Dalz.
& Gibs. 151; FBI 4: 29; Cooke, T. 649 & 2:
160 (2: 224); Lisboa, 217; Talbot 2: 249;
Blatter & McCann, 36: 530; Birdwood, 18;
Santapau, 288, 1963; Puri & Mahajan, 127.
Periploca sylvestris Retz., Obs. 2: 15, 1781.
Common plant in open forests. Leaves used
by local people as antidiabetic drug.

flowers : April-May;

fruits: September- January.

local names: Kauli, Lamtani, Dodi, Pitani,
Sirdoli.

2. Gymnema montanum (Roxb.) Hook, f..
Flora Brit. India, 4: 31, 1883; Cooke, T. 649,
1885; Blatter & McCann, 36: 530.

Asclepias montana Roxb., FI. Ind. 2: 45, 1832.

This species is reported by T. Cooke, in
vegetation of Mahabaleshwar (1885). But he
has not recorded it from Mahabaleshwar later
in Flora of Bombay Presidency.

Hemidesmus R. Br.

1. Hemidesmus indices Schultes, in Roem.
& Schult. Syst. Veg. 6: 126, 1819; FBI 4: 5;
Graham, 122; Wight, Icon t. 594; Dalz. &
Gibs. 147; Cooke, T. 2: 147 (2: 210); Talbot
232; Santapau & Irani, 94; Santapau, 289,
1963.

Periploca indica Linn. Sp. PI. 211, 1753.

Frequent in the forest among undergrowth.

flowers: July-January; fruits: January-
May.

local name: Anantmul.

Holostemma R. Br.

1. Holostemma annulare (Roxb.) K.
Schum., in Pfam. 4(2): 250, f. 71J-K, 1895;
Santapau, 171.

Asclepias annularia Roxb., FI. Ind. 2: 37, 1832.

H. rheedei Wall. PI. As. Rar. 2: 51. 1851; Wight,
Icon. t. 597; Graham, 121; Dalz. & Gibs. 148; FBI
4: 21; Talbot, 2: 245.

H. rheedeianum Cooke, T. FI. Pres. Bombay 2:
156, 1904 (non Spreng., 1825).

Rare climber at Mahabaleshwar.

Hoya R. Br.

I. Hoya pendula Wight & Arn., in Wight
Contrib. 36: 1834 (excl. syn.; non Wight, Icon,
t. 474, 1840); Santapau, Journ. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 53: 504, 1956.

H. pallida Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI. 152, 1861.

H. wightii Hook, f., FI. Brit. India, 4: 59, 1883;

371

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Nairne, 186; Cooke, T. 2: 169 (2: 234); Talbot 2:
258; Santapau, 155.

H. parasitica Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 119, 1839
(non Wall., 1830).

Common climber near Lodwick point,
Lingmala.

flowers: May- August;
fruits: August-January.
local names: Amri, Dudhyal.

Sarcostemma R. Br.

1. Sarcostemma acidum (Roxb.) Voigt,
Hort. Sub. Calcattensis, 542, 1845; Blatter &
McCann, 36: 529; Santapau & Irani, 76.
Asclepias acida Roxb., FI. Ind. 2: 31, 1832.

S. brevistigma Wt. & Arn., in Wight Contrib. 59,
1834; Wight, Icon. t. 595; Dalz. & Gibs. 149; FBI
4: 26; Lisboa, 217; Talbot 247.

This species is included here on the authority
of Lisboa. We have not seen it on Mahaba-
leshwar plateau, though it is common between
Panchgani and Wai.
flowers: June -July.
local names: Somalata, Somvel.

Tylophora R. Br.

1. TylopSiora dalzellii Hook, f., FI. Brit.
India 4: 43, 1883; Nairne, 185; Cooke, T. 2:
163 (2: 227); Blatter & McCann, 36: 531;
Santapau, 289, 1963; Puri & Mahajan, 127;
Santapau, 154.

T. carnosa Dalz. & Gibs., Bombay FI. 150, 1861
(non Wight, 1834).

A rare species at Mahabaleshwar.
flowers : April-November.

Buddlejaceae
Buddie ja Linn.

1. Buddfieja asiatica Lour., FI. Cochinch.
72, 1790; Dalz. & Gibs. 180; Lisboa, 218;
Birdwood, 18; Nairne, 188; Cooke, T. 2: 183
(2: 248); Puri & Mahajan, 127.

Rare species in Fitzgerald Ghat and at Bhilar
Estate.

flowers: January- April.

Gentianaceae

1 . Flowers regular • 2

2. Ovary 2-celled Exacum

2. Ovary 1 -celled 3

3. Corolla with 1-2 glands at base on inner

side Swertia

3. Corolla glandular inside . .. .Centaurium

1 . Flowers irregular Canscora

Canscora Lam.

1. Stem not winged C. diffusa

1 . Stems winged 2

2. Sepals strongly keeled C. khandalensis

2. Sepals not keeled C. decurrens

1. Canscora decurrens Dalz., in Kew J.
Bot. 2: 136, 1850; Dalz. & Gibs. 157; FBI
4: 103; Cooke, T. 2: 192 (2: 257)

There are two specimens of this species in
Blatter Herbarium from Mahabaleshwar, with-
out collection locality data.

flowers : October-December.

2. Canscora diffusa (Vahl) R. Br., Prodr.
45, 1810 (in obs.); Graham, 123; Dalz. & Gibs.
158; FBI 4: 103; Nairne, 191; Cooke, T. 650
& 2: 191 (2: 257); Lisboa, 218; Birdwood,
19; Lee, 646; Santapau, 400, 1962; Puri &
Mahajan, 127.

Gentiana diffusa Vahl, Sym. Bot. 3: 47, 1794.

C. lawii Wight, Icon. t. 1327, 1848 (non Clarke,
1875).

Common and abundant plant in moist rocky
places with bright-red flowers. Plants have been
collected from Chinaman’s Falls & Fitzgerald
Ghat.

flowers: October- January.

3. Canscora khandalensis Santapau, in
Kew Bull. 1948: 485, 1949; FI. Khandala, 162.

There is only one specimen of this species
from Mahabaleshwar, collected and identified
by Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, from sides of Venna
Lake. This specimen is a young plant.

372

MATERIAL FOR THE FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR — 5

Centaurium Hill.

1. Centaurium centauroides (Roxb.) Rolla
Rao & Hemadr, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 67: 357, 1970.

Chironia centauroides Roxb. FI. Ind. 2: 283, 1824.
Erythraea roxburghii D. Don, Syst. 4: 206, 1837;
Wight, Icon. t. 1325; Dalz. & Gibs. 157; Cooke,
T. 2: 190 (2: 255).

Common herb in drying rice-fields near
Chinaman’s Falls.

flowers : October-May.

Exacum Linn.

1 . Calyx not winged on the back E. lawii

1. Calyx winged on the back 2

2. Leaves petioled E. carmatum

2. Leaves sessile 3

3. Corolla more than 2 cm. long

E. bicolor

3. Corolla less than 1 cm. long

E. pumilum

1. Exacum bicolor Roxb., FI. Ind. 1: 413,
1820; Graham, 123; Dalz. & Gibs. 156; Wight,
Icon. t. 1321; FBI 4: 96; Cooke, T. 2: 187
(2: 252); Birdwood, 18; Santapau, 401, 1962.

Sebaea carinata Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 124,
1839 (non Spreng., 1824).

This species is included on authority of Rev.
Fr. H. Santapau.

2. Exacum lawii Clarke, in FI. Brit. Ind.
4: 98, 1883; Woodrow, in Journ. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 12: 168, 1898; Birdwood, 18; Cooke,
T. 650, 1885 & 2: 180 (2: 254); Puri & Maha-
jan, 127.

Rare species among the grasses at Lodwick
point and Kate’s point. Flowers bright gentian
blue.

flowers : September-October.

local names: Jatali, Gaulan.

3. Exacum carinatuiu Roxb., FI. Ind. 1:
415, 1820; T. P. Ramamurthy, in FI. Hassan
Dist. 425, 1978.

E. petiolare Griseb. in DC. Prodr. 9: 46, 1845;

Wight Icon. t. 1324 (2), 1848; Dalz. & Gibs. 157;
FBI 4: 98; Puri & Mahajan, 127.

E. pedunculatUm Linn. var. petiolare Trim., FI.
Ceylon, 3: 182, 1895: Cooke, T. 2: 188 (2: 253).

This species is included on authority of Puri
& Mahajan.

flowers : October-December.

4. Exacum pumilum Griseb., in DC. Prodr.
9: 46, 1845; Wight, Icon. t. 1324; Dalz. &
Gibs. 157; FBI 4: 68; Cooke, T. 2: 188 (2:
254); Santapau, 401, 1962.

Common herb among grasses. Flowers bluish
purple in colour.

flowers : August-October.

Swertia Linn.

1. Petal with two glands at the base S. minor

1. Petals with single gland at the base

S. densi flora

1. Swertia densiflora (Griseb.) Kashyapa,
in Kew Bull. 15: 42, 1961.

Ophelia densiflora Griseb., in DC. Prodr. 9: 125,
1845.

5. decussata Nirnrno, in Graham, Cat. Bombay

PI. 249, 1839; (nomen nudum) Birdwood, 19;

Nairne, 192; Cooke, T. 650, 1885 & 2: 194 (2: 259).

O. alba Arn., in Wight 111. t. 157, f. 3F, 1850.
O. multiflora Dalz., in Hook. Kew Journ. 2: 135,
1850; Dalz. & Gibs. 156; Lisboa, 218.

Quite a common plant at Mahabaleshwar.
Roots are used in medicine as bitter tonic and
sold in Mahabaleshwar Market.
flowers : December- J anuary .

2. Swertia minor (Griseb.) Knobl., in Bot.
Centralbl. 60: 321, 1894; Cooke, T. 2: 193
(2: 259); Santapau, 296, 1963.

Ophelia minor Griseb., in DC. prodr. 9: 126,

1845; Wight, Icon. t. 1332; Dalz. & Gibs. 156.

Pleurogyne minor Benth., Gen. PI. 2: 816, 1876;
FBI 4: 120.

Rare species among the grasses with pale
mauve flowers. Collected only from Kate’s
point.

flowers: September.

373

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Boraginaceae

1 . Prostrate or procumbent herbs Coldenia

1 . Erect herbs 2

2. Fruits smooth Mattiastrum

2. Fruits glochidiate 3

3 . Nutlets base not produced downwards . . .

Adelocaryum

3. Nutlets base produced downwards

Cycinoglossum

Adelocaryum Brandis

1. Stem red; flowers pale blue with dark centre.

A. coelestinum

1. Stem green; flowers uniformly dark-blue

A. malabaricum

1. Adelocaryum coelestinum (Lindl.)
Brand., in Fedde Repert. 13: 549, 1915 &
Pfreich, 78: 78, t. 8, 1921; Santapau, 290,
1963; Puri & Mahajan, 127.

Cyanoglossum coelestinum Lindl., in Bot. Reg.
25: t. 36, 1839; Dalz. & Gibs. 173; Lisboa, 218.

Eckinospermum coelestinum Wight, Icon. t. 1394,
1850.

Paracarym coelestinum Benth. & Hook, f., Gen.
PI. 2: 850, 1878; Birdwood, 19; FBI 4: 160; Nairne
197; Cooke, T. 650, 1885 & 2: 218 (2: 285); Lee,
646.

Fairly common and abundant, often grega-
rious on forest fringes and on exposed grassy
slopes along road-sides. Plants bear cauline as
well as radical leaves. Mahabaleshwar speci-
mens come from Chinaman’s falls, Wilson
point, Fitzgerald ghat, Venna lake. Petit Road,
Madhu Kosh and Pratapsingh Park.

flowers : August- April.

2. Adelocaryum malabaricum (Clarke)
Brandis, in Fedde Repert. 13: 549, 1915 &
Pfreich. 78: 79, 1921.

Parcicaryum malabaricum Clarke, in Flora Brit.
India 4: 160, 1883; Birdwood, 19; Cooke, T. 650,
1885 & 2: 219 (2: 286); Santapau, 399, 1962 &
290, 1963.

Very common and abundant weed all over
in latter half of monsoon. It is more abun-
dant near Venna Lake, Chinaman’s Falls,
Wilson point, Kate’s point.

flowers: August-December.

Coldenia Linn.

1. Coldenia procumbens Linn. Sp. PI. 125,
1753; Graham, 135; Dalz. & Gibs. 171; Lisboa,
218; FBI 4: 144.

This species is included on the authority of
Lisboa.

flowers : September-October.

Cyanoglossum Linn.

1 . Flowers in racemes; pedicels long, filiform,
longer than calyx C. wallichii

I . Flowers capitate or paniculate; pedicels

short, shorter than calyx C. zeylcmicum

1. Cyanoglossum wallichii G. Don, Gen.
Syst. 4: 354, 1838; FBI 4: 157.

C. glockidiatum Wall, ex Lindley, in Bot. Reg. 27 :
t. 15, 1841; FBI 4: 156.

C. denticulatum DC., Prodr. 10: 150, 1845; FBI
4: 157.

Fairly common herb along margins of forests.
flowers : J une-November.

2. Cyanoglossum zeylanicum (Vahl ex
Hornem.) Thunb. ex Lehm. Neue Schriften
Naturf. Ges. Halle. 3(2): 20, 1817; Kazmi,

J. Arnold Arbor. 52: 344, 1971.

Anchusa zeylanica Vahl ex Plomem., Enum.
Hafn. 3, 1807.

C. denticulatum var. zeylanicum (Thunb.) C. B.
Clarke, in Flora Brit. Ind. 4: 157, 1883; Cooke, T.
2: 217 (2: 284).

C. meeboldii Brandis, in Fedde Repert. 14: 323,
1916 & in Pfreinch. 72: 134, 1921; Santapau, 166;
Puri & Mahajan, 127.

Included on the authority of Puri & Maha-
jan only.

flowers: July- August.

Mattiastrum Brandis

1 . Mattiastrum lambert ianum (Clarke)
Brandis, in Pfreich. 78: 61, 1921; Santapau,
291, 1963.

Paracaryum lambert ianum Clarke, in FI. Brit.
India 4: 161, 1883; Birdwood, 19; Nairne, 197;

374

MATERIAL FOR THE FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR — 5

Cooke, T. 650 & 2: 219 (2: 287); Puri & Mahajan,
127.

Fairly common on hill slopes among grasses
in the latter half of the monsoon. Abundant at
Dhobi’s Falls and Fitzgerald ghat. So far this
species seems to be endemic to Mahabalesh-
war.

flowers : October-November.

Ehretiaceae

Rotula Lour.

1. Rotula aquatica Lour. FI. Cochinch.
121, 1790; Santapau, 164.

Rhabd'a lycioides Mart. Nov. Gen. Sp. 2: 137,
1826; FBI 4: 145; Cooke. T. 2: 205 (2: 272).

R. virninea Dalz., in Hook. Icon. t. 823, 1854;
Dalz. & Gibs. 170.

Ehretia cuneata Wight, Icon. t. 1385, 1848.

In Poona (BSI) Herbarium there is one
specimen collected by Cooke from Koyna
Valley, below Mahabaleshwar. But we have
not seen this plant on Mahabaleshwar plateau.

CONVOLVULACEAE

1 . Outer three or all sepals much enlarged in
fruit corolla tube uniformly enlarged from the

base to the apex For ana

1 . Sepals not enlarged in fruit; corolla tube not

uniformly enlarged 2

2. Fruit dehiscent Ipomoea

2. Fruit indehiscent Argyreia

Argyreia Lour.

1. Bracts small, scaly, foliaceous A. elliptica

1 . Bracts large, membranous 2

2. Leaves elongate-ovate, rounded at the

base A. inv olucr ata

2. Leaves broadly ovate, cordate at base

A. boseana

L Argyreia boseana Santapau & Patel, in
Trans. Bose Res. Inst. Calcutta, 22: 35, t. 3,
1958.

A. hookcri Cooke, T. FI. Pres. Bombay 2: 255,
1905, (non Clarke, 1883); Talbot 2: 285; Santapau,
293. 1963; Puri & Mahajan, 3 27,

A. malabarica Woodrow, in Journ. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 12: 170, 1898.

Fairly common climber on forest trees.
Flowers mauve-violet. This species is ende-
mic to Mahabaleshwar and Panchgani.
flowers: August-October.

2. Argyreia elliptica (Roth.) Choisy, in
Mem. Soc. Phys. Genere 6: 417, 1833; Gra-
ham, 128; Dalz. & Gibs. 169; Santapau, 293,
1963; Puri & Mahajan, 128.

Ipomoea elliptica Roth., PI. Sp. 113, 1821.
Leitsomia elliptica (Roth.) Wight ex C. B. Clarke,
in FI. Brit. India 4: 192, 1883; Cooke, t. 2: 259
(2: 329).

Occasional twiner on forest trees.
flowers : September-October.
local name: Bondvel.

3. Argyreia invoSucrata Clarke, in FI. Brit.
India. 4: 187, 1883; Talbot 2: 256; Cooke,
T. 2: 256 (2: 325).

A. involucrata var. inaqualis Clarke, in FI. Brit.
India 4: 187, 1883.

This plant has been reported by Cooke, T.,
from Wada, below Mahabaleshwar. But it is
not found on the plateau.
flowers: July- August.

Ipomoea Linn.

1 . Sepals entirely glabrous ...../. diversifolia

1. Sepals hairy on outer side 2

2. Sepals not long-attenuate at apex

I. illustris

2. Sepals long-attenuate or linear-acuminate
at apex /. congesta

1. Ipomoea congesta R. Br., Prodr. 485,
1810; Oostsroom, in Blumea 3: 500, 1940.

/. acuminata (Vahl) Roem. & Schultz, Syst. 4:
228. 1819 (non Ruiz & Pav., 1799).

Convolvulus acuminatus Vahl, Symb. Bot. 3: 26,
1794.

I. learii Paxt., Bot. Mag. 6: t. 267, 1839, Cooke,
T. 2: 251 (2: 321).

Cultivated plant with dark blue flowers
which fade to reddish colour. Occasionally
seen in private gardens.

375

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

2. Ipomoea diversifolia R. Br. Prodr. 487,
1810; Oostsroom, 365; Santapau, 170.

Pharbitis laciniata Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot. 3:
178, 1851; Dalz. & Gibs. 167.

7. laciniata Clarke, in FI. Brit. India, 4: 200, 1883;
Cooke, T. 2: 250 (2: 319); Puri & Mahajan, 128.

7. dissecta Woodrow, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 12: 171, 1898 (non Willd.,); Birdwood, 19.

Rare plant on grassy slopes. Prostrate or
ascending but not climbing or twining.
flowers : October-November.

3. Ipomoea iilustris Prain, Bengal PI. 735,
1903; Oostsroom, in Blumea, 3; 566, 1940;
Santapau, 170.

7. companulata Choisy, in Mem. Soc. Phys. Geneve
6: 151, 1833; Wight, Icon. t. 1375; Dalz. & Gibs.
165; FBI 4: 211; Cooke, T. 2: 247 (2: 316); Lee,
646 (non Linn. 1753).

7. companulata var. illistris Clarke, in FI. Brit.
India, 4: 211, 1883.

7. soluta Kerr, in Kew Bull. 1941: 18, 1941.

flowers: January-February.

Porana Burm.

1. Porana racemosa Roxb., FI. Ind. 2:41,
1824; Graham, Cat. 133; Dalz & Gibs. 167;
Oostsroom, in Blumea 3: 91, 1938; FBI 4:
222; Santapau, 167.

P. malabarica Clarke, in FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 223,
1883; Nairne, 206; Cooke, T. 651 & 2: 226 (2:
294); Birdwood, 19; Puri & Mahajan, 128.

Fairly common climber on forest trees.
flowers : October-November.
local name: Bhauri.

Solan ace ae

1 . Fruit a capsule 2

2. Stamens 4 Browailia

2. Stamens 5 3

3. Stamens all 5 perfect Datura

3. Stamens in 2 pairs and one much smaller

or rudimentary Petunia

1 . Fruit a berry .4

4. Fruiting calyx persistant, highly

accrescent 5

5. Flowers pale or light biue Nicandra

5. Flowers yellow Physalis

4. Fruiting calyx not accrescent 6

6. Anthers dehiscing by apical pores 7

7. Anthers linear; flowers in cymes

Solanum

7. Anthers ellipsoid; flowers in

fascicles Lycianthus

6. Anthers dehiscing by longitudinal slits... 8

8 . Corolla tubular Cestrum

8. Corolla rotate 9

9. Flowers yellow Lycopersicon

9. Flowers white Capsicum

Browailia Linn.

1 . Calyx not glandular B. americana

1. Calyx glandular, viscid B. viscosa

1. Browailia americana Linn., Sp. PI. 631,
1753; Bailey, Man. Cult. PI. 880.

B. demissa Linn., Syst. ed 10, 1118, 1759; Dalz. &
Gibs, suppl. 63; Cooke, T. 2: 276 (2: 346); Vartak,
in Journ. Univ. Poona, 18: 91, 1960.

B. data Linn. Syst. ed 10, 118, 1759.

Dr. V. D. Vartak has reported this species
from Mahabaleshwar. One of the specimens
which we have examined (Vartak-2020) is B.
viscosa H. B. K.

2. Browailia viscosa H. B. K., Nov. Gen.
Sp. PI. 2: 373, 1818; Bailey, 880.

Viscous, glandular hairy herbs with axillary
flowers which are blue or violet purple in
colour. Cultivated but very often found as an
escape.

flowers: December.

Capsicum Linn.

1 . Capsicum annum Linn. var. acuminatum
Fingerh. Mon. Capsicum 13, t. 2, f.c., 1832;
Cooke, T. 2: 276 (2: 347); Santapau, in
Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 47: 661, 1948.

C. frutescens Roxb. FI. Ind. 1: 574, 1832 (non
Linn., 1753); Graham, 139; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 61;
FBI 4: 239.

Cultivated for fruits which are used as
spices and condiments.

flowers: Throughout the year.

local name: Mirchi, Lai mirchi

376

MATERIAL FOR THE FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR — 5

Cestrum Linn.

1. Calyx lobes distinctly reflexed C. diurnum

1. Calyx lobes erect or spreading, not

reflected C. nocturnum

1. Cestrum diurnum Linn. Sp. PI. 191,
1753; Bailey, 873; Bor & Raizada, some Beaut.
Ind. Climb. & Schrubs 118, 1954.

Cultivated in gardens. Flowers ivory-white
in colour.

flowers: Throughout the year.

local name : Din-ka-Raja.

2. Cestrum nocturnum Linn. Sp. PI. 191,
1753; Bor & Raizada, 119; Bailey, 873; Santa-
pau, 200; Puri & Mahajan, 128.

Cultivated ornamental plant. Produces strong
fragrance during night and in early morning,
which fades away after sun-rise.

flowers: June- July.

local name: Rat-ki-Rani.

Datura Linn.

1 . Flowers erect; fruits spiny 2

2. Fruits drooping D. metel

2. Fruits erect D. stramonium

1. Flowers drooping; fruits not spiny

D. suaveolens

1. Datura suaveolens Humbolt & Bona-
plant ex Willd., Enum. Hort. Berol. 227, 1809;
Bor & Raizada, Some Beaut. Indian Climb. &
Shrubs 130, 1954;

Brugmansia Candida (non Pers. 1805); Graham,
Cat. Bombay PI. 141; 1839; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl.
63; Birdwood, 19; Nairne, 210; Cooke, T. 649, 1885.

B. suaveolens Bercht. & Presl. ex G. Don, Gen.
Syst. 4: 475, 1838.

Datura arborea Cooke, T., FI. Presidency Bom-
bay 2: 274, 1905 (2: 344); (non Linn., 1753).

Fairly common tall shrub along roadsides
and in wastelands with trumpet-shaped droop-
ing flowers. It rarely produces fruits in Maha-
baleshwar.

flowers: May-July; fruits: December.

2. Datura metel Linn. Sp. PI. 179, 1753;

Cooke, T. 2: 273 (2: 349); Santapau, Journ.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 47: 657; Bailey, 877;
Bor & Raizada, 1. c. 129.

D. fastuosa Linn. Syst. ed 10, 2: 932, 1759; FBI
4: 242; Cooke, T. 651 & 2: 273 (2: 343).

D. alba Nees, in Trans. Linn. Soc. 17: 73, 1834;
Graham, 141; Wight, Icon. t. 852; Dalz. & Gibs. 174;
Lisboa, 218.

D. fastuosa Linn. var. alba (Nees) Clarke, in FI.
Brit. India 4: 243, 1883; Cooke, T. 2: 273 (2: 344);
Birdwood, 19.

This species is included on authority of
Lisboa and Birdwood.

3. Datura stramonium Linn. Sp. PI. 179,
1753; FBI 4: 242; Wettst, in Pfam. 4 (3b) 27,
f. 13A-C, E-J, 1891.

D. tatula Linn. Sp. PI. 256, 1762.

D. stramonium Linn. var. tatula Clarke, in FI.
Brit. India, 4: 242, 1883.

Occasional annual herb along roadsides in
wastelands.

flowers: June- July, fruits: September.
Lycianthus Hassl.

1. Calyx entire or obscurely 5-toothed. .. .L. laevis

1. Calyx 5-8 conspicuous teeth L. laevis

var. kaitisis

1. Lycianthus laevis (Dunal) Bitter, Abh.
Nat. Ver. Bremen. 24: 484, 1920; Baker &
Bakh. FI. Java 2: 476, 1955.

Solanum laeve Dunal, Solan. Synop. 22, 1816.

S. bigeminatum Nees in Trans. Linn. Soc. London,
17: 42, 1837; FBI 4: 231; Woodrow, in Journ.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12: 173, 1898; Cooke, T. 2:
264 (2: 334); Puri & Mahajan, 128; Santapau, 47:
656.

L. bigeminata (Nees) Bitter, in Abn. Naturh. ver.
Bremen. 24 : 480, 1920.

S. neesianum Dalz. & Gibs., Bombay FI. 175, 1861.
(non Wall, ex Nees, 1837).

This species is included on the authority of
Woodrow, T. Cooke and Puri & Mahajan. No
reliable specimens were seen by us. Following
subspecies of this species is quite common at
Mahabaleshwar and might have been mistaken
for the typical subspecies.

377

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

2. Lycianthus laevis (Dunal) Bitter, subsp.

kaitisis (Bitter), comb. nov.

L. bigeminata (Nees) Bitter, subsp. kaitisis (Dun.)
Bitter, in Abh. Naturn. Ver. Bremen 24: 481, 1920;
Santapau, 47 : 656.

S. kaitisis Dunal, in DC. Prodr. 13(1) : 157, 1852.
S. denticulatum Clarke, in FI. Brit. India, 4: 231,
1883 (non Blume, 1825); Wight, Icon. t. 1397, 1848;
Cooke, T. 640 & 2: 264 (2: 334); Birdwood, 19;
Puri & Mahajan, 128.

Common along roadsides and at the edges
of forests.

flowers: July-October;
fruits: August-December.

Lycopersicon Mill.

1 . Lycopersicon lycopersicurn (Linn.) Karst,
ex Farwell, Ann. Rep. Comm. Park Boule-
wards Detr. 11: 83, 1900; G. L. Shah, FI.
Gujarat, 486, 1978.

L. esculentum Mill., Gard Diet, ed 8, No. 2,
1768; FBI 4: 237; Cooke, T. 2: 275 (2: 345); San-
tapau, 47 : 660.

Solanum iycopersicum Linn. So. PI. 185; Dalz. &
Gibs, suppl. 61.

Occasionally in waste-lands along roadsides.
Usually cultivated for its fruits.
flowers & fruits: Throughout the year.
local names: Tamatar, Tomato.

Nicandra Adans.

1. Nicandra physaloldes (Linn.) Gaertn.,
Fruct. 2: 237, t. 141, f. 2, 1791; Graham, 140;
Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 62; FBI 4: 240; Cooke,
T. 2: 275 (2: 346); Santapau, 47: 660; Bird-
wood, 19.

Occasionally found in waste-lands along
roadsides. Very showy plant when in bloom.
flowers : J uly- August.

Nlcotiana Linn.*

1. Corolla tube linear N. plumbagini folia

1 . Corolla tube narrow below, ventricose

above TV. tabacum

* Cultivated or Escape.

1. Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viv. Elench.
PI. Hort. Dinegro 26, t. 5, 1820; G. L. Shah,
FI. Gujarat, 487, 1978.

Rare weed along roadsides and in gardens.
flowers : N ovember- J anuary.

2. Nicotiana tabacum Linn. Sp. PI. 180,
1753; Graham, 140; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 63;
FBI 4: 245; Lisboa, 219; Cooke, T. 2: 276
(2: 346); Santapau, 47: 660.

Rarely cultivated in gardens.
flowers & fruits: December- April.
local name: Tambakhu.

Petunia Juss.

1. Petunia violacea Lindl., Bot. Reg. t.
1626, 1853; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 63.

Cultivated in gardens in cold seasons. Some-
times found wild as an escape from cultivation.
flowers : J anuary-February.

Physalis Linn.

1. Stems glabrous; anthers yellow P. minima

1 . Stems pubescent with appressed hairs, anthers
greenish-blue P. longifolia

1. Physalis longifolia Nutt., in Trans.
Amer. Phil. Soc. ser. 2, 5: 193, 1834; Santa-
pau, 174.

P. peruviana Graham, Cat. Bombay pi. 140, 1839
(non Linn., 1753); Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 61; FBI 4:
238; Santapau, 47: 657; Lisboa, 219.

P. pubesccns R. Br. Prodr. 1: 447, 1810 (non
Linn., 1753).

Rare weed in wastelands. This species goes
under P. peruviana in our herbarium materials.
According to Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, P. peru-
viana is a shrub or small tree, whereas the
Mahabaleshwar plant is a herbaceous weed.

flowers: November.

local name: Popti.

2. Physalis minima Linn. Sp. PI. 183, 1753;
FBI 4: 238; Graham, 140; Cooke, T. 2: 270
(2: 340); Santapau, 47: 657.

P. pubescens Wight, 111. t. 166B, f. 6, 1850 (non
Linn. 1753).

378

MATERIAL FOR THE FLORA OF M A HA 8 ALES H WAR — 5

Rare weed in waste-lands along roadsides.
flowers: July- August.

Solatium Linn.

1. Plants climbing S. wendlandii

1 . Plants not climbing 2

2. Plants armed with spines 3

3. Herbs S. melongena (p.p.)

3. Shrubs or undershrubs 4

4. Leaves white tomentose on ventral

surface S. giganteum

4. Leaves glabrous S. indicum

2. Plants unarmed 5

5. Shrubs S. erianthum

5. Herbs 6

6. Flowers in umbels, white S. nigrum

6. Flowers in racemes, pale violet or

mauve coloured S. melongena

(P-P-)

1. Solatium giganteum Jacq., Coll. 4: 125,
1790; Graham, 138; Dalz. & Gibs. 175; Wight,
Icon. t. 893; FBI 4: 233; Nairne, 208; Cooke,
T. 649 & 2: 266 (2: 336); Talbot 2: 303;
Santapau, 399, 1962 & 309, 1963.

Very common and abundant, often very
gregarious, along roadsides, in forest clearings
and in waste-lands.

flowers : August-November.
local names: Chuna Jhad, Kutri.

2. Solanum indicum Linn. Sp. PI. 187, 1753
(pro parte); Graham, 138; Wight, Icon. t. 346;
Dalz. & Gibs. 174; Lisboa, 218; FBI 4: 234;
Birdwood, 19; Cooke, T. 649 & 2: 266 (2:
336); Santapau, 47: 653 & 309, 1963; Puri &
Mahajan, 128.

Common, at times gregarious, among the
undergrowth of the forests.
flowers & fruits: June-February.
local names: Chiturti, Ran-vangi.

3. Solanum melongena Linn., Sp. PI. 186,
Graham, 138; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 61; FBI 4:
235; Cooke, T. 2: 269 (2: 339); Santapau,
47: 655.

S. esculent urn Dunal, Hist. Solanum 208, t. 3,
1813.

Cultivated for fruits which are used as a
vegetable. Occasionally found in waste lands

as an escape from cultivation.

flowers & fruits: Throughout the year.

local name: Vangi.

4. Solanum nigrum Linn. Sp. PI. 186, 1753;
FBI 4: 229; Birdwood, 19; Nairne, 208; Cooke,
T. 2: 263 (2: 332); Santapau, 47: 652; Puri
& Mahajan, 128.

5. rubrum Mill., Gard. Diet. cd. 8, no. 4, 1768
(non Linn. 1767); Wight, Icon. t. 344, 1840.

S. incertum Dunal, Hist. Sol. 155, 1813; Graham,
137.

Common weed along road-sides, in gardens
and moist wastelands.

flowers & fruits: August-October.

local name: Ringni.

5. Solanum erianthum D. Don, Prodr. 96,
1825; Roe, in Taxon 17: 176, 1968.

S. verbascifolium Wight, Icon. t. 1398, 1848 (non
Linn., 1753); Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI. 175, 1861;
FBI 4: 230; Cooke, T. 2: 263 (2: 333); Talbot 2:
302; Santapau, 47: 653 & 309, 1963.

5. pubescens Roxb. FI. Ind. 2 : 244, 1824 (non
Wilkl., 1794). Willd., 1794).

Talbot has reported this species from Jate-
rites of Mahabaleshwar. Not seen by us.

6. Solanum tuberosum Linn.* Sp. PI. 185,
1753; Graham, 137; Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 60;
FBI 4: 229; Lee, 646; Lisboa, 219; Cooke, T.
2: 269 (2: 339); Santapau 47: 655.

Lycopsrsicon tuberosum Mill. Gard. Diet. ed. 8,
no. 7, 1768.

The Potato plant is extensively cultivated on
all possible cultivable lands. Tubers are dis-
patched to Bombay and Poona markets on
wholesale basis. According to Graham, the red
soil of Mahabaleshwar suits well for this crop.

7. Solanum wendlandii Hook. f. in Curt.
Bot. Mag, t. 6914, 1887; Bor & Raizada, Some
Beautiful Indian Climb. 8i Shrubs, 125, 1954.

Large twining perennial cultivated in local
gardens.

flowers: June.

(To be continued )

* Cultivated.

379

BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA

IN SOME INDIAN BATS1

Part IX — Hipposideros lankadiva (Kelaart) — Hipposideridae
V. M. Sapkal and W. R. Bhandarkar2

Specimens of Hipposideros lankadiva (Kelaart) were collected from old temples and
unused tunnels from Chandrapur about 160 kilometres from Nagpur. This large bat
lives in colonies which vary from a scattered gathering of 50 to 100 individuals to
thousands. The bat is very active and both males and females are found in the same
colony throughout the year. It has an annual breeding cycle and each female delivers
a single young one during each cycle. Deliveries in the colony occur from the 10th
May to the end of May. There is a dominance of the left side of the genitalia over
the right a few cases showing ovulation and pregnancy in the right. The gestation
period is prolonged due to a retarded development of the embryo after implantation
and is of about 260 days. Females are sexually quiescent only for a short period from
1st week of August to the middle of August. The young ones do not attain sexual

maturity in the year of birth. The colony

Introduction

Although the family Hipposideridae is re-
presented by several species in India, some
aspects of the breeding biology of only a few
species have been studied (Gopalakrishna and
Moghe 1960; Gopalakrishna and Bhatia 1980;
Gopalakrishna and Bhatia 1983).

The present paper on the breeding habits
of Hipposideros lankadiva is a part of the over-
all programme of the study of reproductive
biology of Indian bats undertaken in this labo-
ratory. This species has been chosen for detailed
study because it not only exhibits some un-
usual features but it also differs considerably
from the breeding behaviour of a closely related
species, Hipposideros speoris (Gopalakrishna
and Bhatia 1983) inspite of living in the same
geographical situation and under the same eco-
logical conditions. In fact, Hipposideros lanka-

1 Accepted May 1981.

2 Department of Zoology, Institute of Science,
Nagpur.

shows a female dominant sex-ratio.

diva is often associated with Hipposideros
speoris since the two species live in the same
roost.

Material and Methods

Specimens of Hipposideros lankadiva were
obtained from their natural roosting places at
and near Chandrapur about 160 kilometres
south of Nagpur. The specimens were collected
from November 1976 to May 1979 such that
every calendar month was represented by one
collection or more. The specimens were netted
at random during daytime and sometimes dur-
ing the night. After recording the significant
characteristics of the external genitalia in the
males and the mammary nipples and pubic dugs
in the females, the animals were killed by chloro-
form and their body weight recorded by a sensi-
tive spring balance. The reproductive tracts were
dissected out and fixed in Bouin’s fixative or
10% formalin and were preserved in 70%
alcohol. In the case of the males the right
testis of each specimen was taken out of 70%

380

BREEDING HABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS — PART IX

Table I

Summary of the collection diary

Date of
collection

MALES

Immature Adult

Attached Free

Total

FEMALES

Immature Adult

Attached Free Non- Preg-
pregnant nant

Right Left
horn horn

Lactating

Total

Grand

Total

2-1-79

—

5-1-78

14-1-79

5-2-79

19-2-78

23-2-78

28-2-78

9-3-79

18-3-78

25-3-79

2-4-77

9-4-78

10-4-77

16-4-79

22-4-78

1-5-78

10-5-79

13-5-77

14-5-77

—

24-5-78

6-6-77

13-6-78

21-6-78

—

25-6-77

—

26-6-77

—

1-7-78

—

9-7-78

—

16-7-77

—

20-7-78

—

30-7-77

—

3-8-77

—

12-8-78

—

21-8-77

—

24-8-78

—

5-9-78

—

10-9-77

—

10-9-78

—

14-9-78

381

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Table I (Contd.)

24-9-78

—

30-9-77

—

1-10-77

14-10-78

17-10-78

28-10-77

1-11-76

14-11-76

18-11-77

20-11-78

10-12-77

18-12-78

—

Table ii

Monthwise collection of specimens

Month

Immature

attached

males

free

Adult

males

Total

males

Immature

Attached

females

Free

Adult

females

Total

females

Grand

total

January

—

February

March

April

;

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

158

194

244

323

517

alcohol, gently rolled on filter paper and
quickly weighed in a Mettler balance. This
gave accurate relative weights of the testes of
different specimens since all the testes of all
the males were subjected to the same proce-
dure. Table I gives the summary of the collec-
tion diary and Table II gives the month wise
collection of the specimens.

Observations

1 . General remarks

Hipposideros lankadiva is a large bat as
compared to other hipposiderid bats. The
maximum weight of the male is 76 gins and
that of the non-pregnant female 55 gms. The
species shows a variety of fur colour. The

382

BREEDING HABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS — PART IX

most common types are fulvous brown and
reddish brown. Sometimes a greyish brown
and bright golden red type of fur is also
noticed. A golden colour of the fur is also
noticed in some other bats of the family Hippo-
siderida ^-Hipposideros caffer in Africa and
Hipposideros calcaratus, Hipposideros cupidus
and Hipposideros galeritus in New Guinea
(Brosset 1962, Menzies 1973). In ail these
cases the change of colour was attributed to
high humidity, high temperature and high
ammonia concentrations.

Hipposideros lankadiva lives in colonies in
old temples and unused tunnels. This bat is
very active and flies away on the slightest dis-
turbance. The population in the different colo-
nies varies from a scattered gathering of about
50 to 100 individuals to thousands. Brosset
(1962) reported a colony of 5,000 to 7,000
specimens from Mandu, in Central India. In
Chandrapur the largest colony was about 2,000
to 3,000 specimens clinging to the crevices in
the wall of old temples and tunnels. The regular
roosts are full of huge deposits of guano. Speci-
mens of Hipposideros lankadiva are found
together with Hipposideros speoris in some
roost. Males and females are collected from
the same roost throughout the year indicating
that there is no segregation of sexes either on
the basis of age or on the basis of sexual acti-
vity during any season of the year.

2. Female genitalia

The ovary ovoid in shape and is enclosed
in a complete ovarian bursa. It is attached to
the dorsal ligament by a narrow hilus. The
Fallopian tube arises from the posteromedian
aspect of the ovarian bursa, and, after taking
a slightly tortuous curve around the cranial
surface, bends caudally to open into the cranial
end of the respective uterine cornu. The uterus
is bicornuate and the two uterine cornua are
morphologically symmetrical. Each uterine

cornu of a non-pregnant adult specimen ap-
pears to bulge at its anterior end. The two
cornua meet mesially forming a V-shaped
structure. The uterine cornu measures 5 mm
in length. The vagina is about 9 mm long and
opens by a transverse slit-like opening.

A pair of pectoral mammary teats are pre-
sent on the ventrolateral sides of the thorax
and a pair of pubic dugs on the ospubis, one
on either side of the midlinc. In the majority
of the females, the right pubic teat is longer
than the left, suggesting the probability of its
being used more.

The young one clings to the ventral side of
the mother’s abdomen with the pubic dugs in
its mouth. Thus the unweaned young one is
found attached to the mother in the head to
tail position during rest. Most of the young
ones hold the right pubic teat and sometimes
both in their mouth keeping the hind limbs
free or forming a loose embrace around the
neck of the mother. While sucking, the young
holds the mammary nipples by the jaws, while
the claws of the feet are firmly anchored to
the pubic teats.

3 . Breeding habits

Examination of the collection diary and
Tables I and II reveals that Hipposideros lanka-
diva is a seasonally breeding species and exhibits
several interesting features. Pregnancy as evi-
denced by the presence of a bulbous uterine
cornu, was noticed from the first week of
September to about the last week of May.
Microscopic examination of the female re-
productive organs revealed that the females
collected on the 12th of August had not copu-
lated and both the ovaries contained vesicular
follicles only. However, out of the eight adult
females collected on 24th August, four had
pre-ovulatory follicles in the left ovary and
sperms in their genital tracts, three had an
early extrovert corpus luteum each in their

383

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

left ovary and an egg in the eight cell stage in
the Fallopian tube thereby indicating that ovu-
lation and fertilisation must have taken place
a day or two earlier and one had multilaminar
follicles with intercellular chinks in the left
ovary.

Out of the 14 females collected on 5th
September, one had an unfertilised egg sur-
rounded by cumulus cells in the ovarian bursa
and sperms in the uterine part of the Fallopian
tube and uterus, three had pre-ovulatory folli-
cles about to rupture and sperms in the genital
tract and the remaining nine showed unques-
tionable pregnancy in the left uterine cornu.
Some females collected on 9th and 10th Sep-
tember showed late stages of cleavage in the
Fallopian tube with degenerate sperms in the
uterine glands and those on 24th September
had free blastocysts in the uterine lumen. Some
females collected between 1st to 17th October
showed various stages of implantation. From
these facts it is evident that all the females in
the colony copulate and conceive approximately
between the 22nd August and 5th September.

The first delivered baby was collected on
10th May. The uterus of the mother had not
involuted and the young one had a small
umbilical stub, closed eyelids, was without
hair and weighed 8 gms. Since the full term
foetuses were of the same weight it is evident
that this young bat must have been delivered
a few hours earlier. During subsequent collec-
tions more and more females in the colony
were found to have delivered their young ones.
One pregnant female collected on 24th May
had a full term foetus which, from its size,
weight and development, would have delivered
in a day or two. Pregnant females were not
present in the colony after this date. The above
facts indicate that all deliveries take place with-
in a span of two weeks that is between second
and last week of May.

The females carrying a young one at their
breasts were collected from 10th May to 26th
June. It cannot be ascertained if the young
ones were incessantly carried by their mother
during this period. The highest weight of the
young at breast was 22 gm. The first batch of
young were collected on 6th June and weighed
25 gm. Assuming that these young ones had
been delivered in the 1st batch (10th May)
and that they were carried by their mother till
6th June, it is evident that the mother carries
the young for about 26 days. However, even
after they leave their mothers they may be
sucking the milk of the mother for some time
more as evidenced by the fact that the mam-
mary glands of the females continue to ooze
milk on pressing till 12th August, and curdled
milk was found in the stomach of several free
young ones.

From the foregoing account of the breeding
habits of Hipposideros lankadiva, the annual
reproductive cycle of the female can be recog-
nised into the following periods:

1 . A short period of sexual quiescence
from first week of August to about the middle
of August.

2. Oestrus- copulation and fertilisation
during the latter half of August and the first
week of September.

3. Pregnancy- from about the latter half
of August to first week of May.

4 . Parturition- during the 10th and the end
of May.

5 . Lactation- from the second week of
May to the first week of August.

4. Duration of pregnancy

The duration of pregnancy as is evidenced
by the above data is of about 260 days allow-
ing a margin of 4 to 5 days on either side —
the date when the first delivery occurred (10th
May) and the date when the egg in early
cleavage was noticed (24th August). An inter-

384

BREEDING E1ABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS — PART IX

esting feature of the pregnancy of this species
is that the uterine bulb did not increase notice-
ably until the end of December. However, from
January onwards the bulbs started increasing
in size until parturition in May. These facts
suggest that after implantation of the blastocyst
the embryonic development is retarded for
about four months until December, and is
responsible for the unusually prolonged pre-
gnancy of this bat. The factors responsible for
this are not known.

5. Number of young

Examination of the collection diary reveals
that out of 169 pregnant females collected, 152
carried the embryos in the left cornu and 17
in the right. Histological examination of the
ovaries of these pregnant specimens revealed
that the corpus luteum was invariably present
in the ovaries ipsilateral to the uterine cornu
carrying the conceptus. Evidently, transuterine
migration of the embryo had not taken place
in any specimen. Futher, there is no evidence
to indicate that there is physiological alter-
nation of the two sides of the genitalia. On
the other hand there is a distinct unilateral
physiological dominance of the left side of the
female genitalia. Such a dominance of the left
side is reported in other hipposiderid bats
(Gopalakrishna and Moghe 1960, Gopalakrishna
and Madhavan 1978, Madhavan et al. 1979,
Gopalakrishna and Bhatia 1983).

6. Growth and maturity

It has already been mentioned that all the
females deliver within a span of a fortnight (10th
May to 24th May). The newly born young ones
weigh about 9 gm when they leave the mother.
The first batch of free young ones weighing
22 gm were collected on 6th June and young
ones at breasts were collected up till 21st June.
Milk was present in the mammary glands until
12 August. Examination of the stomach con-
tents of juveniles weighing 25 to 30 gm re-

vealed the presence of curdled milk in their
stomach. It is evident that the young ones
must be visiting the mother for sucking even
after they become free. Evidently the young
ones grow rapidly during the period when they
suck milk and their body weight increases three
times by the time they are weaned. These
juveniles can be recognised by their darker fur
colour. After 30th July it is not possible to
recognise the juveniles from adults on the basis
of fur colour and size of the body.

The mammary nipples and pubic dugs are
inconspicuous in virgin females, but they in-
crease in size during the first pregnancy and
lactation and remain conspicuous throughout
the rest of the life of parous females. Thus, the
size and nature of the character of the mam-
mary nipples and pubic dugs can be used as
valid criteria to determine the sexual maturity
or otherwise of the females.

The collection diary reveals that some fe-
males having inconspicuous mammary nipples
and pubic dugs were present in the colony
during the breeding and pregnancy periods.
On histological examination they revealed a
typical juvenile conditions of the ovaries and
genitalia. Amongst the males also a number
of immature specimens (immature as revealed
by the size and histological characteristics of
the testis and accessory sex organs) were
collected during the breeding season. The
occurrence of immature females and males
during the breeding season indicates that sexual
maturity is not attained in this species in the
year of birth. It has already been noted that
the first batch of delivered young were collec-
ted on 10th May and that copulation took
place on 24th August. These facts indicate
that the animals of either sex take atleast 16
to 17 months to attain sexual maturity. During
the breeding season the female population
shows three categories of individuals — i) im-

385

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

mature females, ii) nonparous females experi-
encing their first pregnancy and iii) parous
females in their second or subsequent pre-
gnancies.

I. Sex-ratio

Among 517 specimens netted at random at
regular intervals for two years there were 323
females and 194 males. Since there is no segre-
gation of sexes with regard to age or season,
this should be the natural sex-ratio of this
species. The number of sucking individuals in
the collection was too small to give any indi-
cation about the sex-ratio at birth. But among
102 free immature specimens collected there
were 76 females and 26 males (Table II). It
is thus evident that there is a preferential
mortality of the males during the growth period.
This unbalanced sex-ratio during the immature
period continues to the adult period giving
an unbalanced female dominant sex-ratio in
the colony. During the period of copulation
and ovulation (last week of August and first
week of September) also, the adult population
is female dominant.

Refe

Abdulali, H. (1949): Sex ratios in Indian bats.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 48:423-421.

Brosset, A. (1962) : The bats of Central and
Western India. Part II. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59:
583-624.

Gopalakrishna, A. & Bhatia, D. (1980) : Storage
of spermatozoa in the epididymis of the bat, Hippo-
sideros speoris (Schneider). Curr. Sci., 49: 951-952.

— (1983): Breed-

ing habits and associated phenomena in some Indian
bats. Part VII — Hipposideros speoris (Schneider)
(Hipposideridae) from Chandrapur, Maharashtra. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79(3) : 549-556.

Gopalakrishna, A. & Madhavan, A. (1978):
Breeding habits and associated phenomena in some
Indian bats. Part III- Hipposideros ater ater (Tem-

Amongst the hipposiderid bats a female
dominant sex-ratio has been reported in
Hipposideros ater ater (Gopalakrishna and
Madhavan 1978), Hipposideros fulvus fulvus
(Madhavan et al. 1979) and Hipposideros
speoris (Gopalakrishna and Bhatia 1983). The
present observations confirm the female domi-
nant sex-ratio in this species and is at variance
with the report by Abdulali (1949) for this
species. Perhaps Abdulali (1949) based his
conclusions on only a few isolated collections
from only one or two colonies. Hence he pro-
bably missed the exact sex-ratio of this animal.
This bat, therefore, conforms to the norms of
sex-ratio noticed by most workers in most of
the Indian and European bats in general and
hipposiderid bats in particular.

ACK N OWLEDGE M E N TS .

We are deeply grateful to Dr. A Gopala-
krishna, Director, Institute of Science, Nagpur
under whose able guidance this work has been
carried out.

e n c e s

pleton) -Hipposideridae. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,
74: 511-517.

Gopalakrishna, A, & Moghe, M. A. (1960) :
“Development of the foetal membranes in the Indian
leaf-nosed bat, Hipposideros bicolor pallidus. Zeit-
schr. f. Anat. u. Entwicklun gsgesh., 122: 137-49.

Madhavan, A., Gopalakrishna, A. & Patil, D.
R. (1979) : Breeding habits and associated pheno-
mena in some Indian bats. Part V -Hipposideros
fulvus (Gray) -Hipposideridae. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc., 75: 96-103.

Menzies, J. I. (1973): Study of the leaf-nosed
bat {Hipposideros caffer and Rhinolophus landeri)
in a cave in northern Nigeria (incl. reproduction).
/. Mammal., 54: 930-945.

386

ACTIVITY PATTERNS IN A COLONY OF PEAFOWLS
(PAVO CRISTATUS) IN NATURE1

K. Navaneethakannan2
(With five text-fgures)

i) The activity patterns as regards the external environment of Pavo cristatus
occupying an area at Nagamalai ridges near Madurai Kamaraj University campus
and consisting of approximately 50 peafowls of either sexes were studied.

ii) Onset of activity of the first flyer from their roosting tree corresponds to the
time of sunrise throughout the period of observation thus implicating the light as
the chief synchronizing agent.

iii) Returning activity occurs around the time of sunset, and the phase relation
(if/ end) is as precise as for emergence.

iv) Activity time is correlated with the duration of photoperiod Increase in photo-
period results in an increase in the duration of activity.

v) The value of light intensity and the movement of departure of the first flyer
does not exhibit any systematic, triggering light intensity threshold.

Introduction

Many field studies have been undertaken on
birds and small mammals of temperate re-
gions as regards their timings of activity in
relation to environmental factors over the
seasons (Voute et al. 1974, Daan and Aschoff
1975, Erkinaro 1972). Their activity rhythms
are mainly regulated by light /darkness cycle
of nature. Other extrinsic factors such as
temperature (Hoffmann 1968), sound (Mena-
ker and Eskin 1966, Gwinner 1966) and so-
cial cues (Marimuthu et al. 1981) and in-
trinsic factors such as hormones (Turek et al.
1976), can also eventually modify several such
activity rhythms.

Daily beginning and end of activities, in

1 Accepted September 1982.

2 Department of Animal Behaviour, School of
Biological Sciences, Madurai Kamaraj University,
Madurai 625 021.

day-active birds correspond to timings of
sunrise and sunset respectively, and keep
closer pace with them in temperate regions,
(Daan and Aschoff 1975). Such systematic
study, however, is not available for activity
patterns of tropical birds. Day length varies
only marginally in the regions closer to the
equator. The day length, however, varies by
about 1 h and 22 min over the seasons of the
year at Madurai (lat. 9°58’N, long. 78°10’E).
The present study describes the activity pat-
terns of peafowls, Pavo cristatus and corre-
lates them to environmental factors such as
sunrise, sunset and photoperiod.

T erminology :

cc — duration of activity
if/ — phase angle difference
ip onset — Time interval between sunrise
and onset of activity

ip end — Time interval between sunset
and end of activity

ip midpoint — 1/2 ( tfr onset + ip end)

387

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Habitat description and study methods

The study area is located at the foothills of
the Nagamalai ridge to the north of the Madu-
rai Kamaraj University campus (lat. 9° 58'N,
long. 78°10'E) and houses a colony of pea-
fowl of c. 50. The ridge lies in the east-west
axis and is approximately 10 km. the southern
flank of which is a rain shadow. The habitat
is surrounded by thick scrub jungle with rich
bird and ground insect population. Water
availability is scarce because of the rock sur-
face of the habitat. Peafowls usually roost on
the branches of Acacia spp. and on palmyra
trees.

All day-watches were made from July 1980
until the end of March 1981 in that area. The
observer was positioned away from these roost-
ing sites and noise and movement were kept
to a minimum. The time of beginning of acti-
vity of the peafowl was recorded from a dis-
tance using a pair of binoculars. Values of
light intensity were measured using an AEG
lux meter at the time of onset of flight activity

of peafowls from the roosting tree. Recordings
of ambient temperature, rainfall and wind
speed were obtained from the meteorological
station of the Department of Animal Behavi-
our, School of Biological Sciences, Madurai
Kamaraj University. Sunrise, sunset data were
obtained from the tables of ‘Nautical Almanac’.

Results

Pattern of emergence activity, based on the
number of peafowls which fly from the roost-
ing trees with time is typically a bell shaped
curve as shown in Fig. 1. On the contrary the
pattern of end of foraging activity (number
of peafowls roosting vs time) indicates that
the peak of roosting occurred en masse. (Fig 1)

The time of beginning of activity of birds
from the roosting trees was related to the time
of sunrise as shown in Fig. 2. The beginning
of activity time varied between 0544 h (July)
to 0640 h (March) during the period of investi-
gations. This closely parallels the sunrise time

Fig. 1. Onset of foraging flight and end of activity are plotted as a function of time.
The peak of onset of foraging activity is bell shaped. The roosting (end of activity)
occurred en masse and vocalizations were frequent.

388

ACTIVITY PATTERNS IN A COLONY OF PEAFOWLS IN NATURE

Fig. 2. (a) Field data on time of onset of activity of a colony of Pavo cristatus.
Foraging flight from the roosting tree corresponds to the time of sunrise.

(b) The end of activity of the bird corresponds to the time of sunset.
Ordinate: Hour of day.

Abscissa: Month of year.

which varied between 0600 h and 0640 h. It is
a common practice in circadian literature to
relate the timings of onset and end of activity
of diurnal animals to characteristic phase
points of the daily sunrise and sunset. This
phase angle difference, \Jj onset, was calculated
as the time difference between sunrise and the
onset of activity (Fig. 3.)

Environmental variables other than light had
a minor influence on the time of onset of acti-
vity. There was no evidence that the onset of
activity was influenced by temperature since
the mean temperature during the study period

varied between 20°C and 37°C.

The peafowls vocalize while roosting. The
birds started returning to the roosting site from
1700 h. The end of activity closely paralleled
the time of sunset. For example, the time of
end of activity varied between 1759 h and
1859 h over the study period which roughly
paralleled the sunset time 1812 to 18 12 h.

The phase angle difference if/e was calculated
as the time difference between sunset and the
end of activity of the last roosting bird. The
xj/ onset and ^ end values roughly mirror-image.
(Fig. 3).

389

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Activity time :

The analysis of activity time as a function
of photoperiod (sunlight duration) shows that
activity follows the seasonal variations in light
dark ratio (Fig. 4). Activity time is positively
correlated with the duration of the photo -
period. Increase in photoperiod resulted in an
increased activity time.

Discussion

The day to day variations on the timings of
onset of activity and end of activity may be
considered to be indicative of the precision of

the clock underlying and governing such acti-
vities. (Aschoff et al. 1972). The clock would
be more precise if the onset of activity is nearer
to sunrise: by the same token the end of acti-
vity to sunset in diurnal animals (Erkinaro
1972). In our study of birds there is seasonal
variation in the onset of activity which ranges
from 0544 to 0640 indicating a parallel seasonal
shift with the time of sunrise from 0600 to 0640
h. Similar seasonal shift of end of activity is
observed which keeps pace with the progres-
sion of the time of sunset. Aschoff and Wever
(1962) have formulated that day to day vari-
ations in the time of activity onset are smaller

J A S 0 N D J F M

Month of year

Fig. 3. Seasonal changes of onset and end in Pavo cristatus. The seasonal variations

in xp0 and roughly mirror image.

Ordinate: ^r0 and values in minutes.

Abscissa: Month of year.

390

ACTIVITY PATTERNS IN A COLONY OF PEAFOWLS IN NATURE

than variations in the end of activity. Our pea-
fowls exhibited no such day to day variations
of onset relative to end of activity. Thus the
data derived from the field study partly violates

Photoperiod (h)

Fig. 4. Activity time is correlated with the duration
of photoperiod. Activity time increases with increas-
ing photoperiod.

Ordinate: Activity time (h).

Abscissa: Duration of photoperiod (h).

the Aschoff and Wever (1962) generalizations.

Activity onset in day active birds is usually
at higher light intensities than end of activity
(Daan and Aschoff 1975). The statement was
based on the large number of studies compiled
and supported by most of the analyses made
by Daan and Aschoff in captive birds and
mammals. In the present observations it was
found that the peafowls begin and end their
activity at similar light intensities. Such differ-

ences as are noted between temperate and
tropical birds may be due to differences in the
inherent sensitivity of the animals to light in-
tensities, to differences in climatic conditions
and differences incident upon latitudinal factors
and in the physiological status of the animals
related to general living conditions. According
to Aschoff (1965) the best way to measure
appropriate phase relation in diurnal animals
is to compare the midpoint of activity with the
midpoint of day light. In Fig. 5 the activity
midpoint has been plotted against season:
if/ midpoint decreases as the daylength becomes
shorter and increases as it grows longer. This
observation accords with the seasonal rule of
Aschoff (1964) and Daan and Aschoff (1975)
which can be claimed to account for many
diurnal animals.

The graph giving the duration of daily acti-
vity versus the photoperiod can be described
as S-shaped in all species studied so far both
in nature and in captivity. In our study activity
time of birds paralleled the duration of photo-
period.

Changes of oc occurred (which lead to S-
shaped curve) only in those seasons with
photoperiod shorter than 5 h and longer than
18 h which do not occur in our study area.
However, the duration of cc is a linear function
of photoperiod.

ACK N OWLEDGE M E N TS

I am grateful to Prof. M. K. Chandra-
shekaran for critically reviewing the manu-
script. I am also indebted to Dr. R. Subbaraj,
and Dr. G. Marimuthu for their help
in preparing the manuscript.

391

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL LIIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Fig. 5. Seasonal changes in the midpoint of activity midpoint), ^midpoint
decreases as the day length becomes shorter and increases as it grows longer
Ordinate: ^ midpoint in minutes.

Abscisca: Month of year.

References

Aschoff, J. (1964) : Die Tagesperiodik licht-und
dunkelaktiver Tiere. Rev. Suisse Zool. 71 : 528-558.

(1965) : The phase angle difference in

circadian periodicity. In: ‘Circadian Clocks’ (ed

Aschoff, J.), North Holland, Amsterdam, pp-262-276.

Aschoff, J. & Wever, R., (1962) : Beginn und
Ende der taeglichen Aktivitaet freilebender Voegel.
/. Orn, 103 : 2-27.

Aschoff, J., Daan, S., Figala, J. & Muller, K.
(1972) : Precision of entrained circadian activity
under natural photoperiodic conditions. Natunviss
6: 276-277.

Daan, S., & Aschoff, J. (1975): ‘Circadian
rhythms of locomotor activity in captive birds and
mammals : their variations with seasons and latitude.
Oecologia 18: 269-316.

Erkinaro, E. (1972) : Precision of the cireadian
clock in Tengmalm’s Owl ( Aegolius funereus L.)
during various seasons. Aquillo ( oiilu ) 13: 48-52.

Gwinner, E. (1966): Periodicity of a circadian
rhythm in birds by species specific song cycles
(Aves, Fringillidae) , Carduelis spinus, Serinus sen-
nits. Experientia, 22: 765-766.

392

ACTIVITY PATTERNS IN A COLONY OF PEAFOWLS IN NATURE

Hoffmann, K. (1968): Synchronization der cir-
cadianen aktivitaetsperiodik von Eidechsen durch
Temperaturcyclen verschiedener Amplitude. Z. Vergl.
Physiol. 58 : 225-228.

Menaker, M., & Eskin, A. (1966) : Entrainment of
circadian rhythms by sound in Passer domesticus.
Science, 154 : 1579-1581.

Marimuthu, G., Rajan, S., & Chandrashekaran,
M. K. (1981): Social entrainment of circadian

rhythm in the flight activity of the microchiropteran

bat ( Hipposideros speoris ). Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol.
8: 147-150.

Turek, F. W. McMillan, J. P., & Menaker, M.
(1976) : Melatonin alters the circadian rhythm of
activity of sparrows. Science, 194 : 1441-1443.

Voute, A. M., Sluiter, J. W., & Grimm, M. P.
(1974): The influence of the natural light dark
cycle on the activity rhythm of pond bats ( Myotis
dasycneme Boie 1825) during summer. Oecoloeia.
17: 221-243.

393

POPULATION STRUCTURE OF THE INDIAN HOUSE
RAT, RATTUS RATTUS RUFESCENS IN THE INDIAN

ARID ZONE1

Ranjan Advani and B. D. Rana2

The Common house rat, Rattus rattus rufescens (Gray) were trapped from January
1980 to December 1980 by live Sherman traps from grain storages in Jodhpur (26°18'N
— 73°0TE). The females were found to be apparently heavier than males. On an
annual basis, collection of females in pre-ponderance of males seems to be necessary
to maintain higher densities of population in godowns. Subadult populations were
recruited in greater proportion during all the months of year except January which
is essential for faster regulation of a dense population of rodents.

A comparison of body weights, sex ratios and age structure of R. rattus rufescens

has been made with available data of other
Introduction

Although intensive population studies have
been carried out on field rodent species, little
is known about the bionomics of the commen-
sal rodents in the Indian desert. Constituting
about 75 per cent of the total house rodent
fauna, the Indian house rat, Rattus rattus
rufescens is a well distributed species causing
severe losses to the food grains in storage.
Moreover, Rattus rattus rufescens litters
throughout the year (Rana et cd. 1982) and
thus has attained a level of economic import-
ance in the Indian desert (Cowan & Prakash
1978).

Keeping in view, the relative abundance, and
economic status of this rat, studies have been
undertaken at Central Arid Zone Research
Institute, Jodhpur on ecology, biology and
toxicology (Prakash et al. 1980, Advani et al.
1981, Rana et al. 1982). To make control

1 Accepted March 1982.

2 Coordinating & Monitoring Centre for Rodent
Research & Control, Central Arid Zone Research
Institute, Jodhpur.

Indian rodent species.

operations more effective as well as meaning-
ful and operation oriented, seasonal variations
in body weights, sex ratios and age structure
were studied in the Indian desert rodents, the
results of which are reported and compared
with those of the field rodents.

Material and Methods

The house rats (200 c? 242$ $) were
sampled from January 1980 to December 1980
with the help of live sherman traps from the
grain mandis in and around Jodhpur (26°18'N
— 70°0TE). The Sherman traps were baited
with peanut butter and were checked after
every 6 hours, during which bait was replenish-
ed. After collection, the body weights of rats
representing various age-groups and sexes
were recorded on a spring balance (accuracy
of 0.1 g). After killing the rodents with
chloroform, they were sexed and grouped in
two classes according to their body weights.
Among males, those rats weighing under 80 g
were considered to be subadults as they attain
sexual maturity at about this body weight
(Rana et al. 1982). Females having body

394

POPULATION STRUCTURE OF THE INDIAN HOUSE RAT

weights lesser than 70 g were classified as sub-
adults (absence of Corpora lutea and perfor-
ate vagina) while rest were considered as adult.

Results
Body weights

There were no statistical differences in sea-
sonal variations in both the sexes of rodents.
However, maximum body weights were record-
ed during May- June and November-December
in males and during February-March and
August-September in female rodents (Table
1). The males were found to be apparently
heavier than the females during January, June,
August, November and December. Whereas,
the significant differences were noticed during
May and June (P< 0.05, P<0.01) only. The

Table 1

Mean monthly body weights (g±S.E.) of

R. rat tits

Body weights ‘t’ between

Months

Male

Female

(2)

1 & 2

January

94.12Hz

9.52

89.73zh

5.00

0.40

February

79.50zfc

9.39

93.94zh

4.00

1.41

March

93. 27 it

7.71

95.20zh

7.31

0.71

April

59.50Hz

7.00

77. 44 H= 11 . 16

1.36

May

109. 90 Hz

8.83

76. 25 Hz

3.05

3.60**

June

87. 40 Hz

8.92

66. 65 it

6.36

1.89*

July

65. 09 Hz

9.19

78. 15±

5.76

1.20

August

95.85ztl0.00

87. 15zt

5.76

0.73

September

72.13zh

7.01

104. 00 Hz

9.47

2.70**

October

77.47Hz

7.21

81 . 33zt

5.67

0.42

November

83. 57 Hz

5.30

80.26Hz

3.49

0.65

December

90.44zt

9.47

84. 00 it

6.50

0.53

Annual

average

75.88Hzll.30

77.07 Hz

9.18

0.081

* = P < 0 . 05
** - P<0.01

females were heavier than males during Febru-
ary to April, July, September, October, with
significant differences (P<0.01) only in Sep-
tember.

Sex ratios

The preponderance of female R. r. rujescens
were observed almost throughout the year ex-
cept March, September to November. Inter-
estingly, males constituted a very low propor-
tion (range: 32.4 to 40.0 per cent) in the
population during February, May to July
(Table 2). On an average, the female popula-

Table 2

Monthly variations in the sex ratios of
R. rattus mfescens

Months

Male

Female

% of males

January

40.0

February

40.0

March

53.4

April

47.0

May

40.5

June

39.4

July

32.4

August

45.4

September

53.7

October

52.6

November

51.5

December

44.8

Total

200

242

45.4

tion outnumbered significantly (x2 (1) 3.98,
P<0.05) in the total sample size collected.

Age structure

Among males, preponderance of subadults
(upto 80 g. body weight) was during April,
July-October and thereafter, in December, indi-
cating ideal months for weaning of newly born

395

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Table 3

Monthly distribution of weight classes of male and female rats expressed as per cent of monthly

COLLECTION

Weight Months of year

classes

(g) Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

20-50

25.0

17.3

56.2

33.3

MALES
13.3 41.6

30.0

42.9

15.8

27.8

30.8

51-80

6.2

25.0

30.4

12.5

6.6

33.3

41.7

3.0

42.9

52.7

27.8

30.7

81-110

37.5

25.0

26.0

25.0

26.6

20.0

—

2.0

4.8

21.0

33.3

23.1

111-140

18.8

16.6

21.7

6.2

26.6

33.3

16.7

1.5

9.4

5.2

—

7.7

141-170

12.5

8.3

—

6.6

—

5.0

—

5.2

—

7.7

171-200

—

4.3

—

20-50

12.5

16.6

15.0

27.7

31.8

FEMALES
39.1 4.0

25.0

22.2

11.9

11.7

25.0

51-80

20.8

11.1

20.0

16.6

50.0

30.4

56.0

29.1

16.6

41.1

53.0

43.7

81-110

58.3

33.3

30.0

27.7

18.2

17.4

16.0

29.2

22.3

29.4

35.3

25.0

111-140

14.2

27.7

30.0

22.2

■ —

13.0

24.0

12.5

30.3

—

141-170

14.2

11.1

5.0

5.5

—

4.2

—

17.6

—

6.3

171-200

—

5.6

—

young ones (Table 3). During April to August
and then from October to December, the sub-
adult females were recruited in natural popu-
lations in larger numbers. The body weight
classes of 81-110 g and 111-140 g are more
common in case of male rats, whereas, 111-140 g
is not represented in all months of the year.
However, weight classes of 140-170 g and 171-
200 g have discontinuous and scattered distri-
bution in the monthly collections of population.

Discussion

As female Ratlus rati us rufescens litters
throughout the year, on an annual basis,
females were found heavier than males, though
the difference was insignificant. Occurrence of
heavier females in September coincides with
relatively higher (22.2%) prevalence of pre-
gnancy (Rana et al. 1982) in this month. Like-
wise, their low fertility rate (13.0%) as well

as lowest body weights (66.65 ±636 g) are
recorded in June. In comparison to the Desert
gerbil, Meriones hurrianae which shows con-
siderable fluctuations in body weight structure
(Prakash 1972), such seasonal variations are
not found in case of R. rat t us rufescens. It may
be because of green nutritious food available
to M. hurrianae population only during mon-
soon months, whereas, in godowns, R. rat tits
has sufficient supply of food to maintain its
body weight more or less at a constant level.
This concept holds true in another field rat
species, Rattus meltada pallidior, due to its
habit of selective feeding in nature (Rana &
Advani 1981), and hence much variation in
body weight is expected (Rana & Prakash
1982).

On an annual basis, females outnumbered
(54.6%) the males (Table 2) supporting gene-
ral sex ratio pattern among mammals inhabiting
the Indian desert (Prakash 1974). However,

396

POPULATION STRUCTURE OF THE INDIAN HOUSE RAT

in the congeneric field rodents, Rattus meltada
pallidior during a two year study, males always
predominated the trapped population (Rana &
Prakash 1982). The predominance of female
R. rattus rufescens was observed even during
the months of their peak prevalence of preg-
nancies in July and December. This is in
contrast to the observations made by Raczynski
(1964) who opined that during pregnancy
females restrict their movements and therefore
are trapped in lesser numbers than males. In
case of present study, collections of rats were
made from protected environments in godowns
where food and space are sufficient for un-
checked growth of any pest population. There-
fore, both sexes were encountered in sufficient
numbers. Moreover, to maintain a high density
of population all the year round, preponderance
of female sex in a population is essential. Like-
wise, in case of R. meltada infesting the irri-
gated crop fields which provide ample food
to them round the year, male percentages were
lower than those of females even during the
months when prevalence of pregnancy was
maximum (Rana & Prakash 1982). It appears
that not only activity pattern or behaviour
but also food and space influence the sex ratios
obtained by trapping in a free living rodent
population. On a yearly basis, male to female
ratio was 1:1.21 which deviated significantly
X2 (j) = 3.98; P<0.05) from the 50:50 ex-
pected ratio. However, during March, Septem-
ber and November males were collected in
larger numbers than females, whereas, insigni-
ficant differences between male and female
numbers were found in other Indian rodent
species like Tat era indiea cuvieri (Prasad

1961); T. indiea indiea (Jain 1970), and Rattus
cutchicus cutchicus (Prakash et al. 1973).

In pooled data for both the sexes of sub-
adults it was revealed that except January,
during all months subadults are encountered
significantly in greater proportions. This may
be due to faster regulation of population,
higher annual productivity rate (Rana et al.
1982) and occurrence of pregnant females in
all months during the year.

On the other hand, greater proportions of
subadult males were collected in the latter half
of the year (July- December) of R. meltada
pallidior in western Rajasthan (Rana &
Prakash 1982) and during first half of the year
from the same species in South India (Chan-
drahas & Krishnaswami 1974). The regular
recruitment of subadult rats in the population
may be due to continuous food supply and
shelter available to house-rats in grain mandis.
Secondly, higher rate of prevalence of pre-
gnancy in a confined population, is also one
of the main regulating factors.

Ack nowledge men ts

We are grateful to Dr. H. S. Mann, Director,
Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodh-
pur for providing facilities. We thank
Dr. Ishwar Prakash, Professor of Emi-
nence, C.A.Z.R.I. for encouragement and
guidance during the course of study. Help of
colleagues, Sarvashri Dev Raj and Mala Ram,
Laboratory Technician for procuring the ani-
mals is also acknowledged. Thanks are also
due to Shri Chander Darwarni, L.D.C. who
typed the manuscript.

397

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

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Chandrahas, R. K. & Krishnaswami, A. K.
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Cowan, P. E. & Prakash, I. (1978): House rats
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Jain, A. P. (1970): Body weights, sex ratio, age
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Prakash, I. (1972) : Ecotoxicology and control
of the Indian Desert Gerbil, Meriones hurrianae
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(1974) : The ecology of vertebrates

of the Indian desert. Chapter XIII. in Biogeography
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Hague : 369-420.

Prakash, I., Advani, R., Soni, B. K. & Rana, B. D.
(1980) : Evaluation of the poison base for the con-
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Prakash, I., Rana, B. D. & Jain, A.P. (1973) :
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452-467.

Prasad, M. R. N. (1961): Reproduction in the
female Indian gerbil, Tatera indica cuvieri (Water-
house). Acta Zool., 42: 245-256.

Raczynski, J. (1964) : Studies on the European
hare. V. Reproduction. Acta Theriol., 9: 305-352.

Rana, B. D. & Advani, R. (1981): Food com-
position of the metad, Rattus meltada pallidior in
western Rajasthan. Acta Theriol., 26: 129-132.

Rana, B. D., Advani, R. & Soni, B. K. (1982) :
Reproductive biology of Rattus rattus rufescens in
the Indian Desert. Acta Oecol. Paris (In press).

Rana, B. D. & Prakash, I. (1982): Population
structure of the metad Rattus meltada pallidior in
the Thar desert. Zeit. angew. Zool. (In press).

398

RECENT ORNITHOLOGICAL RECORDS FROM

PAKISTAN1

T. J, Roberts2

One of the biggest problems for any keen
bird watcher in Pakistan today is that of trying
to determine the real status of less common
birds because of the lack of recent records or
reliable observations and ones reliance per-
force on very old and sometimes doubtful re-
cords.

It is with this aspect particularly in mind,
that this note is written, based as it is on my
diary notes from the past two or three years
which add new information to the records
which the Society was kind enough to publish
in a note I submitted three years ago (Roberts
1981). I have included some recent findings of
several ornithologist friends in order to give
as complete a coverage as possible.

Oceanites oceanicus

Wilson’s Storm Petrel is described in Vol. 2
of the handbook series (Salim Ali 1968) to
be not uncommon along the coasts of Sind and
Mekran (Pakistan’s seaboard), from May/
June onwards till about September /November
when birds returning to their Antarctic breed-
ing grounds are sighted off the coast of Sri
Lanka.

Of all the Antarctic breeding sea birds, the
majority nest on isolated southern latitude is-
lands and only three or four species (2 Pen-
guins, 1 Sheathbill and 1 Wilson’s Storm Petrel)
largely confine their nesting activity to the

1 Accepted February 1983.

2 P. O. Box 3311, Malir City Post Office,
Karachi-23. Present address : “Cae Gors”. Rhoscefnhir,
Nr. Pentraeth, Anglesey, Gwynedd, LL75 8 YU, U.K.

main Antarctic continental land mass. This
little Petrel is reported to nest on high moun-
tain crags further inland and under more
extreme weather conditions than almost any
other bird. This, coupled with its dainty ap-
pearance and “wave walking” habit, make it
a particularly fascinating bird.

Along the Karachi seacoast it is not diffi-
cult to see this Petrel from certain promontories
along the shore during the summer months.
In the past two years with the help of a very
experienced ornithologist friend, Rolf Pass-
burg, we have been periodically surveying
pelagic birds, by means of boat trips, during
the winter months, and found to our surprise
that considerable numbers of Wilson’s Petrels
feed along the coast throughout November,
December and January (up to 15 and 22 birds
sighted during a six hour voyage). Circum-
stances have prevented us from making sur-
veys in February and early March but from
late March and early April, Wilson’s Storm
Petrel can again be sighted, and it could be
fairly assumed that a number of non-breeding
birds remain during the Antarctic “summer”
around the Arabian Sea and coastline of
Pakistan.

Nettapus coromandelianus

The Pygmy Cotton Teal, it might be sup-
posed, is largely a summer visitor to Pakistan
like other endemic ducks such as the Spotbill
( Anas poecilorhyncha ) and Lesser Whistling
Teal ( Dendrocygna javanica). Volume I of the
handbook describes it as rare or absent in

399

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

the arid portions of Pakistan (Salim Ali 1968,
page 191). Kenneth Eates who compiled the
section of the Sind Gazetteer covering birds
and mammals in the early 1950’s (Sorley Edit.,
1968), and who enthusiastically studied the
Sind avifauna over more than thirty years ser-
vice in that Province, described the Cotton
Teal as very rare and only to be encountered
in one or two swampy bush-studded “dhands”
near Sujjawal in Thatta District. It would be
fair to state that this little Pygmy Goose is on
the increase in Pakistan, and that a consider-
able population is resident. For example on
Hadeiro Lake some fifty-five miles northeast
of Karachi, about 150 Cotton Teal can be
seen throughout the winter and early summer
months though there is some breeding disper-
sal during the monsoon. In the northern Pun-
jab, near Kalabagh town in Mianwali District, I
was surprised to encounter a group of ten
Cotton Teal on January 23rd, 1981 in a see-
page swamp upstream of the Islam Barrage
on the Indus River, and this little group might
well be resident also. There have also been
frequent recent sightings from the Punjab Salt
Range lakes.

Aythya mania

The Scaup Duck could be confused with
other Pochards in winter or female plumage
and it is known to be a rare duck on the sub-
continent. Neither Brigadier Christison nor Dr.
Ticehurst could find any records of this duck
having been shot on passage in Baluchistan
(Christison 1942, Ticehurst 1926-27). Similarly
in writing about the birds of Sind, Ticehurst
(1922) cast doubts on the reliability of J. A.
Murrey’s earlier records from Karachi (fauna
of British India, Vol. IV page 462). Murray
was curator of the museum at Karachi and a
good all round vertebrate zoologist but not
particularly experienced as an ornithologist. On

March 27th, 1982 when most palearctic ducks
had migrated north from lower Sind, Rolf
Passburg and myself watched for some time
through a telescope a female Scaup on Haleji
Lake which is about 45 miles northeast of
Karachi. It was feeding and very reluctant to
fly even when we tried to put it up. A few
Scaup must winter in the Arabian Sea and
overfly Pakistan on migration and thus escape
attention.

Stercorarius pomariuus

The Pomarine Skua is a distinctly heavier
and larger bird than the Arctic Skua with
broader vertical cross barring on its rear flanks.
Its central tail feathers are spatulate not pointed
as in the Arctic Skua. Passburg and myself
now have several sightings of this Skua off
Karachi coastal waters. On January 8th, 1982 a
pair hunting cooperatively (klepto parasitising)
Sandwich Terns ( Sterna sandvicensis) . April
2nd, 1982 another pair observed closely from
Cape Monze from the shore. January 4th, 1983
two single birds resting on the sea at the mouth
of Ghizri Creek. On all occasions we found this
Skua fearless of motor launches and tolerant
of very close approach (this contrasts with
Humes’ experience with Arctic Skuas). Arctic
Skuas ( Stercorarius parasiticus ) are less un-
usual along Karachi sea coast. For example
12 were noted on March 14th, 1982, but we
now believe that the Pomarine has been over-
looked possibly because of a lack of reliable
off-shore observations. The handbook records
only a single authentic sighting off the coast
of Sri Lanka in 1912 (Waite 1931).

Apus pacificus

The Himalayan White Rumped Swift is
recorded in Volume IV (page 49) of the hand-
book as “certainly breeding in the Murree
Hills”. The only written record is of a small

400

ORNITHOLOGICAL RECORDS FROM PAKISTAN

colony of this Swift discovered in July J 3th,
1907 by Major H. A. F. Magrath at Chang I a
Gali in the Galis. Fie could hear the young
calling inside rock clefts. This record was
not published by Magrath himself in his re-
cords of the Murree Hills and Galis (Magrath
1909) but cited by Whistler in his notes on
the ‘Birds of Rawalpindi District’ (Whistler
1930). It is significant that Colonel Rattray
who worked this region very thoroughly in
1903-1904 did not record this Swift (See below
under ‘Golden Bush Robin’). Swifts are notori-
ously difficult to identify under conditions of
bright sunlight and when feeding, as they nor-
mally do, high up in the sky. Since purchasing a
summer cottage in the Galis in 1960, I have
always been on the lookout for this Swift and
failed to find it, particularly during searches
around Changla Gali. It seems fair to con-
clude that they no longer breed in the Murree
Hills. However for the first time, on May 16th,
1982 after an unusually late and stormy spring
in the Murree Hills region I encountered a
flock of about 30 White Rumped Swifts haw-
king around the summit of Mukhshpuri Moun-
tain. They were accompanied by about 5 House
Swifts ( Apus affinis ) and about 15 Common
Swifts ( Apus apus) which greatly facilitated
comparison and identification. Mukhshpuri
peak is only 9,300 feet high and my cottage
stands on its lower slopes so I cannot recall
the many scores of times that I have been on
its summit. I never saw this Swift after May
16th, despite remaining in the area.

Recent studies of the Common Swift ( Apus
apus) (Bromhall 1980) have revealed the
enormous distances that these masters of the
air will travel in one day to find suitable feed-
ing space. Twenty-five to thirty miles daily
traversal from one point to another being not
unusual, so this Mukhshpuri sighting cannot
be taken as clear evidence of breeding within

Pakistan and for me its status still remains
enigmatic. Apus apus breeds throughout the
drier Himalayan ranges of Pakistan but not
in the Murree Hills. However occasional small
groups of this species regularly visit the skies
above the Murree Hill range.

Ceryle Itiguforis

The Greater Pied Kingfisher was once seen
(Jan. 8th, 1926) by Hugh Whistler in the Leh
Nullah just on the outskirts of Rawalpindi
(Whistler, op. cit.) This nullah is now a foetid
sewer and devoid of any Kingfisher species.
Bates and Lowther in describing the breeding
birds of Kashmir only encountered it on the
Kishenjanga River in the extreme west (Bates
& Lowther 1952). It still occurs today in
Kashmir on the Kishenjanga now known
as the Neelum River. Volume IV of the
handbook records that it sometimes
extends down to adjacent plains areas. In
Islamabad, David Corfield has been indefati-
gable in collecting bird records over the past
two years and he discovered a fine male speci-
men on a small feeder stream (Saidpur Nullah)
draining into the newly created reservoir,
Rawal Lake just on the outskirts of Islamabad.
This was in February 1982. Subsequently a
pair were seem by him on May 30th and again
on September 29th, 1982 in the same locality.
On January 4th, 1983 he kindly showed me
both the male and female. The latter was
distinctly maroon speckled in the pectoral
region, whereas the male was marked with
bolder black spots and both were haunting
the same tiny stream within half a mile of the
lake which lies at an elevation of about 1,000
feet. It seems possible that these birds actually
nested last summer and obviously a keen
watch will be maintained this year.

Picus chlorolophos

The Small Yellow-naped Woodpecker is re-

401

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

corded in Volume IV of the handbook as
occurring in the Himalayas from Dharmsala
eastwards through Himachal Pradesh but
Pakistan is not mentioned and it was not
observed by Whistler or H. Waite, both of
whom collected extensively in the Murree
Hills. Whistler rejects Captain Marshall’s re-
cord of this species nesting in the Murree
Hills (Whistler, op. cit). On June 4th, 1982
whilst exploring the lower reaches of Kao
Forest which clothes a valley draining north-
wards from Dunga Gali into the River Jhelum,
I was very thrilled to encounter this Wood-
pecker. It was feeding in a fine stand of Quer-
cus incana trees at about 6,500 feet elevation.
Lower down the Kao Valley the slopes are
bare of trees and terraced for cultivation until
the banks of the Jhelum are reached but it
seems probable that this rare straggler to the
region must have wandered up the Jhelum
River.

Pericrocotus roseus

Like the Plimalayan White Rumped Swift,
the Rosy Minivet had escaped me until last
summer. There are skins in the British Museum
at Tring from the Siran Nullah, in Mansehra
Tehsil of Hazara District collected in 1870
by Unwin, but there were no sightings from
the Murree Hills until H. Waite saw this
species on May 24th, 1930 at the Forest Rest
House in Ghora Gali around 6,000 feet ele-
vation but was unable to collect a specimen
(Waite, H. W., Ibis, 1930, page 37). This spot
is on the outer or western flanks of the Murree
Hills. In May and June 1982 I made several
exploratory visits to a remote valley known
as Manga which drains this same western slope
and which is only accessible by Jeep track.
Here on every occasion I encountered one or
two Rosy Minivets and enjoyed close views of
both sexes. Their contact calls, loud and carry-

ing, as in most minivets are quite distinctive,
comprising a rather rapid flutey piping. All
available records show a rather local and
disjunct distribution for this Minivet through-
out the Himalayas. Its preferred habitat seems
to be Finns roxburghi with a dense thorny
understory of Cot one aster and Zizyphus mauri-
tiana.

Sturnus malabaricus

The Grey headed Myna has not been record-
ed in Pakistan or indeed northwest of Mount
Abu in Rajasthan. A party of three birds were
watched on January 14th, 1983 feeding on the
nectar of Salmalia malabaricum flowers. This
was along a roadside plantation inside Gharko
Forest, a small patch of riverain forest along-
side the Indus River in Thatta District of lower
Sind. In this region juvenile Rosy Pastors could
easily be confused for the Grey Headed Myna
as they are the typical Starlings of the area
in winter, but I was attracted to these birds
by their rufous chestnut throats and bellies.
Sturnus roseus has a grey-brown breast. Closer
examination showed their milky white irides
and the leaden blue basal half of their yellow
tipped bills as further distinct features. A juve-
nile Sturnus roseus has brown irides and horn
coloured bill turning to yellowish at the base.
Perhaps a few birds have regularly been wan-
dering in winter into lower Sind and have
escaped notice,

Sturnus contra

The Indian Pied Myna is quite an aggressi-
vely erruptive species and has for example
spread into the Konkan region of Maharashtra
State within the past twenty years (Humayun
Abdulali, pers. comm.). I myself saw numbers
on the outskirts of Borivli. It occurs in Delhi
and Ludhiana of the Punjab but had not so far
been recorded within Pakistan (handbook,

402

ORNITHOLOGICAL RECORDS FROM PAKISTAN

Volume 5, page 173). Mr. Z. B. Mirza, the
Curator of Islamabad’s new Museum of Natu-
ral History discovered a colony of about four
pairs in Changa Manga irrigated forest plant-
ation in March 1982 and collected a specimen.
This locality is some fifteen miles west of Kasur
on the main Karachi to Lahore railway line.
I searched without success in the same locality
later in May 1982 whilst Mr. Mirza, mean-
while in April, had located another colony
at Jallo where there is a forest plantation
some 2 miles north-east of Lahore city and
not far from the Indian border. Mirza has
since sighted two Pied Mynas in Sheikhpura
District west of Lahore and it appears that
this Myna is extending its range westwards.

Megalurus palustris

The Striated Marsh Warbler was never ob-
served along the Chenab River by Whistler who
wrote about the birds of Jhang District (Whist-
ler 1922). Volume 8 (page 97) of the hand-
book records it as breeding from Pakistan in
the Punjab, east through northern India, but
the distribution map on page 97 seems to show
that it does not extend as far as the Ravi
River and hardly enters Pakistan. I cannot
trace any published records of its occurrence
within what is now Pakistan, nor had I been
able to encounter this species until March 29th,
1981 when exploring the marshes and seepage
zone upstream of Balloki Barrage on the Ravi
River, forty miles downstream from Lahore,
I found a pair frequenting rather open Juncus
sedge and the male was giving it’s loud and
vehement display or song flight. If it had not
been for this song I would certainly have mis-
taken it for a Striated Babbler ( Turdoides
earlei ), which it resembles in size and plumage.
The late Roger Holmes, with Z. B. Mirza,
worked the Balloki Head works and seepage
areas fairly thoroughly in 19681/69 including

visits during the monsoon and they never
recorded this bird at that time, so it must be
considered as a rare and irregular visitor to
Pakistan.

Tarsiger chrysaeus

The Golden Bush Robin is fisted in Volume
8 (page 234) of the handbook as occurring
from Hazara eastwards and including the
Murree Hills. This is presumably on the basis
of Colonel Rattrays account of Bird Nesting
in the Murree Hills and Galis”. He considered
it very rare but located one pair and took the
nest, near Murree (presumably in Punjab not
Hazara) (Rattray 1904). I have had a lot of
trouble with Rattray’s records in that a num-
ber of birds which he claimed to have collected
the eggs of, are never seen in the Murree Hills
nowadays, whilst one or two examples can be
proved to be mistaken identification. He used
a number of local hill men as collectors and
does not seem to have preserved any skins
though he frequently claimed in his writings
to have shot the female off the nest for identi-
fication.

Hugh Whistler also recorded finding a nest
which he thought was of this species, but it
was robbed before he could confirm his identi-
fication (Whistler 1930). Again over twenty
years I have always hoped to encounter it
in the Murree Hills. In 1980 I made a rare
October visit to Dunga Gali and with two
friends found a female Golden Bush Robin
on October 16th alongside a stream in the
Haro Valley (which drains southwards to the
Peshawar Vale) at about 6,500 feet elevation.
It was watched for over an hour making sallies
after insects. In flight the golden yellow webs
of the outer tail feathers were conspicuous as
well as the broad golden eye-brow stripe and
a tiny golden spot behind the ear covets. It
seemed rather furtive when not actually for-

403

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

aging and generally concealed itself inside a
bush. Whether they actually breed in the
Murree Hills remains to be substantiated by
summer sightings but I have not come across
any records after 1926.

Muscicapa rubeculoldes

In my previous published note (Roberts
1981) I recorded the first discovery in Pakistan
of a singing male Blue Throated Flycatcher on
May 26th, 1979 in the Margalla Hills just west
of Islamabad city. The following year in May,
David Corfield found another male singing in
an adjacent ravine some three miles north of
my sighting. In 1982 we found one or two
singing males in each of the three side ravines
in the Margalla Hills, and on June 9th, 1982
I found them in the Manga Valley 15 miles
northeast of Islamabad. This flycatcher is
therefore, plainly a regular summer visitor to
the Murree foothill zone. I never saw it above
3,000 feet elevation. It prefers the damper
ravines having streams and a mixture of sub-
tropical dry deciduous broad-leaved trees of
Indo-Malaysian affinities. Because of its extre-
mely skulking habits even when singing, it is
very difficult to see and these records are a
perfect example of the way in which an unusual
or new bird suddenly seems to be widespread,
once its call notes and song have become
familiar to the observer.

Terpsiphone paradisi

The Paradise Flycatcher is described as a
winter visitor to lower Sind (page 217, Volume
7, handbook) but the distribution map shows
the main wintering population to be confined
to Maharashtra and peninsular India. Based
on records of Dr. Ticehurst and Kennth Eates
(op. cit.) it is obviously extremely uncommon
even on passage in Sind. Ticehurst collected
one on October 23rd, 1918, the only one he

ever saw, and J. A. Murray obtained a speci-
men on December 13th, 1877. For the past
nine years that I have been living in Karachi
I have noticed that the few remaining patches
of riverain forest in Thatta District are the
stronghold of this flycatcher both in spring
and autumn passage but last year I realised
that one or two individuals remained in Gharko
Forest (see record above of Grey Headed
Myna) throughout the winter. Again this year
I have seen at least one female Paradise Fly-
catcher (probably the same individual, always
located by its call) in every month, from early
October to February 1st on visits to Gharko,
and it can fairly be assumed to be a winter
visitor. In fact this winter I also have a resi-
dent female Paradise Flycatcher in my garden
at Malir and this is my first record of even a
transient example of this species for this
garden. Exactly the same remarks apply to
sightings of the Grey Headed Flycatcher (Culi-
cicapa ceylonensis) , which I noted for the first
time in mid January 1983 in Gharko Forest
as well as one winter resident male (he sings
territorially every morning) in our Malir
garden. Perhaps this extension of wintering
grounds into lower Sind for both these two
flycatchers may be connected with the recent
drought in the Thar Desert and parts of the
Rann of Kutch region.

Tichodroma muraria

Not much has been recorded about the
breeding of the Wall Creeper from any part
of the Himalayan regions. The handbook
mentions the sighting in July of newly fledged
nestlings by Meinertzhagen in Ladakh at 6,400
metres. As my high altitude days are definitely
over, I was really delighted to discover a Wall
Creeper’s nest at a comparatively low eleva-
tion on June 15th 1982 in the Kaghan Valley
of Hazara District. The location was six miles

404

ORNITHOLOGICAL RECORDS FROM PAKISTAN

north of Burawai, at the bottom of the main
valley on a sheer one hundred foot high earth
and boulder cliff overlooking the river. The
exact location is known as Tarli Seri as it is
a popular camp for Gujar shepherds. I esti-
mated the altitude at about 11,400 feet. The
location was typical alpine habitat and I could
only just make out the nest-hole entrance by
crawling perilously out onto a ledge, but from
a safer vantage point I could watch the parent
birds arriving to feed their young. They ap-
peared to be carrying beakfulls of insects with
small moths and “lace wing” type flies. The
female was browner and darker on the crown,
the male noticeably white on the crown with
darker and more contrasting plumage. Both
birds on one occasion flew from the nest-hole
with a faecal sack in their bill, so that parental
care by both sexes and nest hygiene can be
confirmed though I have not actually been

Refer

Ali, Salim & Ripley, Dillon (1968-1974): Hand-
book of the Birds of India & Pakistan, 10 volumes,
Oxford University Press Bombay.

Bates, R.S.P. & Lowther, E.H.N. (1952): Breed-
ing Birds of Kashmir. Oxford University Press,
Bombay.

Bromhall, Derek (1980) : Devil Birds, the Life
of the Swift, Hutchison 95 pages.

Christison, A.P.F. (1942) : Some Additional

Notes on the Distribution of the Avifauna of
Northern Baluchistan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 43:
478-87.

Magrath, H.A.F. (1909) : Bird Notes from Murree
and the Galis. ibid. 19: 142.

Rattray, R. H. (1904) : Birds Nesting in the
Murree Hills and Gullies, ibid. 16: 421, 657.

Roberts, T. J. (1981): Ornithological Notes from
Pakistan, ibid. 75(1): 73-76.

able to see this recorded in any of the refer-
ence books which I have been able to consult.
Neither parent bird flew direct into the nest
(a hole between a boulder and the eroded earth
cliff face). They settled on a projecting rock
slab leading up to the nest-hole thus giving
some opportunity to examine through binocu-
lars the quantity of insects in their long rapier-
like bills. They hopped across the rock face
with typical wing flicking motions as though
they were still compulsively searching for in-
sects even when their intention was clearly to
enter the nest-hole. Hodgsons Mountain Fin-
ches ( Leucosticte nemoricola ) were all around
and sometimes settled on the boulder protrud-
ing below the Wall Creeper’s nest. The female
ignored them but I saw the male aggressively
chase one away before returning to feed its
young.

EN CES

Sorley, H. T. (1968): The Gazetteer of West
Pakistan — the Former Province of Sind. Govern-
ment Press, Karachi.

Ticehurst, Claude B. (1922) : The Birds of
Sind. Part II. Ibis. October.

(1926-27): The Birds of

British Baluchistan. 3 parts. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,
52(1): 64.

Waite, W. E. (1931): Manual of the Birds of
Ceylon, 2nd Edition. Ceylon Journal of Science,
Colombo, pp. 395.

Whistler, Hugh (1922) : The Birds of Jhang
District, S. W. Punjab. Ibis, Volume IV, No. 3, July,
1922.

(1930): The Birds of the

Rawalpindi District, N. W. India, Ibis, January
1930; pp. 67-119 and April 1930; pp. 247-279.

405

A REPORT ON A COLLECTION OF AMPHIBIANS AND
REPTILES FROM THE PONMUDI, KERALA, SOUTH

INDIA1

Robert F. Inger, H. Bradley Shaffer,2
Mammen Koshy and Ramesh Bakde3
( With three plates)

Introduction

Knowledge of the herpetofauna of south-
western India has developed over the last 130
years through the efforts of many persons,
generally as a result of accumulation of small
collections from scattered localities. From the
volume by Boulenger (1890) on amphibians
and reptiles, the two volumes by Smith (1935,
1943) on lizards and snakes, and the nume-
rous papers of N. Annandale, J. C. Daniel, R.
S. Pillai, and C. R. N. Rao on amphibians,
one can piece together a picture of the
species diversity of the herpeto-fauna of
this humid region of the subcontinent.
However, until very recently, there has
been no basis for estimating local diversity,
because specific localities, as opposed to dis-
trict place names, have not always been given.
The first collection likely to provide an esti-
mate of local diversity is that recently made
at Silent Valley, Kerala, by Dr. R. S. Pillai
of the Zoological Survey of India. We report
here on a second, large local sample, this one
from Ponmudi in southern Kerala, about 250
km south of Silent Valley and about 170 km
south of the Anamallai Hills. This sample, col-
lected May 3 -June 17, 1982, was obtained as

1 Accepted July 1983.

2 Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.

3 National Museum of Natural History, New Delhi.

part of a joint project of the National Museum
of Natural History, New Delhi (NMNHI) and
the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago
(FMNH). The material is now housed in both
institutions.

The area in which this collection was made
centered on the Ponmudi ridge (8°45'N, 77°8'
E) and its slopes, from about 100 m above
sea level to its crest at 1095 m. The extent of
the area actually searched is difficult to deter-
mine, but we estimate that no site was more
than 10 km (in a direct line) from the crest
of the Ponmudi ridge and most were less than
5 km. The forest is now broken into large
blocks of varying sizes, the largest in which
we worked being 4-8 km wide. Intervening
cleared areas are mainly large tea plantations.
The dominant types of forests are designated
by the Forestry Department, State of Kerala
as tropical evergreen, moist deciduous, and,
at the highest elevations only, low tropical
evergreen (Adriel 1966). Most of our sampl-
ing was carried out in the first type, which
has the typical 3 -storied structure of tropical
evergreen forest and an abundance of lianas,
at elevations between 310 and 370 m. Rainfall
is heavy (annual mean at Ponmudi 4603
mm) and seasonal. Between 1952-1961, only
three months — January, February, and March-
averaged less than 100 mm of rain. As the
topographic relief is steep, the streams have
beds of sand, gravel and rock and moderate

406

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA

to strong current. Pools alternate with riffles
and, in many places, low waterfalls. Most of
the streams flow throughout the year. Those
along which we sampled varied from 0.5 to
4 m in width.

Materials and Methods

Specimens were obtained by a party of 4-10
men collecting along streams and through
patches of forest during daylight and early
night hours. Rocks were turned, dead leaves
scraped, and logs rolled and their bark stripp-
ed. Shrubs and trees were examined as high
as the dim light and obscuring branches per-
mitted. In addition, we used two procedures
to guarantee close inspection of large areas of
forest floor : ( 1 ) examination and removal of
litter from buttress-enclosed areas at the bases
of large trees, and (2) search of forest floor
quadrats (see description of latter method in
Lloyd et al. 1968). Although we include all
specimens in this report, those obtained by
the last two methods will be subject to special
analysis in a subsequent publication.

As each specimen was captured, we placed
it in a separate plastic bag and recorded its
position when first sighted in terms of a com-
plex microhabitat classification. We used the
system described in Inger and Colwell (1977),
expanded slightly to include all vegetation
types encountered at Ponmudi. Upon return
to the field laboratory, animals were anaesthe-
tized, preserved in formalin, and each (with
few exceptions) tagged with a separate num-
ber within three hours of capture. We main-
tained a few lizard eggs in plastic bags until
hatching and kept some frog eggs until larvae
reached early developmental stages.

In the text we give snout-vent lengths (SV)
of adults, standard scale counts where appro-
priate, and body proportions relative to SV.
For each species of frog, the smallest female

having convoluted oviducts or developing ova
sets the minimum size for maturity for females
of that species; the smallest male having deve-
loped secondary sex characters serves the same
purpose for males. Frog larvae are staged
according to the scheme developed by Gosner
(1960). Denticle formulae for larvae are pre-
sented in the standard form of using Roman
numerals for undivided rows and Arabic
numerals for divided ones. A slash separates
the counts for upper and lower lips.

Elevations above sea level in metres (m)
were determined with a Thommen pocket
altimeter and are accurate to approximately
30 m.

Gegeneophis carnosus (Beddome)

Epicrium carnosum Beddome, 1870 Madras Month.

J. Med. Sci., 2: 176 — Periah Peak, Wynad.
Gegeneophis carnosus Boulenger, 1882, Cat. Batr.

Grad. Brit. Mus., p. 101, pi. 8, fig. 3.

Material. A single specimen: total length
260 mm, width 7.5 mm, primary folds 120,
secondary folds 6.

This specimen is uniform gray above and
tannish-gray on the sides and vent. Anus
transverse, tail absent; eye completely hidden.

Gegeneophis is similar to Indotyphlus. For
our material, Taylor’s (1961) key is not
helpful since the position of the tentacle rela-
tive to the eye and nostril cannot be deter-
mined. Our specimen agrees well with Taylor’s
(1961) description in body proportions (width
into length 35), color, and fold counts, all of
which distinguish it from other Gegeneophis.

Ecological Notes. Our specimen was collect-
ed beneath a 25 cm rock along the bank of
a 0.5 m wide stream in evergreen forest at
350 m elevation. Five eggs were found with
the specimen. Daniel (1963) notes that indi-
viduals have been collected previously in the
Ponmudi hills; specimens with eggs were re-
ported by Seshachar (1942) from Tenmalai.

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JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Ichthyophis heddomei Peters

Ichthyophis beddomei Peters, 1879, Monatsb. Akad.

Wiss., Berlin, 1879: 932, fig. 4 — Nilgiri Hills.

Material A single specimen : total length
190 mm, width 9.5 mm, body folds 304.

Dark brown above, light brown below, with
a light yellow lateral stripe along each side.
The stripe extends onto the head as far as
the angle of the mouth, and is somewhat ex-
panded dorsoventrally in the cheek region. The
eye is clearly visible, and the tentacle is along
the upper lip margin and about equidistant
between the eye and nostril.

Our material agrees well with Taylor’s
(1961) diagnosis other than its slightly high
fold count; Taylor lists 240-293 for 16 indi-
viduals.

Ecological Notes. This specimen was caught
under a rock at the base of a tree in ever-
green forest at 560 m above sea level.

Bufo beddomi Gunther

Bufo beddomii Gunther, 1875, Proc. Zool. Soc.

London, 1875: 569 — Malabar.

Material. 3 adult females 36.8-45.1 mm
SV, mean 40.2; 1 male 31.1 mm; 10 juveniles,
11.0-17.2 mm. Tibia 0.40-0.45 of SV in
females, 0.48 in male.

Above uniform dark brown; a faint black
barring pattern on the hind legs and feet.
Beneath tan, with an irregular marbling of
dark brown. In life, the dorsal surfaces of
the feet reddish-brown, contrasting sharply
with the dorsal color.

Immature individuals may be difficult to dis-
tinguish from sympatric B. parietalis since
both lack bony ridges on the head. However,
even the smallest B. beddomi (11 mm SV)
are densely covered with sharp, conical warts
on the dorsum, head, and eyelids, and have
warty paratoids with uneven indented margins.
Young B. parietalis have extremely fine

spicules on the head and eyelids, grading into
larger, thinly dispersed warts on the paratoids
and back; the paratoids are oval, smooth-
edged, and underlined in black laterally.

Ecological Notes. Thirteen of our 14 indi-
viduals were collected in evergreen forest at
310 m, and one was taken in gallery forest.
All specimens were collected away from
streams, eight on the surface of dead leaves,
two on bare soil, and four on small rocks.
Eleven specimens were found during the day
and three at night.

Bufo melanostictus Schneider

Bufo melanosticus Schneider, 1799, Hist. Amphib.,

p. 216 — East India.

Material. 4 adult females 45.3-58.1 mm SV,
mean 52.8. Tibia 0.37-0.43 of SV. All con-
tained numerous pigmented ova.

Ecological Notes. An inhabitant of cleared
or disturbed habitats, including rubber plant-
ings, forest edges, and human habitations.
Individuals were collected from sea level to
900 m, and numerous additional specimens
were seen but not collected, especially in the
immediate vicinity of human dwellings.

Bufo parietalis Boulenger

Bufo parietalis, Boulenger, 1882, Cat. Batr. Sal.

Brit. Mus., p. 312, plate 21, fig. 22 — Malabar.

Material. 7 adult females 73.7-92.2 mm
SV, mean 82.4; 4 adult males 50.1-59.9 mm,
mean 54.7; 11 subadult females 55.9-66.1
mm; 67 juveniles 14.6-45.3 mm. Tibia 0.37-
0.40 of SV in females, mean 0.385; 0.38-0.42
in males, mean 0.396.

Very little has been published on this toad
since its original description. Adults have a
uniform light brown dorsum with a few large
warts, usually tipped with black. A dark line
extends from the orbito -tympanic crest along
the lateral edge of the paratoid gland, and is
present even in small juveniles. The sides are

408

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUD1, KERALA

dark brown marbled with tan. The cranial
crests are extremely well developed in adults,
with the paratoid ridge meeting the paratoid
gland. The crests become progressively kera-
tinized and blackened with age, starting with
the supraorbital crest in young adults, until all
crests are heavily keratinized in large speci-
mens. The young lack cranial crests. To dis-
tinguish them from sympatric toads, see B.
beddomi.

Ecological notes. Fifty-four individuals were
collected from evergreen forest, 24 from
moist deciduous forest, 2 in secondary growth
and 3 in semi-evergreen forest. Twenty-three
were caught below 200 m elevation, 56 at 250-
400 m, and 4 at 950 m. Most toads were
found av/ay from streams in the forest (68
specimens); 12 were collected along stream
banks, and two were in the water of streams.
Forty-five individuals were collected on the
surface of dead leaves, 14 on bare soil, and
10 on rocks; the remaining individuals were
either under leaves, rocks, or soil (7) or on
logs or low plants (3). Only one female (86.2
mm) contained mature ova.

Pedosfibes tuberculosus Gunther

Pedostibes tuberculosus Gunther, 1875, Proc. Zool.

Soc. London, 1875: 576, pi. 64, fig. C — Malabar.

Material. 1 adult female 38.5 mm SV. 1
adult male 36.6 mm, 16 juveniles 11.1-21.9
mm. Tibia 0.44 of SV in female, 0.40 in male.
Ova in the female were very small.

Ecological Notes. Sixteen of our 18 indi-
viduals were collected in evergreen forest at
300-310 m elevation, 1 in moist deciduous
forest (255 m) and 1 in moist semi-evergreen
forest (260 m). We found 11 individuals away
from streams and 7 within 6 metres of a per-
manent stream. Seven were on dead leaves,
2 on bare soil, 5 on small rocks, 3 on leaves
of herbaceous plants, and 1 on a shrub. Our

limited observations suggest that these toads
stay on or near the ground during daylight
hours (9 were collected on the forest floor),
then move to arboreal situations at night (3
on leaves of small shrubs). However, we also
found one individual 1.5 m above ground in
a shrub during daylight hours, and one of
our four night captures was on a 10 cm rock
on the ground, suggesting that this temporal
habitat selection is not perfect.

RamanelSa triangularis (Gunther)

Callulci triangularis Gunther, 1875, Proc. Zool. Soc.

London, 1875: 576 — Malabar.

Ramanella triangularis Rao and Ramanna, 1925,

Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1925: 1445.

Material. 1 adult female 30.3 mm SV; 4
adult males 23.4-25.8 mm, mean 24.2. Tibia
0.42 of SV in female; 0.42-0.47 in males,
mean 0.44. The female was gravid.

Taxonomic Notes. According to Parker
(1934), R. triangularis is distinguished from
R. variegata (Stoliczka) on the basis of toe
webbing (a rudiment in R. variegata, toes
completely free in R. triangularis), ventral
coloration (immaculate white in R. variegata,
dark brown with small, white spots in R.
triangularis), and the dorsal color pattern.
Ramanella triangularis has a characteristic dark
lateral streak at the loreal region and a dark
dorsal median blotch that bifurcates in the
coccygeal region. The color pattern of R.
variegata is dark brown with irregular lighter
marblings or spots, but no consistent pattern
(Parker 1934, Daniel 1963). Our specimens
agree with R. triangularis in ventral coloration
and in some details of the dorsal color pattern,
particularly in the dark triangular blotch bet-
ween the forelimbs. However, the paired dark
bands posteriorly and the triangular dark spot
enclosing the anus are both variable. In addi-
tion, our specimens have vestiges of webbing
on the toes, extending to the proximal sub-

409

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81

articular process of the third, fourth, and fifth
toes. Thus, while we identify these frogs as
R. triangularis on the basis of color pattern,
they actually represent a composite of key
characteristics of both species, and suggest
that rediagnosis of the two species may be
needed.

Larvae. Eleven samples of a larval micro-
hylid were obtained from tree holes. None is
older than Stage 27, so that diagnostic fea-
tures of adult limb form are not available. Of
the microhylid genera known from South
India, the only one that has arboreal habits
is Ramanella (Daniel 1963). Since it is not
likely that any of the other, terrestrial genera
would consistently deposit eggs in tree holes,
we believe that these are larval Ramanella.

Larvae have been assigned to R. triangularis
(Rao 1918, Parker 1934), with no explana-
tion for this decision. Rao gave no informa-
tion on habitat. Our tadpoles differ from
Rao’s in several respects. First, they are
blackish, heavily pigmented dorsally, laterally,
and under the fore part of the body. Rao’s
tadpoles were transparent, becoming brown in
metamorphic stages. Secondly, the Ponmudi
larvae have the spiracular tube extended to the
end of the body so that the opening overlies
the end of the anal tube; Rao’s figure shows
the spiracle opening almost midway between
the level of the eyes and the end of the body.
Description of our larvae follows.

Head-body broadly oval, almost truncate at
snout, body depressed, maximum width at
mid-body; eyes lateral, but not visible from
below; eyeball very small in these stages; in-
terorbital about 0.6 of head-body width, at
least 1 . 5 times eye-snout distance; nostrils not
open, internarial 1/4-1 /3 of interorbital;
nasolacrimal duct not visible. Mouth termi-
nal; neither lip expanded; no beaks or denti-
cles; upper lip with obtusely pointed, down-

turned lateral lobes separated by wide, curved
median indentation; lower lip supporting a
U-shaped flange projecting into buccal cavity
with median portion forming part of exterior
surface of mouth just below center of upper
lip. Spiracle median, opening wide, overlying
end of anal tube. Anal tube median, in ven-
tral fin running diagonally from end of body to
margin of fin. Tail weakly convex, tapering
gradually to narrow tip; both fins arising at
end of body; fins deeper than muscle in distal
two-thirds; ventral fin deeper than dorsal.
Head-body black above, laterally, and under
anterior half or two-thirds; no pattern; caudal
muscle and dorsal fin dusky; ventral fin usually
without pigment.

Head-body length (mm) at Stage 25 7.1
(maximum), at Stage 27 9.2-9.25. Maximum
total length 25.5 mm. Tail length 1.56-1.76
of head-body length. Head-body width 0.68-
0.88 of length; body depth 0.62-0.67 of
width; eyeball 0.06-0.07 of head-body
length.

Ecological Notes. All 5 adults were taken
from two tree holes in the same tree 2-4 m
above the ground in an isolated patch of ever-
green forest at 950 m above sea level. Tad-
poles were collected in the same tree holes as
well as in others 0.3- 1.0 m above ground at
310-510 m above sea level.

Micrixalus fuscus (Boulenger) (Plate I)

Ixdlus fascus Boulenger, 1882, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit.

Mus., p. 96. pi. 10, fig. 3 — hills of southwestern

India.

Micrixalus fuscus Boulenger, 1888, Proc. Zool. Soc.

London, 1888: 205.

Micrixalus herrei Myers, 1942, Proc. Biol. Soc.

Washington, 55: 71 — Kallar, Trivandrum District.

Material. 50 adult females 21.5-28.8 mm
SV, mean 25.2; 126 males 17.6-21.2 mm,
mean 19.5; 71 juveniles and subadults 11.3-
20.8 mm. Tibia 0.49-0.56 of SV in females.

410

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA

mean 0.534 (n=10); 0.55-0.62 in males, mean
0.566 (n=10). Males have large, cream-colour-
ed nuptial pads.

An extremely variable species, showing a
wide range of variation in color pattern and
amount of webbing of the feet. Dorsum in life
light tan to dark reddish brown to nearly
black, with various amounts of black marbling
or spotting. Ventral color yellow-tan, with or
without brown reticulations, especially in the
throat region. Thin dorsolateral fold white,
black, or similar in color to the tan back-
ground. A light thigh stripe extending from
anus nearly to inside of the knee joint always
present, even in very small juveniles, some-
times interrupted. In life, thigh stripe deep
yellow. Females bright yellow in the groin and
on anterior face of the thigh; males have the
yellow less developed. Dorsal surfaces of the
feet bluish-gray.

Webbing of the hind feet varies from about
three quarters (Daniel 1963) to nearly com-
plete. The variation found in this species,
especially in the extent of hind foot webbing,
would be sufficient to distinguish a separate
species if only the extremes were considered.
However, since no clear break in the amount
of webbing exists, and it is not correlated with
color pattern or other variation, we conclude
that this entire sample represents a highly
variable, continuous population.

Eggs of most females were enlarged, ripe,
and unpigmented. Males have large nuptial
pads.

Taxonomic Notes. Myers (1942b) named
M. herrei on the basis of a single male taken
from Kallar, a few kilometres from several
of our collecting sites. These two species were
differentiated by Myers on the basis of six
characters: 1) longer legs of herrei, 2) dorsum
granular in herrei, 3) snout more rounded in
herrei, 4) a relatively larger eye in herrei, 5)

herrei s much smaller size, and 6) certain
differences in details of coloration. In com-
paring the type and only specimen of M.
herrei (CAS SU 7265) to our large series, we
find that most of the diagnostic features are
variable in our series. Characters 1 and 5 are
sexually dimorphic in this species, and the type
of herrei is well within the range of our series
of males. Likewise, the color pattern differen-
ces between the two disappear when a large
series is examined. The granular surface of
herrei, as Myers suggested, is primarily a func-
tion of the drying out of a specimen, and an
individual changes from “smooth” to “granu-
lar” in the course of a few minutes of dessi-
cation. The shape of the snout in our material
is more similar to M. herrei than the figure
of M. fuscus in Boulenger (1882), with the
nostrils slightly interrupting the line of the
canthus rostralis. However, this difference is
extremely slight. The eye diameter relative to
the distance from eye to snout is large in
M. herrei (3.0 : 2.5 mm), as Myers indicated.
This character is sexually dimorphic in our
sample, and females have relatively smaller
eyes than males. In a ramdom sample of 12
individuals, the largest eye size was 2. 9: 2. 7
mm, and on average the ratio is about 1:1.
It thus seems likely that Myers’ type represents
nothing but a slightly large-eyed male M.
fuscus, and that specific designation is un-
warranted.

Ecological Notes. Of the 239 specimens for
which we have ecological data, most (222)
were taken in evergreen forest (2 below 200
m, 192 at 200-400 m, 28 at 401-750 m). The
rest were found in moist deciduous forest (13).
moist semi-evergreen forest (1), or secondary
growth (1) between 70 and 400 m. A single
individual was collected at 950 m in gallery
forest. About a third of our specimens were
found away from streams in the forest; the

411

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

remainder were collected either in the water
(8), on rocks in midstream (30), or along
the banks (122) of permanent and intermit-
tent streams. Most individuals were found on
the forest floor, either on rocks (115), dead
leaves (71), or on bare soil (9); the rest were
taken above ground in low plants (22) or
under dead leaves (7). A large concentration
of this species was always present in a seepage
area, with flowing water 2-5 cm deep, and
several pairs were found in amplexus in this
area.

Micrixalus midis Pillai

Micrixalus midis Pillai, 1978, Proc. Indian Acad. Sci.,

87B : 173 — Chedleth, Kurichiat Reserve Forest,

Wynad, Kerala.

Material 6 adult females 18.1-19.7 mm
SV, mean 19.2; 6 adult males 15.2-15.6 mm,
mean 15.4. Tibia 0.47-0.51 of SV in females,
mean 0.494; 0.49-0.53 in males, mean 0.511.
Males have a well developed nuptial pad. All
six females contained large well-developed, un-
pigmented ova.

This sample matches Pillai’s (1978a) des-
cription, and represents the second series of
the species. The only disparity with the type
series is in the extent of webbing on the hind
feet. Our specimens have only a rudiment of
webbing, while Pillai’s series was about half
webbed. However, in size, details of color
pattern, and other aspects of morphology, the
agreement is nearly perfect. The extensive
variation in webbing found in our large sample
of M. fuscus from Ponmudi suggests that this
character may be relatively variable in this
genus.

Ecological Notes. We found these frogs at
250-900 m elevation, in evergreen (5), moist
deciduous (3) and gallery (4) forests. Half
of the individuals were found away from
streams; the rest were in small streams (1) or

along stream banks (5). We collected 5 speci-
mens on rocks, 2 on dead leaves, 2 on tree
trunks, 1 on bare soil, and 1 on a fallen log.

Pillai’s (1978a) report of pairs in amplexus
in late October, combined with our observa-
tions, suggests that these frogs breed at least
throughout the monsoon season (May-October).

Our specimens extend the range of M. nudis
approximately 350 km southward, and suggest
that the species is widely distributed through-
out the Western Ghats.

Nannobatrachus beddomi Boulenger

N annobatrachus beddomii Boulenger, 1882, Cat. Batr.

Sal. Brit. Mus., p. 470 — Malabar and Tinnevelly.
Nannobatrachus anamallaiensis Myers, 1942, Proc.

Biol. Soc. Washington, 55: 49 — Puthutotam

Estate, Valparai, Tamil Nadu.

Material 10 adult females 14.5-17.1 mm
SV, mean 15.7; 8 adult males 13.6-15.2 mm,
mean 14.5; 4 juveniles and subadults. Tibia
0.45-0.49 of SV in females, mean 0.470;
0.45-0.51 in males, mean 0.483.

Our sample agrees well with the original
description as emended by Boulenger (1883).
A stout, squat species with a broadly rounded
snout, no canthus rostralis, large, well-separat-
ed eyes with very small eyelids. Skin perfectly
smooth dorsally and ventrally; a few small
conical tubercles may be present on the eyelids.
Toes long and slender, with small, oval disks
and no trace of webbing. Toe disks with longi-
tudinal division dorsally, and a strong circum-
marginal groove. No groove on the finger disks.
Tympanum completely hidden in some indi-
viduals, barely visible in others, and about half
the diameter of the eye.

In life, back brown with black markings;
throat and abdomen grayish. A pale, bluish-
white streak behind and below eye, and an irre-
gular series of similar spots along sides of neck
and torso. A tan, triangular patch on the snout

412

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81

Inger et al Amphibians & Reptiles from Ponmudi

Plate I

Above : Micrixalus fuscus.

Below: Nyctibatrachus major , showing diamond-shaped pupil.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81

Inger et al. : Amphibians & Reptiles from Ponmudi

Plate II

Above: Nyctibatrachus minor , new species
Below: Rana brachytarsus.

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA

between eyes. Front and hind limbs strongly
barred with dark brown crossbands.

Of 11 mature females, 8 contained large,
pigmented, black and tan ova and a few small
white ones, while three contain only small,
unpigmented ova. Males have the relatively
largest and most strongly developed femoral
glands4 of any species in our collection. The
glands are oval, raised, enamel white in color,
and about two-thirds the length of the femur.
However, in one male the glands are much
less developed; they are barely raised above
the surface of the thigh and have lost most of
their distinctive white color.

Taxonomic Notes. We have compared our
material with a cotype of N. beddomi (FMNH
73344) and with part of the type series of
N. anamallaiensis Myers (CAS 7199, 7200,
7202, 7204). The remaining species of the
genus, N. kempholeyensis Rao was not avail-
able for comparison. Our material agrees in
nearly every detail with the N. beddomi
cotype, and is clearly assignable to that species.
However, the differences between N. beddomi
and N. anamallaiensis cited by Myers are ex-
tremely slight.

Myers (1942a) cites the shape of the pupil,
the relatively shorter hind leg, and the shape
of the vomerine tooth patch (linear in ana -
mallaiensis, oval in beddomi ) as the only diffe-
rences between these two species. As Rao
(1937) and Pillai (1978b) have pointed out,
the shape of the pupil in preserved frogs is
too variable to be of much systematic value.
In our series, 16 specimens have perfectly
round pupils; the rest vary from slightly oval
to diamond-shaped, similar to the condition
we observed in living examples of Nyctibatra-

4 We are grateful to Mr. Barry Clarke, British
Museum (Natural History), for calling our attention
to the femoral glands in Nyctibatrachus, leading us
to look for these structures in Nannobatrachus.

chus (Plate I). Several specimens had one
round pupil and the other oval shaped. There
is also considerable variation in the shape of
the vomerine tooth patch in our material.
These tiny frogs have only 5-10 teeth per
patch, and the eruption of a few teeth can
completely change a patch from linear to
oval. Hind limb length, especially when mea-
sured as the position the tibio-tarsal joint
reaches along the head, is also variable,
depending on the amount of food in an indi-
vidual’s stomach or the ova in a female. Mea-
sured as the overlap of the heels when the
femurs are at right angels to the body, measure-
ment error is much less, and both anamallai-
ensis and beddomi have legs of equal length,
with the heels just or not quite meeting at the
anus. We feel, therefore, that N. anamallai-
ensis is a junior synonym of N. beddomi, and
that Myers’ detailed description of the former
may be used as a needed redescription of N.
beddomi. No traces of femoral glands or
enlarged ova are in evidence in Myers’ four
examples. They were collected in January,
which is apparently not a part of the breeding
season. Thus, the femoral glands may well be
strictly seasonal in occurrence.

As Myers (1942a) suggested, the generic
relationships and distinctiveness of Nanno-
batrachus, Nyctibatrachus, and Nannophrys
are problematical. Of the characters first used
to separate these genera, pupil orientation can
no longer be considered of systematic value.
Toe webbing, cited by Myers as a feature of
Nyctibatrachus, is also no longer valid, since
a new species described below lacks webbing.
Two previously unused characters, which we
describe for the five species available to us,
are the presence of femoral glands in males
and the presence of pigmented ova in repro-
ductively mature females. These characters,
when considered in combination with the pre-

413

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

sence of skin folds and webbing, allow an
unambiguous characterization of all five taxa
(see Table 1). However, they do not help
diagnose N annobatrachus and Nyctibatrachus.
Further analysis of the osteological characters
used by Boulenger (1882) and Myers (1942a)
may help resolve this problem.

femoral glands in sexually mature males, toes
three-fourths webbed, and dorsal coloration
of brown and tan with light dorsolateral bands.

Holotype. Field Catalogue number RFI-
31300, an adult female collected 1 June, 1982
from Ponmudi, Trivandrum District, Kerala,
350 m elevation. Deposited in NMNHI.

Table 1

Comparison of Ponmudi species of N annobatrachus and Nyctibatrachus witce each other and

with Nyctibatrachus pygmaeus

Species

Ripe Ova

Femoral Glands

Skin Folds

Webbing*

N annobatrachus
beddomi

pigmented

strong

absent

< 1/4

Nyctibatrachus

major

pigmented

strong

present

3/4

N. aliciae

pigmented

weak

present

3/4

N. pygmaeus

pigmented

strong

present

1/2

N. minor

unpigmented

absent

present

< 1/4

* Extent of webbing relative to subarticular tubercles of fourth toe : < 1/4 = not beyond basal

tubercle; 1/2 = to middle tubercle; 3/4 = between middle and distal tubercles.

Ecological Notes. We collected specimens
in evergreen forest (13 at 260-365 m, 4 at
450-660 m), moist deciduous forest (2 at 280-
290 m), moist semi-evergreen forest (2 at
260 m), and high-altitude gallery forest (1 at
900 m). Eight specimens were taken along
stream banks, 12 away from streams, and one
in the dry bed of an intermittent stream.
About two-thirds of our specimens were col-
lected beneath cover (6 under leaves, 6 under
rocks, 1 under soil); the rest were on dead
leaves (3) or bare soil (2).

Nyctibatrachus aliciae5 sp. nov.

Diagnosis. A medium-sized Nyctibatrachus
which can be distinguished from all other
forms by its intermediate size at sexual matu-
rity (mean SV for males 22.7 mm, for females
26.5 mm), presence of weakly developed

Paratypes. 24 adult females, 8 adult males,
2 juveniles. FMNH 216582-602; 13 deposited
in NMNHI.

Description of holotype. Habitus squat and
stout, as in other members of the genus. Snout
rounded, no canthus rostralis. Nostrils close
together, about one-third the distance from
the tip of the snout to the eye, internarial
distance slightly less than interorbital. Upper
eyelids very reduced, covering less than one-
quarter of the eyeball; interorbital distance
more than twice the width of the eyelid. A
well defined supratympanic fold from the
middle of the posterior edge of the eye curving

5 We take pleasure in naming this species for
Dr. Alice G. C. Grandison, British Museum (Natu-
ral History) as a modest token of appreciation for
her help not only to us, but to herpetologists around
the world.

414

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA

through a 90 degree bend to the shoulder.
Tympanum completely hidden.

Forelimbs stout. Fingers long, slender, and
unwebbed. Tips of the fingers dilated into
small, round disks, only slightly larger than
the diameter of the subterminal phalanx. A
well developed circummarginal groove sepa-
rating the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the
disk extends almost around its entire circum-
ference. Disks on all fingers with a dorsal
longitudinal groove, the division very weak on
the first finger, most pronounced on the third.
Subarticular tubercles moderate; a series of
three tubercles at the base of the metacarpals,
the one under first finger largest.

Hind legs robust, short, the heels widely
separated when the tibia are bent at right
angles to the body. Tibia 0.49 of SV. Toes
three-fourths webbed (see Daniel 1963, figure
12), webbing extending to disk of all but
fourth toe on lateral sides, and to outer sub-
articular tubercle on fourth. Webbing extends
slightly past distal subarticular tubercle on
medial side of third toe and to base of disk on
medial side of second. A thin fringe of webb-
ing, which tends to fold over on the phalanx,
from distal subarticular tubercle of fourth toe
to disk. Disks much larger than on fingers, one
and one-half times breadth of subterminal
phalanx. A strong circummarginal groove; dor-
sally, all disks strongly divided.

Subarticular processes well developed, oval,
and whitish-gray in color. A long, slender
inner metatarsal tubercle, about three times as
long as wide, and a small, white nearly round
outer tubercle. A slightly crescentic tarsal fold
extending from anterior edge of inner metatar-
sal tubercle about two-thirds distance to tibio-
tarsal joint. A low, spinose ridge along the
lateral side of the foot, ending in outer meta-
tarsal tubercle.

Skin loosely connected to underlying tissue.

even on head and limbs. Dorsally an irregular
series of short ridges completely covering the
back and limbs; ridges on snout becoming
longer and assuming a more or less parallel
longitudinal orientation. A strong, well-deve-
loped ridge extending from the lip over the
tip of the snout to between the nostrils, at
which point it bifurcates, producing an invert-
ed “Y”; the bifurcated ends extend half the
distance to the eyes. Upper eyelids strongly
tuberculate. Numerous tiny, white-tipped
tubercles on the upper surface of the calves
and tarsus and above the vent. Belly smooth,
the throat with a series of longitudinal ridges
sharply demarcated by a gular fold. The under-
side of the limbs smooth.

Dorsally a dark brown background with light,
cream-colored blotches. Blotches coalesce into
two broad, broken stripes extending from be-
hind eyes to the groin, stripes about width of
eyes. Another, more diffuse band of cream
middorsally, interrupted with dark brown. A
light, triangular spot of cream between the
eyes, and a light blotch above the lip on
each side. Both front and hind limbs barred
with dark brown and cream; the hands almost
entirely dark brown. Belly immaculate white,
throat white with dark brown, longitudinal
lines. Forelimbs white, edged with a fine pattern
of dark brown vermiculations; this pattern of
brown extends laterally along the sides of the
belly, and completely covers the ventral surface
of the hind legs. Hands and feet dark brown
ventrally.

Snout-vent 32.0 mm, tibia length 15.7, head
width 12.6.

Variation. The ratio of brown to cream on
the dorsal surface varies considerably; the type
represents an intermediate condition. However,
in all specimens, even the smallest, some
vestige of the two light bands on the back is
always discernible; it is most obscure in very

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light individuals, where it blends in with the
background. Ventral coloration is somewhat
variable, especially in the density of brown
pigmentation on the throat and underside of
the limbs; some individuals are virtually solid
brown, while others have a very faint pattern
of brown vermiculations. This variation is not
sexually dimorphic; both males and females
have dark throats.

Males possess a variable, but generally
poorly developed, raised femoral gland ven-
trally on the thigh. In the best developed in-
dividual (FMNH 216594), the glands are about
one-half the length of the thigh, twice as long
as wide, and perfectly oval. Under magnifica-
tion, the granular structure of the gland can
be seen through the skin, although the surface
of the gland is smooth. Males also possess a
weakly developed nuptial pad on the inside
of the first finger. The femoral glands are
generally weakly developed, and in most cases
are only barely visible. Since all females con-
tained mature ova, both sexes are presumably
at their height of reproductive activity, imply-
ing that the femoral glands are never strongly
developed.

All females larger than about 25.0 mm
possess some large, pigmented ova ready for
laying, as well as a few small, unpigmented
ova. Sexual maturity appears to be reached in
females at 25 mm SV; two individuals at 23.9
and 23 . 6 mm had a few mature ova, but most
were small and unpigmented, and other indi-
viduals less than 24 mm SV had only immature
ova.

Measurements and body proportions are
given in Table 2.

Comparisons. Five species of Nyctibatrachus
have been described to date: N. humayuni
Bhaduri and Kripalani, N. major Boulenger,
N. pygmaeus (Gunther), N. sanctipalustris Rao
(with two subspecies), and N. sylvaticus Rao.

Table 2

Snout-vent length (mm) and tibia length and

HEAD WIDTH AS PROPORTION OF SV IN ADULTS OF
Nyctibatrachus aliciae

Females

Males

Snout-vent

range

20.4-33.5

21.8-24.9

mean

26.5

22.7

Tibia length

range

0.46-0.54

0.49-0.53

mean

0.501

0.504

Head width

range

0.38-0.44

0.38-0.42

mean

0.404

0.395

Sample size

Of these species, all but N. pygmaeus are very
similar to N. major; they are large (adults
over 40 mm SV), generally dark with irregu-
lar dark mottling, and apparently represent
slight variations from N. major. All of these
species are readily distinguishable from N.
aliciae on the basis of adult size and on dorsal
color pattern. In our large series of sympa-
tric N. major, a light banding pattern may be
faintly visible in some juveniles, although they
invariably become dark brown with age. The
webbing on the hind feet is also less extensive
in our N. major (see below).

Nyctibatrachus aliciae differs from N. pyg-
maeus in several characters. Besides the diffe-
rences shown in Table 1, pygmaeus is smaller
(3 syntypes 18.7, 19.1, 23.1 mm) and lacks
expanded toe disks and dorsolateral light
bands.

Ecological Notes. This species was distri-
buted throughout the habitats sampled, from
105 to 840 m elevation. Most (28) were taken
at 310-350 m in evergreen forest; in addition,
3 were collected at 650-660 m in evergreen
forest, one from moist deciduous forest at
105 m, and 3 from an area of secondary

416

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA

growth at 840 m. All of the specimens were
taken in close association with water: 21 from
the banks of permanent streams (generally
within 1 m of the stream), 8 were on rocks
in mid-stream, 5 were actually in the water,
and one was in a temporary pool. We cannot
say whether this species is always restricted to
aquatic habitats, or if this distribution is a
phenomenon of the breeding season.

Twenty of our specimens were collected on
rocks, 4 on bare soil, and 3 on dead leaves.
With two exceptions, all specimens were found
after dark, suggesting that, like other members
of the genus, this species is nocturnal.

Nyctibatrachus major Boulenger (Plate I)

Nyctibatrachus major Boulenger, 1882, Cat. Batr.

Sal. Brit. Mus., p. 114, pi. 12, fig. 2 — Malabar

and Wynad.

Material. 23 adult females 40.1-53.6 mm
SV, mean 47.9; 35 adult males 36.3-51.8 mm,
mean 43.6; 154 juveniles and subadults 14.9-
37.3 mm, those 14.9-20.0 with vestige of tail.
Tibia 0.47-0.53 of SV in females, mean 0.496
(n=12); in males 0.48-0.55, mean 0.512
(n=12). Head width 0.43-0.47 of SV in
females, mean 0.451 (n=12); in males 0.43-
0.47, mean 0.447 (n=12).

Pillai (1978b) has provided a recent redes-
cription of N. major based on a series of 42
individuals from Wynad, one of the type loca-
lities, approximately 400 km north of our
collecting locality. Because the description is
relatively complete, we will only note points
where our collection deviates substantially from
Pillai’s.

Our adult specimens range from light tan
to dark brown, although light adults are un-
common. As Pillai noted, juveniles tend to be
lighter than adults, although they also range
from light yellow-tan to dark brown. In some
juveniles (about 10%), a pair of diffuse, light
cream lines extend from the eyes about half

way to the vent on the dorsum, superficially
resembling similar bands found in N. minor
(see below). However, the bands are much
wider and more diffuse in major.

Pillai (1978b) stated his specimens lack cir-
cummarginal grooves on the finger disks, but
have both deep circummarginal grooves and
longitudinal dorsal grooves on the toes. In our
frogs the toes have very shallow, poorly de-
fined grooves. It is impossible to determine
how much of this difference is an artifact of
preservation and how much is due to geogra-
phic variation.

Adult males have well-developed femoral
glands. These glands are oval, about half the
length of the femur, and one-half to one-third
as wide as long. The glands are slightly raised,
yellow-cream in color, and sharply differentiat-
ed from the skin of the surrounding thigh.
Under magnification the glandules are visible
through the skin, giving the area a granular
appearance. Similar glands are also present in
the type series of N. major (Barry Clarke,
personal communication), and in several other
species of Nyctibatrachus and N annobatrachus
(Table 1).

The smallest adult female (40.3 mm) had
a few pigmented ova. All larger females con-
tained ripe, pigmented eggs with black and
cream colored poles, as well as a few small,
white ova.

Larvae. Twenty-one samples of larvae
ranging from Stage 25 to Stage 41 (Gosner
1960) agree closely with Pillai’s description of
larval N. major (Pillai 1978b). The principal
difference between our larvae and those illus-
trated by Pillai lies in the labial lobes. In ours,
the lateral portions of both lips are formed
by wide lobes that flank 4 median lobes on
the lower lip. As only a slight modification of
Pillai’s figure would bring it into correspon-
dence with our tadpoles, we believe that this

417

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA

difference is merely a matter of interpretation.

The limbs of pre-metamorphic larvae are
like those of adult major in one particular
feature that distinguishes that species from N.
aliciae : the dorsal surfaces of the disks lack
a longitudinal groove. In our samples, head-
body length measured 13.33-14.16 mm in the
largest Stage 25 larvae, 17.25-17.75 at mid-
development (Stages 32-36), and 16.67-18.0
near metamorphosis (Stages 40-41). Tail lengths
varied from 1.90 to 2.25 times head-body
length, and maximum tail depth from 0.21 to
0.26 of tail length. Transforming individuals
with tail stumps varied from 14.9 to 19.4 mm
SV.

Ecological Notes. Altitudinal distribution
was extensive: 110 m — 1, 240-290 — 8, 310-
365 — 152, 630-660 — 36, 840-920 — 6. Half
(106) of the transformed individuals were cap-
tured in water; the remainder were on stream
banks or in seepage areas. As these hill streams
have rocky banks, it is not surprising that a
third (34) of those seen out of water were on
rocks; others were on sand (25), on dead
leaves (18), under dead leaves (14), under
rocks (4), on logs (2), on the base of a tree
(1), and on a low herb (1). About half of the
total sample was obtained during daylight hours,
including half (51) of those captured in water,
all of those from under dead leaves, and two-
thirds of those from sandy banks.

One tadpole was found in a pothole of a
rocky stream bank, 31 (5 samples) in side
pools of streams, 29 (1 sample) in a bank
seepage, 106 (12 samples) in shallow pools
with weak to moderate current, and 2 (2
samples) in seepages close to small streams.
Nyctibatrachus minor sp. nov. (Plate II)

Diagnosis. A small species of Nyctibatra-
chus which may be distinguished from all other
forms by its small size at sexual maturity
(maximum SV about 22 mm), the complete

absence of webbing on the hind feet, the pre-
sence of a distinct, dorsolateral glandular fold,
the lack of femoral glands in sexually mature
males, and lack of pigment in mature ova.

Holotype. Field number RFI 31175, an
adult female collected 30 May, 1982, from
Ponmudi, Trivandrum District, Kerala, at 350
m elevation. Deposited in NMNHI.

Paratypes. 3 adult females, 18 adult males,
9 juveniles and subadults. FMNH 216603-18;
14 deposited in NMNPII.

Description of holotype. Habitus squat and
flattened. Snout rounded, no canthus rostralis.
Nostrils dorsal, raised slightly above the snout.
Internarial distance approximately equal to
interorbital distance; nostrils about equidistant
between orbit and tip of snout. Upper eye-
lids extremely reduced, covering less than one-
quarter of the eye; interorbital distance three
times width of eyelid. A faint, interrupted
supratympanic fold. Tympanum indistinct, the
anterior border barely visible as a small cres-
cent well separated from the eye.

Forelimbs stout, fingers moderate, with no
vestige of webbing. Third finger longest, second
and fourth subequal. Fourth more slender than
others. Thumb short and robust. Tips of the
fingers expanded into very small disks slightly
wider than subterminal phalanx. No circum-
marginal groove separating the upper and lower
surfaces of the fingers. A weak dorsal groove
on the left third finger; otherwise, disks with-
out a longitudinal dorsal groove. Subarticular
processes weakly developed, barely distingui-
shable from the ventral surface of the fingers.

Hind legs stout, moderately short; the tibio-
tarsal joints meet but do not overlap when the
legs are bent at right angles to the long axis
of the body. Tibia 0.48 of SV. Toes long and
slender, with no vestige of webbing between
them. Tips of toes expanded into small, oval
disks, slightly wider than subterminal phalanx.

418

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDJ, KERALA

Disks with a strong, longitudinal, dorsal
groove; no circummarginal groove separating
the upper and lower surfaces of the toes. Sub-
articular processes poorly developed; a small
oval inner metatarsal tubercle. A very short,
crescentic fold extends from the inner meta-
tarsal tubercle proximally about the length of
the tubercle, then running in a straight line
along the long axis of tarsus for about an
equal distance. A smooth ridge extends along
the outer edge of the fifth toe from its tip to
the level of the inner metatarsal tubercle.

A series of well-defined, glandular ridges on
head and back. A ridge extends from upper
lip along midline of snout to between nostrils,
at which point it bifurcates into a pair of
ridges extending nearly to each eye. A pro-
nounced transverse ridge between eyes. A pair
of curved, dorsolateral folds from behind eyes,
forming an hourglass pattern extending three-
quarters of distance to groin. An additional
pair of ridges forms an “X” pattern on anterior
half of back, starting at same level as dor-
solateral fold, but contained within them. A
faint, interrupted supratympanic fold from eye
to near shoulder.

Upper surface of arms and legs with irregu-
lar folds extending length of limbs. Some ex-
tremely minute granulations on eyelids and
dorsal surface of head; otherwise, skin smooth.
Ventrally, skin smooth.

Snout-vent 21.5 mm, tibia length 10.4, head
width 8.4.

Color above light tan with dark brown
markings surrounding most of longitudinal
folds. A pronounced dark line between nostril
and eye, a dark line between eyes, a brown
“X” on the anterior half of the body. Anterior
and posterior quarters of dorsolateral folds
dark brown, area between folds light tan. A
thin, white band along inside of anterior half
of each dorsolateral fold. A few additional

smudges of dark brown on the sides, and a
white spot at the corner of the jaw just below
each eye. Forelimbs strongly barred with dark
brown; hindlimbs uniform tan. Beneath imma-
culate white with an extremely fine speckling
of black along margins of body, limbs, and
lower jaw.

Variation. The ground colour varies from
nearly uniform chocolate brown to very light
buff; the type is near the light side of this
range, and represents the modal color. The
striping pattern of the holotype is common to
all individuals, even the smallest juveniles.
However, different aspects of the pattern are
more or less distinct depending on the back-
ground color. In dark individuals, the pair of
white lines following the dorsolateral folds are
extremely distinct, while the dark markings
are relatively obscure; the opposite is true of
light individuals. Some specimens have a dis-
tinct pattern of dark brown crossbands on the
hind limbs as well as the forelimbs, and in
some the dark lines surrounding the dorso-
lateral folds may be uninterrupted for their
entire length. The ventral coloration is always
immaculate white.

All females contained large, mature, white
ova. Males have no external secondary sexual
characters, and lack the femoral glands found
in the other members of the genus (Table 1).

Metamorphosis apparently occurs at a very
small size; our smallest individual (7.7 mm
SV) has only a slight vestige of the tail above
the anus. The tadpole has not been positively
identified.

Comparisons. Of the five species of Nycti-
bat rachus previously described (see Compari-
sons of N. aliciae), four are clearly closely
allied to N. major and may be distinguished
from N. minor on the basis of size (all are
about 40 mm SV, while the largest N. minor
is 21.5 mm SV). The only species of corn-

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

parable size is N. pygmaeus (Gunther). We
have compared our material to 3 syntypes of
N. pygmaeus (BMNH 1947.2.4.47, 1947.2.4.
51, 1947.2.4.57). Nyctibatrachus minor differs
from them in lacking webbing on the hind feet
(pygmaeus is half to two-thirds webbed), in
the pattern of glandular ridges on the head
(the ridges are irregular and short in pygmaeus) ,
in having a dorsolateral glandular fold (a few,
broken ridges may be present in pygmaeus,
but never a continuous fold), in the distinc-
tive color pattern, and in being immaculate
white beneath (pygmaeus is light brown).
Nyctibatrachus minor differs from N. aliciae
in size, color pattern, webbing of the hind foot,
in lacking femoral glands in males, and in the
females having unpigmented, mature ova. The
last two characters are apparently unique for
the genus (Table 1).

Measurements and body proportions given
in Table 3.

Pillai (1978b) suggested that the presence
of circummarginal grooves on the disks of the
toes may be a useful generic character for

Table 3

Snout-vent length (mm) and tibia length and

HEAD WIDTH AS PROPORTION OF SV IN ADULTS OF
Nyctibatrachus minor

Females

Males

Snout- vent

range

20.4-21.5

15.1-18.2

mean

21.1

17.3

Tibia length

range

0.47-0.51

0.48-0.53

mean

0.486

0.501

Head width

range

0.38-0.40

0.39-0.42

mean

0.395

0.405

Nyctibatrachus. However, such grooves are
weakly developed or absent in some indivi-
duals of our N. major sample, well-developed
in N. aliciae, but absent in N. minor.

Ecological Notes. All specimens were col-
lected in evergreen forest at 310-375 m eleva-
tion. Since similar habitats were searched at
hi slier elevations, we conclude that N. minor
is restricted to relatively low elevations. Of
the 30 specimens for which we have ecological
data, all but 5 were collected either in or
immediately adjacent to small streams or see-
page areas, both by day and night. A favored
microhabitat site was on or under dead leaves
in seep areas (22 individuals), a position from
which males were often heard calling.

Nyctibatrachus sp.

Two tadpoles having the characteristic oral
disk of Nyctibatrachus (Bhaduri and Kripalani
1955, figs. 5 and 6; Pillai 1978b, fig. IB) differ
from any described to date. Because of their
stages of development, they cannot be assigned
to a species of adult.

Nyctibatrachus sp. A

A single tadpole in Stage 36 captured in a
seepage area on a steep slope at 375 m above
sea level. It differs from larval N. major in
having only two median lobes on the lower lip
(instead of 4), a smooth margin on the upper
median lobe, the origin of the dorsal fin about
two-thirds of head-body length behind the end
of the body, and much narrower fins. It also
differs from larval N. humayuni in all the
preceding characters except the first. The limbs
are not sufficiently developed for comparison
with adults.

Head-body oval, snout rounded but narrower
than in N. major, body flattened above, round-
ed below; maximum width midway between
eyes and end of body, 0.60 of head-body

420

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA

length, depth 0.85 of width; eyes dorsolateral,
not visible from below, eyeball 0.12 of head-
body length; interorbital 0.29 of head-body
width, subequal to eye-snout distance; nostrils
dorsolateral, open, rim with a distinct mid-
dorsal projection, internarial distance slightly
narrower than interorbital. Oral disk ventral,
subterminal, without denticles; 0.32 of head-
body width; lips expanded and lobulate; a
wide lateral lobe forming lateral third of the
disk; upper lip with a single wide median lobe
about 1 . 5 times width of lateral lobes, notches
separating median from lateral lobes deep;
lower lip with a pair of narrow median lobes
marked by shallow notches; margins of all ex-
cept upper median lobe with single row of
short papillae; a band of indistinct, short in-
framarginal papillae across bases of lower
median lobes; a row of 7 short papillae across
base of upper median lobe; upper beak gently
curved, black along its margin, finely serrate;
lower beak V-shaped, black along its marginal
third, serrae longer and coarser than those of
upper beak. Spiracle sinistral, midway up side,
tube free from body wall near tip, snout-
spiracle distance 0.49 of head-body length.
Anal tube dextral. Tail 2.59 times head-body
length; heavily muscled, margins straight,
tapering gradually to narrow tip; maximum
depth 0.16 of tail length; caudal muscle 2-3
times deeper than fins except at tip; origin of
dorsal fin far behind end of body. No glands
visible. Lateral line pores in conspicuous rows
along side of snout and around eye; in a dor-
solateral row to end of body, continuing on
tail at base of dorsal fin, and in a ventrolateral
row continuing along middle of caudal muscle.

Tadpole greyish brown, with small dark
irregular spots over all surfaces except ventral
fin and underside of head-body.

Head-body length 9.0 mm, total length 32.

Nyclibatrachus sp. B.

A single tadpole (Stage 25), caught in a
pool of a small stream trickling over sand,
differs from all larvae of Nyclibatrachus des-
cribed or figured in having a much more
slender habitus, very small eyes, a very narrow
median lobe on the upper lip, inframarginal
papillae across the lateral lobes of the upper
lip, and fully pigmented, heavy beaks. The
relatively small eye may be a function of small
body size or early development. However, two
Stage 25 tadpoles of N. major have much
larger eyes (0.09 of head-body length as
opposed to 0.03) and the observed range of
relative eye size in N. major (Stages 25-41)
is only 0.08-0.11. The other distinguishing
features of this tadpole do not appear to be
size-related.

Head-body an elongate oval, snout rounded
but narrowed; strongly flattened above, weakly
so below; maximum width in rear third of
body, 0.52 of head-body length, depth 0.68
of width; eyes dorsal, very small, eyeball 0.03
of head-body length; interorbital 0.20 of head-
body width, much less than eye-snout distance;
nostrils dorsolateral, open, midway between
eyes and tip of snout, a small mid-dorsal pro-
jection, internarial slightly wider than inter-
orbital. Oral disk ventral, subterminal, without
denticles, 0.39 of head-body width; lips ex-
panded, lobulate; a single, narrow, median
lobe on upper lip; 4 subequal median lobes
on lower lip; remainder of both lips occupied
by a wide lateral lobe; a single row of short,
slender, marginal papillae on all lobes, those
of median upper lobe distinctly narrower than
others; a zigzag, transverse row of thick, short,
inframarginal papillae across each lateral lobe
of upper lip, papillae closer to beak than to
margin of lip; a zigzag, transverse row of
similar papillae across 4 median lobes of

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoJ. 81

lower lip, papillae closer to margin than to
beak. Beaks heavy, completely black, margins
coarsely serrate. Spiracle sinistral, half way up
side, tube free from body near end, snout-
spiracle distance 0.41 of head-body length.
Anal tube dextral. Tail 2.07 times head-body
length; heavily muscled, dorsal margin weakly
convex, ventral margin straight, tapering gra-
dually from middle to narrow tip; maximum
depth 0.21 of tail length; caudal muscle much
deeper than fins until distal fifth; origin of
dorsal fin far behind body. No glands. Lateral
line pores not visible.

Entire tadpole pinkish dark gray; caudal
muscle dusted with melanophores with a few
irregular pigment-free areas; dorsal fin with
melanophores along juncture with muscle,
otherwise fins without pigment.

Head-body length 9.25 mm, total length
28.1.

Rana beddomi (Gunther)

Polypedates beddomi Gunther, 1875, Proc. Zool.

Soc. London, 1875: 571, pi. 43, fig. B. — Ana-

mallai, Malabar, Sivagiri, Travancore.

Rana beddomi, Boulenger, 1882, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit.

Mus., p. 55.

Material 9 adult females 45.1-60.1 mm
SV, mean 49.4; 12 adult males 35.4-49.5 mm,
mean 43.1, 15 juveniles 22.6-35.0 mm,

Tibia 0.52-0.65 of SV in females, mean
0.627; 0.57-0.67 in males, mean 0.596. Tym-
panum 0.068-0.086 of SV in females, mean
0.078; 0.095-0.118 in males, mean 0.104.

Our specimens agree very closely with Gun-
ther’s original description and figure. Webbing
extending to disk on fifth toe and on lateral
sides of toes 1, 2, and 3; medially, webbing
extends to distal subarticular tubercle on
second toe, and midway between first and
second tubercles on third toe. Fourth toe
webbed to second subarticular tubercle on both
sides. Subarticular tubercles well developed.

Dorsally, skin smooth or covered with fine
granulations, more pronounced around anus
and angle of jaw. A series of extremely thin,
longitudinal folds on the back of some indi-
viduals. Ventrally, skin smooth, with a granular
area on thighs near anus.

Coloration variable; the commonest pattern
consisting of light pinkish-tan background
with an irregular speckling of dark brown.
In some individuals, dorsal background color
dark brown. A black streak along supratym-
panic fold from eye to shoulder, continuing
forward along canthus rostralis to nostril. A
second dark streak anterior to tympanum from
the lower margin of eye to jaw. Front and
hind limbs faintly barred with dark brown,
as are lips. Ventrally white with brown reti-
culations present on throat and sides of body;
underside of legs immaculate yellow-white.

Males are smaller than females and have a
much larger tympanum. In males, the tympa-
num is as large or larger than the eye; in
females, it is about two-thirds the eye dia-
meter. In addition, males have small, pointed
spicules distributed along the margins of the
jaw, throat, and lateral margins of the belly;
in large males these may become brown and
hardened. Males also have enlarged nuptial
pads on the inside of the first finger.

All females below 30 mm SV were imma-
ture, while those above 50 mm contained
enlarged, pigmented ova. Two 45 mm females
contained both mature and immature ova, sug-
gesting that sexual maturity is reached at about
this size.

Taxonomic Notes. We use the name bed-
domi in the restricted sense of Gunther (1875),
and recognise Rana brachytarsus as a distinct
species (see below). These two species are
distinguished on the basis of amount of web-
bing and size. The smallest sexually mature
beddomi female we have seen is 45 mm SV,

422

Plate III

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81

Inger et al. : Amphibians & Reptiles from Ponmudi

Habitat of larval Rana beddomi at 900 m.

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUD1, KERALA

while the largest brachytarsus is 43 mm SV. In
comparing our material to three syntypes of
R. beddomi (BMNH 1947.2.27.73, 82, 84),
we note that this small typic series is a com-
posite of R. beddomi and R. brachytarsus. One
of the syntypes (1947.2.27.73) has webbing
as described above for beddomi. It is a female,
45 . 2 mm S' V, with tiny, immature ova, and has
not reached sexual maturity. The other two
individuals have the more extensive webbing
found in brachytarsus and are smaller: male
26.5 mm, female 39.3 mm. The female
(1947.2.27.82) is sexually mature, with a
thickened oviduct and ripe, pigmented ova.
Thus, the first specimen is a subadult R.
beddomi, while the other two syntypes are re-
ferable to R. brachytarsus.

Larvae. Three samples of tadpoles, collect-
ed from rock faces, fit Annandale’s (1918)
description of larval R. beddomi very closely
and agree among samples and with adult
beddomi in having the third toe webbed to the
middle subarticular tubercle and the fifth toe
webbed to or almost to the base of the disk.
As in the case of the tadpoles observed by
Gravely (cited in Annandale 1918), those we
collected made short, skittering jumps across
the rock faces whenever they were closely
approached.

The early development of the hind limbs,
which Annandale (1918) inferred (correctly
we think) on the basis of the wide range in
size within stages 40-41, appears to be related
to the skittering habit. Although used in this
case to escape herpetologists (and other pre-
dators, presumably), probably the principal
function of this behaviour is to enable the
tadpoles to move from one tiny, shallow pool
to another across slightly drier surface irre-
gularities of the home rock face.

Head-body lengths (mm): 4.33 (Stage 30),
6. 25-9.25 (Stage 40). Snout-vent: 6.75-12.6

(Stage 41), 11.9-13.9 (Stage 42), 12.0 (Stage
43), 13.9 (Stage 44). Total lengths: 17.5-
17.8 (Stage 30), 22.5-26.4 (Stage 40), 27.3-
30.2 (Stage 41).

Measurements on our specimens bear out
Annandale’s comments on the odd body pro-
portions of larval beddomi. Their eyes are rela-
tively larger than those of other tadpoles of
tropical Asia, 0.16-0.19 of head-body length.
The tail is long (2. 5 -3. 3 times head-body
length) and very slender (maximum depth
0.08-0.10 of tail length).

Denticle rows are 4+4/2+2:11 in all but one
of the 16 counted; the exceptional specimen
had 5 divided rows on the upper lip.

Ecological Notes. We found most of our
specimens in evergreen forest at 310-370 m
(29 individuals); additional specimens came
from moist deciduous forest (3 at 105 m), gal-
lery forest (1 at 900 m), and moist semi-
evergreen forest (1 at 260 m). Twenty-three
were collected away from streams in forest,
11 along the banks and one in the water of
permanent streams, and one in a dry stream
bed. Fifteen frogs were collected on small
rocks, 12 on dead leaves, and 5 on the soil
surface; in addition, one each was found under
the soil and on a log on the forest floor. Larvae
were collected from rock faces over which a
thin film of water flowed at 330, 890, and 900
m (Plate III). The highest site was completely
open to the sky with the nearest trees about
10 m distant. The other sites were inside
forests and shaded.

Rasia brachytarsus (Gunther) (Plate II)

Poly pe dates brachytarsus Gunther, 1875, Proc. Zool.

Soc. London, 1875: 572 — Anamallais and Siva-

giris.

Material. 47 adult females 28.6-44.7 mm
SV, mean 34.8; 25 adult males 25.1-33.7 mm,
mean 29.5; subadult females 25.0, 25.3 mm.

423

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Tibia 0.59-0.65 of SV in females, mean 0.621
(n=10); in males 0.64-0.84, mean 0.74 (n=
10).

The webbing extends to the disk on the
fifth toe and on the lateral sides of toes 1, 2
and 3. Medially, the webbing extends to the
distal subarticular tubercle of the third toe,
and to between the middle and distal sub-
articular tubercles of the fourth. The disks of
the toes and the subarticular tubercles are less
well developed than in R. beddomi. Dorsally,
the skin is thrown into a series of longitudinal
folds, which reach their densest concentration
on the anterior portion of the back. These
folds are much thicker and more prominent
than in R. beddomi. Ventrally the skin is
smooth, except for a granular patch near the
anus.

Color pattern consists of a tan dorsal back-
ground with a variable number of short, longi-
tudinal brown streaks. Some individuals have
only a trace of this pattern, others are nearly
completely brown. About 10% have a dis-
tinct, white middorsal stripe from the eyes to
the vent. A dark brown band between the eyes
is generally present. A black stripe follows
the supratympanic fold and canthal ridge as
in R. beddomi, and a second stripe, just ante-
rior to the tympanum, connects the eye and
upper lip. The limbs and lips are barred with
dark brown. Ventrally white, rarely with a few
brown spots on the throat. The legs are
yellow on the ventral surface of the thighs
and calves.

This species exhibits sexual dimorphism
similar to that of R. beddomi, although it is
less extreme. Males have enlarged nuptial
glands on the inside of the first finger, and
some males have spicules on the throat, lower
jaw, and sides of the body. However, these
are only rarely blackened, and more often the
sides of the body have increased granulations

rather than conical spicules. The spicules on
the ventral surface of the feet are very dense
in males and are usually blackened and stiff.
In both males and females the tympanum is
about two-thirds of the eye diameter.

All females above 28 mm SV contained
enlarged, pigmented ova.

Taxonomic Notes. Boulenger (1882) consi-
dered brachytarsus (Gunther) to be a synonym
of R. beddomi , and all subsequent authors have
followed this opinion. We clearly have two
species closely allied to R. beddomi, separable
on the basis of size, webbing, coloration, dorsal
skin folds, and tympanic size and density of
spicules in males. We have examined one
syntype of brachytarsus (BMNH 1947.2.27.
1307) which is similar to our sample in size
(syntype a mature female 36.1 mm), dorsal
skin folds, and tympanum size. The webbing
of the syntype is somewhat less extensive than
in our series, extending to the distal subarti-
cular tubercle on the medial side of the third
toe, and the dark canthal stripe is lacking.
However, the syntype is from the Anamallai
Hills about 200 km north of Ponmudi, and
we attribute these differences to geographic
variation.

We have not seen the second syntype of
brachytarsus. However, on the basis of its
size (55 mm, as reported by Boulenger 1920),
it seems likely that the type series of brachy-
tarsus is a composite of that species and
beddomi just as is the type series of the latter
(see above). We therefore designate the small
female, BMNH 1947.2.27.1307, as the lecto-
type of R. brachytarsus (Gunther).

Ecological Notes. This species has a broad
ecological distribution. We found specimens
from 100 to 950 m elevation (9 from 105-250
m, 35 from 260-350 m, 5 from 480-650 m,
22 from 860-950 m) distributed in evergreen
forest (40), moist deciduous forest (10), gal-

424

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA

lery forest (2), secondary growth (2), and
open grassy areas (17). Most individuals (54)
were collected away from water on the forest
floor, although some were found in or along
streams (18). Thirty-five were collected on
rocks, 29 on dead leaves, 7 on bare soil, and
2 under dead leaves. Seventeen were caught in
a seepage area at 900 m where a thin film of
water flowed over exposed bedrock, and a num-
ber of calling males were taken from crevices
in bedrock after dark.

Rana diplosticta (Gunther)

Ixalus diplosticta Gunther, 1875, Proc. Zool. Soc.

London, 1875: 574, pi. 43, fig. 3 — Malabar.
Rana diplosticta Boulenger, 1882, Cat. Batr. Sal.

Brit. Mus., p. 58.

Material. 4 adult females 23.6-25.2 mm
SV, mean 24.6; 2 adult males 18.7, 20.0 mm.
Tibia 0.56-0.62 of SV in females, mean 0.588;
0.60 in both males.

Toes less than one quarter webbed, webbing
extending to proximal subarticular tubercle on
medial side of third and fourth toes. Fingers
and toes with large disks with strong circum-
marginal grooves separating upper and lower
surfaces. The back has a series of longitudinal
folds; the head, sides, and belly are smooth.
A strong, curved supratympanic fold from eye
to shoulder. Tympanum well-developed in both
sexes, about one-half eye diameter.

In life, this species is reddish-brown dorsally,
with a black canthal and tympanic streak.
The iris is greenish-gold above and black
below, the line of demarcation coinciding with
the upper edge of the dark canthal stripe. The
dorsal color pattern is consistent among our
six specimens and corresponds very well with
Gunther’s (1875) figure. Above dark light
tan with a dark brown band of varying inten-
sity between eyes. Entire loreal region from
canthus rostralis to upper lip is dark brown.

Dark brown blotches may be present on the
lateral surfaces; blotches symmetrically arran-
ged on both sides of body. A dark brown
spot invariably present just dorsal and anteri-
or to the hind limb. Limbs tan crossbarred
with dark brown. Vent rally light brown dif-
fused with a fine reticulated pattern of dark
brown, with most of the darker color con-
centrated on the throat and thighs. A dark
brown triangular patch surrounding the anus.

All four females contain very large, pig-
mented ova with black and tan poles. Males
have a series of 5 very large, black, sharp
nuptial spines on the medial surface of the
first finger. These spines were not noted by
Boulenger (1920), who stated that males lack
secondary sexual characters.

Taxonomic Notes. This small series is
apparently the first collection of this species
since those obtained by Jerdon and Beddome
a century ago. Boulenger (1882) suggested
that this species and R. leptodactyla may be
conspecific, although he later (Boulenger
1920) treated them as full species. We have
compared our material to syntypes of R. diplo-
sticta, and the agreement with that species is
very close. It is not known whether R. lepto-
dactyla also has well developed nuptial spines
in males.

Ecological Notes. All specimens were col-
lected at 950 m elevation, far from streams or
ponds. Five were found in evergreen forest,
and a single specimen was in gallery forest.
Three frogs were found under dead leaves,
and one each on bare soil, dead leaves, and
a rock.

Rana semipalmata Boulenger

Rana semipalmata Boulenger, 1882, Cat. Batr. Sal.

Brit. Mus., p. 56, pi. 4, fig. 3 — Malabar.

Material. 3 adult females 32.0-35.5 mm
SV, mean 33.6; 3 adult males 27.4-29.3 mm.

425

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

mean 28.3. Tibia 0.55-0.62 of SV in females,
mean 0.576; in males 0.50-0.52, mean 0.510.
Tympanum diameter 0.085-0.097 of SV in
females, mean 0.092; in males 0.120-0.135,
mean 0.127.

A small ranid, similar in general appearance
to R. brachytarsus, but distinguishable on the
basis of less webbing and size of tympanum.
Webbing extends to the distal subarticular
tubercle on the fifth toe and on the lateral side
of the third, and midway between the proximal
and the second subarticular tubercle on the
fourth toe.

Dorsally tan or light brown, with longitudi-
nal folds usually on the back. A dark brown
stripe between the eyes. A broken U-shaped
stripe open to the rear extends across the back
from the level of the pectoral girdle. Limbs
barred with black. No canthal stripe.

All three females contained pigmented,
mature ova, and all 3 males have nuptial pads
on the first finger and enlarged glands covering
the ventral surface of the thighs. Males have
a band of very small transparent spicules ac-
ross the chest and around the margins of the
jaw. Tympanum diameter is absolutely as
well as relatively larger (see above) in males.

Taxonomic Notes. We have examined one
of the two syntypes (RMNH 1947.2.29.51), a
male that agrees very closely with our mate-
rial. The syntype has nuptial pads and femo-
ral glands. Boulenger’s (1920) statement that
males of this species lack secondary sex char-
acters is in error.

Ecological Notes. We found 5 specimens
in evergreen forest (4 at 330-360 m above
sea level) and 1 in moist deciduous forest at
105 m. Three were collected 3-5 m from
small permanent streams; the other 3 were well
away from water in the forest. We found 2
frogs on dead leaves, 2 under leaves, and 2 on
rocks. Two males were calling from seepage

areas on exposed bedrock.

The large related species, R. beddomi, was
found in sympatry with both small forms, R.
brachytarsus and R. semipalmata, but the two
last were found together only at one site at
105 m.

This is the first report of additional speci-
mens of R. semipalmata since the original
description.

Rana keralensis Dubois

Rana keralensis Dubois, 1980, Bull. Mus. Nat. Hist.

Nat. Paris, (4), 2: 928 (replacement name).

Rana verrucosa Gunther, 1875, Proc. Zool. Soc.

London, p. 567 — Malabar.

Material. 1 adult female 50.6 mm SV, 6
subadult females 36.3-43.7 mm; 9 adult males
37.5-42.3 mm, mean 40.4; 24 juveniles 14.4-
32.9 mm. Tibia 0.55-0.62 of SV in
females, mean 0.585 (n=7); 0.55-0.62 in
males, mean 0.572.

Dorsal coloration somewhat variable, al-
though always light brown with dark brown
bars across the body. A light tan vertebral
stripe present or absent. The posterior side
of the thigh is bright yellow marbled with
black in life, dark brown marbled with white
in preservative. Males have a well developed
nuptial pad on the inner surface of the first
finger. Of our 7 females, only the largest
appeared to be sexually mature as she con-
tained a few darkly pigmented ova. All of the
other females contained only immature ova.
Our smallest individual (SV = 14.4 mm) has
a small vestige of its tail remaining, and pre-
sumably represents the size at metamorphosis.

Larvae. Five samples of tadpoles agreeing
with Annandale’s (1918) description (as R.
verrucosa) were collected. A premetamorphic
larva (Stage 41) has the webbing and foot
form typical of adults, some of which were
caught at the same site.

Head-body lengths (mm) : 6.6 (Stage 30),

426

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA

9.75 (Stage 34), 11.25 (Stage 37), 9.67-11.1
(Stages 39-41). Maximum total length 29.8
mm (Stage 41). Head-body width 0.59-
0.62 of length, depth 0.73-0.79 of width;
Width of oral disk 0.35-0.39 of head-body
width. Denticles I : 1+1 /III, the outermost
lower row two-thirds length of others.

Ecological Notes. As Daniel (1975)
stressed, very little is known of the ecology
of this species. We found all but one speci-
men at 100-300 m elevation, with a single
frog taken at 710 m. The species inhabits a
wide range of both disturbed and primary
forest situations, including evergreen forest
(22), secondary growth forest (13), moist
deciduous forest (2), rubber plantation (1),

and in a clearing (1). About half of our
specimens (21) were collected away from
water; the remainder were found in or along
the banks of permanent streams (15) or in
temporary rain pools (3). Individuals were
always found on the ground, either on dead
leaves (19), small rocks (4) or bare soil (6).
About two thirds (26 of 40) of our specimens
were found in small forest clearings, either

along trails or roads, or in treefall areas. The
samples of larvae were collected in water-
filled silty ruts in a road through forest (3)
and in pot-holes of rocky stream banks (2).
Annandale also found tadpoles in a pot-hole
alongside a stream.

{to be continued)

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF CRESPHONTES STAL (HETEROPTERA:
PENTATOMIDAE) FROM INDIA1

M. Nayyar Azim and S. Adam Shafee2
( With a text-figure)

Additional generic characters are proposed for Cresphontes Stal; C. fulvus sp. nov.
fully described and illustrated. A key to Indian species of Cresphontes is also provided.

Genus Cresphontes Stal
Cresphontes Stal, 1867 : 514.

Type Species : Rhaphigaster monsoni West-
wood

The distinguishing characters of this genus
have been given by Distant (1902). Some
additional generic characters are suggested
which are as follows : last tergum in female
(fig. 1, E) with anterior and posterior mar-
gins convex, lateral angles subacute. Female
genitalia : external plates (fig. 1, F), first
gonocoxae broad and subquadrate, inner mar-
gins straight; paratergites 8th triangular, 9th
oblong and rounded apically. Male genitalia:
pygophore (fig. 1, G) slightly wider than long,
clasper (fig. 1, H) almost L-shaped; subgeni-
tal plate (fig. 1, I) narrow with anterior
margin strongly convex, posterior margin
broadly and deeply concave.

The genus is represented by two species
from India including a new species. The two
species are separated by the following key
characters.

Key to Indian species of Cresphontes Stal

1. Abdominal spine slightly extending beyond
middle coxae; head and pronotum with dark
puncts, arranged in patches; scutellum with
dark shining patch medially, lateral margins
and apex densely punctate; corium of hemelytra

densely punctate; antennae with third, fourth
and fifth segments black; apices of femora with

black spots C. monsoni Westwood

— Abdominal spine never extending beyond
middle coxae (fig. 1, D); head and prono-
tum with reddish brown puncts uniformly
and regularly arranged (fig. 1, A); scutellum
without dark shining patch medially and sparse-
ly punctate; corium of hemelytra sparsely

punctate (fig. 1, C); antennae yellowish brown;

apices of femora without black spots

C . fulvus sp. nov.

Cresphontes fulvus sp. nov.

(Fig. 1, A-I)

FEMALE.

Head (fig. 1, A). Reddish brown and thickly
punctate, distinctly wider than long; juga as
long as tylus, lateral margins slightly sinuate
before eyes; eyes brownish, ocelli red, space
between ocellus and inner orbital margin about
one-fifth the inter-ocellar space. Rostrum yel-
lowish except the apical segments dark;
segments I, II, III and IV, 0.46, 0.66, 0.38
and 0.46 mm in length respectively. Antennae
yellowish brown; segments I, II, III, IV and
V, 0.30, 0.40, 0.48, 0.62 and 0.70 mm in length
respectively.

1 Accepted April 1983.

2 Section of Entomology, Department of Zoology,
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

428

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1 : A-I. Cresphontes fulvus sp. nov., $ , $ : A. Head and thorax in dorsal view,
$ ; B. Antenna, $ ; C. Hemelytra, $ ; D. Abdominal spine, $ ; E. Last abdominal
tergum, $ ; F. External genitalia, $ ; G. Pygophore, $ ; H. Clasper, $ ; I. Snbgenital

piate, $ .

429

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

MALE.

Resembles female. Genitalia characters as
in generic description and as shown in figures.

Holotype $ . India: Uttar Pradesh, Aligarh,
on inflorescence of Mangifera indica Linn.,
5.iii.l979 (M. Nayyar Azim).

Paratypes 2 $ , 2 c? , on Cotton bolls, 28 . iii .
1983 (M. Nayyar Azim), other data same as
holotype.

Material deposited in the Zoological Muse-
um, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

Acknowledgements

We are greatly indebted to Prof. Nawab H.
Khan, Chairman, Department of Zoology,
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, for pro-
viding research facilities. Thanks are also due
to Prof. S. Mashhood Alam for his suggestions
and encouragement. One of us (M.N.A.) is
thankful to U.G.C., New Delhi for financial
assistance during the tenure of this work.

References

Distant, W. L. (1902): The fauna of British Stal, C. (1867): Biclrag till Hemipterernas Syste-
India including Ceylon and Burma. Rhynchota — matik. Ofvers. K. Svenska Vetensk. Akad. Fork.
Vol. I. Taylor & Francis, London. 24 : 491-560.

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES DROSOPHILA SEPTACOILA
(DIPTERA: DROSOPHILIDAE) FROM SOUTH INDIA1

P. G. Gai and N. B. Krishnamurthy2
( With seven text-figures)

Thorax. Reddish brown with puncts uni-
formly and regularly arranged; pronotum an-
teriorly with two transverse laevigate areas,
anterior margin concave with a submarginal
line of puncts, anterolateral margins straight
and smooth, humeral angles obtuse; maximum
width of pronotum more than twice its me-
dian length; scutellum about as long as wide,
apex broadly rounded; evaporatoria smooth.
Hemelytra with corium sparsely punctate,
ochraceous basally and reddish apically; mem-
brane infuscated, extending beyond apex of
abdomen. Legs yellowish brown.

Abdomen. Dorsum dark brown, connexiva
yellowish with brown patches; venter basally
with a long spine extending upto middle coxae.
Female genitalia characters as in generic des-
cription and as shown in figures.

Body length. 7.5 mm.

Introduction

South Kanara is a district located between
12.37° and 13.58°N latitude and 74.35° and
75.40° E longitude. It is essentially a forest

1 Accepted September 1983.

2 Department of Post-Graduate Studies and Re-
search in Zoology, University of Mysore, Manasa-
gangotri, Mysore 570 006, India.

district with heavy rainfall responsible
for a variety of luxuriant flora and hence con-
genial for a variety of insect fauna. The
forests are of evergreen and deciduous types.

Little information is available on the
Drosophila fauna of this district, but with its
congenial environment it may hold seve-
ral Drosophila species which await dis-
covery. This prompted us to undertake

430

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

a collection trip to Dharmastala, a part
of South Kanara, and its surrounding areas.
The collections revealed rich fauna of Droso-
phila in addition to a new species Droso-
phila septacoila, a member of the montium
subgroup which is described in this paper.

DrosopSiila septacoila sp. nov. (Figs. 1-7)

Body length. Male 2.02 mm, Female 2.19
mm.

Head, q and 9 . Arista with 9 branches
(5/4) including terminal fork. Front brown.
Antenna dark brown. Carina narrow, slightly
convex. Palpi yellow with 1 bristle. Orbital
bristles in the ratio of 3:1:3. Inner verticals
longer, outer verticals shorter than inner.

Ocellar triangle small, brown, with a pair of
long bristles, proclinate. Eyes red.

Thorax, o and $. Brown. Acrostichal
hairs in 8 rows, regularly placed. Ratio an-
terior; posterior dorsocentrals 0.5. Scutellum
brown. Anterior scutellars convergent, posterior
scutellars convergent and crossed. Prescutellars
absent. Sterno index 0.5.

Wings, cf and 9 . Transluscent.

C- 4V- 4C- 5X- M-

index index index index index

Male 1.66 0.4 0.65 2.63 0.38

Female 1.94 0.38 0.58 2.5 0.38

(Wing indices calculated after Okada 1956
and Bock 1976).

Third costal section with heavy setation on
basal-male and female 0.5. Wing lengths: 1.56
mm (male) and 1.69 (female). Halteres small,
pale yellowish.

Legs. Preapicals on all tibiae. Apicals on
first and second tibiae. Sex comb of male
(Fig. 1) longitudinal along entire length of
metatarsus and second tarsal segment. Meta-
tarsal comb consisting of 18 teeth, smaller
above and longer below, the distal two dis-

placed from axis of remaining teeth. Comb
on second tarsal segment with 1 1 uniform
teeth.

Abdomen, S and 9 . Tergites of male
yellow with dark apical bands. Pigmentation
is broader on the mid dorsal portion of the
tergites and is narrowed laterally. Abdominal
pigmentation in females is similar to males
except that the apical bands are slightly
broader.

Peri phallic organs (Figure 2). Light yellow.
Epandrium round. Toe with 5 bristles. Pri-
mary and secondary surstylii present. Primary
surstylus yellow, with a row of 4-5 teeth and
a ventro-medial cluster of 7-9 teeth, one of
which is elongated. Secondary surstylus sepa-
rated from cerci, with 3 black teeth, the centre
one being the longest. Secondary surstylus also
bears 4 bristles on the ventro lateral margin.
Cercus bears about 15 bristles in addition to 3
stumpy bristles on the ventral side.

Phallic organs (Fig. 3). Aedeagus yellow,
hirsute and non-bifid. Anterior gonopophyses
pointed. Posterior gonopophyses long, reach
tip of aedeagus. Caudal margin of novaster-
num with prominent median convexity and
bears a pair of spines. Novasternum bears
sensilla towards the dorsal side. Basal apode-
me does not project beyond ventral fragma.

Egg guide (Fig. 4). Yellow with 14 teeth
and sub-terminal hair on each side.

Internal structures. Testes (Fig. 5). Yello-
wish with seven coils. Accessory glands large.
Spermathecae (Fig. 6) large, paraovaria
small, ventral receptacle long, tightly coiled.
Malpighian tubules 2 pairs and free.

Egg filaments (Fig. 7). Two long slender
filaments.

Pupae : Anterior spiracle with 11 branches.

Distribution. South Kanara District (West-
ern Ghats), Karnataka, India.

Taxonomic status. The presence of egg

431

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

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NEW DESCRIPTIONS

with 2 blunt filaments, ventral receptacle that
is not finely coiled, malpighian tubules free,
presence of banded abdominal tergites qualify
its inclusion in melanogaster species group
of the Subgenus Sophophora (Sturtevant 1939,
Patterson and Stone 1952). The presence of
a large tooth bearing secondary surstylus sepa-
rated from the cerci; presence of sex comb
along entire length of metatarsus and second
tarsal segment permits its inclusion in the
montium subgroup (Bock and Wheeler 1972).

Relationships and Remarks.

On comparison with other members, this
species shows resemblance to D. vulcana (Oka-
da, pers. com.). This species resembles D.
vulcana (Graber 1957) in gross morphologi-
cal structures such as shape of the epandrium;
cerci; in arrangement of teeth on primary sur-
stylus, secondary surstylus; bristles on cerci
and flattened egg filaments. However, the
new species differs from D. vulcana with re-
gard to the pigmentation of abdominal ter-
gites (Shiny yellowish brown in males and
shiny dark brown in females in D. vulcana );
colour of the periphallic organ (black in D.
vulcana)', secondary surstylus completely sepa-
rated from the cerci (partially separated in D.
vulcana) and in the structure of the phallic
organ. Further, the new species is charac-
terized by having 18 teeth in the first set and

Refe:

Bock, I. R. (1976) : Drosophilidae of Australia.
I Drosophila (Insecta : Diptera). Aust. J. Zool.,
Suppl. Ser. No. 40: 1-105.

Bock, I. R. & Wheeler, M. R., (1972) : The

Drosophila melanogaster species group. Univ. Texas
Pubis. 7213: 1-102.

Graber, H. (1957) : Afrikanishe Drosophiliden

als Blutenbesucher. Zool. Jahrb. Abt. Syst. 85 : 305

-316.

11 teeth in the second set in the sex comb,
whereas D. vulcana has 19 teeth and 14
teeth respectively. A unique feature of this
species is that the testis is made up of 7 coils
whereas in the other members of the montium
subgroup, it is usually 3 coils. This unique
character along with others demands the status
of a new species and hence it is named as Droso-
phila septacoila after the 7 coils of the testis.

Holotype <$ . India. Karnataka, South
Kanara District (Western Ghats) 4.X.82. Coll.
P. G. Gai, N. B. Krishnamurthy and S. N.
Hegde. Deposited in the museum of the
Department of Zoology, University of Mysore,
Manasagangotri, Mysore.

Paratypes. 5j'd' and 5$ $ (data same as
above) 4 and 3 $ $ deposited in the
Department of Biology, Tokyo Metropolitan
University, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo, Japan.

Ack nowledgements

We are grateful to Prof. T. Okada,
(Emeritus Scientist), 2-30-18, Setagaya-ku,
Tokyo, Japan for his help in confirming the
identity of the species. One of us (P.G.G.)
is thankful to the University of Mysore and
the U.G.C. for award of a Teacher-Fellow-
ship under F.I.P., and also to the authorities of
Vijaya College, Bangalore for the study leave.
We also thank Dr. S. N. Hegde and Dr. V.
Vasudev for their helpful discussions.

EN CES

Okada, T. (1956) : Systematic study of Droso-
philidae and allied families of Japan. Gihido Co.
Japan.

Patterson, J. T. & Stone, W. S„ (1952) : Evolu-
tion in the Genus Drosophila. The McMillan co.
New York.

Sturtevant, A. H. (1939): On the Subdivision
of the Genus Drosophila. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci.
25: 137— 141.

433

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

A NEW SPECIES OF OSBECKIA L. (MELASTOMATACEAE)

FROM KERALA (INDIA)1

G. S. Giri and M. P. Nayar2
(With a text-figure)

A new species of Osbeckia L., O. abrahamii sp. nov. is described here with illustrations.
A diagnostic key is also provided for easy identification.

Osbeckia abrahamii sp. nov.

Affinis O. asperae, sed caulibus crassibus,
fistulosis, folius dense pubescento-setosibus,
calycis tubis dense stellato-excrescentibus,
calycis lobis asymmetricalibus, bracteis orbi-
cularibus differt.

Erect, unbranched or rarely branched herb,
upto 1 m tall; stem terete, thick more or less
fleshy, hollow, covered with short, rigid hairs,
hairs at nodes sometimes larger. Leaves
simple, opposite, elliptic or elliptic-lanceolate
(3.0-) 4.5 — 6.5 (-8.0) x (1.2-) 1.5 — 2.5
(-2.8) cm, base acute to cuneate, apex acute
to shortly acuminate, margin entire, main
nerves (3-) 5 — 7, all arising from the base,
cross nervules inconspicuous above, prominent
beneath; both surfaces covered with short,
stiff, subappressed to ascending hairs, hairs on
the nerves beneath usually longer, bristly and
often appear in groups, becomes dull green to
brownish on drying, chartaceous; petioles (3-)
5 — 9 (-12) mm long, appressed hairy. In-
florescence axillary or terminal, few flowered
short panicle, bracts orbicular, broader than
long 2.0 — 4.0 x 3.5 — 5.5 mm, appressed
hairy above, glabrous beneath, sometimes
series of bracts remain persistent on the
peduncle. Flowers bisexual, 5-merous, sessile
or with a very short pedicel of about 1 mm
long. Calyx-tube broadly urceolate, (4.0-)

1 Accepted September 1983.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Howrah-711 103.

5.0 — 7.0 (-8.0) x (3.0) 3.5 — 5.5 (-7.0)
cm, densely covered with flat, stellate or very
slightly stalked emergences, often intermixed
with bristles, hairs on the emergences arise
with a downward fashion, brownish. Calyx-
lobes 5, distinctly asymmetrical, truncate,
broader than long, 2.0 — 3.5 x 2.5 — 4.2 mm,
unequally two lobed at apex, midrib distinct,
patent hairs and emergences occur on the
midrib dorsally, otherwise glabrous, long
ciliated at margin, deciduous. Intersepalar
emergences with a terete stalk and stellate
head and tuft of bristles, deciduous. Petals 5,
obovate, 16.0 — 20.0 x 12.0 — 14.0 mm, cili-
ated at margin, pink or purple in colour.
Stamens 10, equal, filaments 6.0 — 8.0 mm
long, glabrous; anthers twisted, 6.0 — 7.5 mm
long, including a small narrow beak, pore
apical, large, connective produced into a small
indistinctly lobed collar. Ovary 5.0 — 7.0
mm long, nearly 1/3 adnate to the calyx-tube,
free apical part densely covered with brow-
nish appressed hairs, true crown of bristles
absent; style 16-19 mm long, glabrous, curved,
swollen below the punctate stigma. Capsules

7.0 — 9.0 x 4.5 — 5.5 (-7.0) mm, broadly
urceolate, free portion of the capsules slightly
exposed or remain enclosed by the calyx-tube.
Seeds small, muricate.

Type. Travancore, Kerala, Narayanaswami
1379 (Holotype, CAL).

Flowering time. Aug. — Oct.

Fruiting time. Sept. — Dec.

434

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1: A-E. Osbeckia abrahamii : A. habit (natural size); B. flower; C. two calyx
lobes with one intersepalar emergence; D. bract; E. stamen.

435

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Distribution. India. Kerala.

Travancore, Narayanaswami 1707; Silent
Valley, Palghat Dist., 875 m. 11.10.1965,
Vajravelu 26161; Koni, Travancore, Rama
Rao 536; Trichur, Tumbermughi, 75 m, 12.9.
1976, Ramamurthy 48476.

This species is related to O. aspera (L.)
Blume, but can be easily distinguished by the
calyx-tube being densely clothed with stellate
emergences, orbicular bracts, asymmetrical
calyx-lobes, thick, hollow stems and setose
pubescent leaves; whereas in O. aspera, calyx-
tube is sparsely covered with patent hairs or
bristles and without emergences, bracts ellip-
tic with acute or sharply pointed apex, calyx-
lobes symmetrical and the stems slender with
sparsely pubescent leaves.

O. travancorica Bedd. ex Gamble was re-
duced to a variety under O. aspera by Hansen
(1977), where he remarked that the variety
is distinguished by the asymmetrical calyx-
lobes and curved, strong, prickly bristles on
the stem. But O. travancorica Bedd. ex
Gamble is a different species. On examining
the type, verifying the protologue and drawing
by Gamble on the type material ( Wight 1100),
it is seen that, the stem is distinctly covered
with downwardly curved, strong, prickly
bristles; calyx-lobes not asymmetrical, rather

broadly triangular with obtuse or slightly
emarginate apex. Whereas in O. abrahamii,
the stem is covered with very short, rigid and
appressed hairs, calyx-lobes broader than long,
truncate and typically asymmetrical.

A diagnostic key is given below for easy
identification :

A. Stem and banches covered with short, rigid
appressed hairs

B. Calyx-lobes symmetrical, broadly triangular

with acute, obtuse or slightly emarginate
apex; bracts elliptic with acute or sharply
pointed apex; calyx-tubes sparsely covered
with bristles and simple hairs, emergences
usually absent or if rarely present are restrict-
ed to the top; leaves sparsely pubescent;
stem slender O. aspera

BB. Calyx-lobes asymmetrical, broader than long,
truncate, unequally lobed; bracts orbicular;
calyx-tube densely covered with stellate
emergences; leaves much pubescent; stem

thick and hollow O. abrahamii sp. nov.

AA. Stem and branches densely covered with
strong, downwardly curved, prickly bristles
O. travancorica

The species is named after Prof. A. Abra-
ham, formerly Professor of Botany, University
of Kerala and at present. Director of Botanic
Gardens, Trivandrum, for his contributions to
the systematics of the Orchid and Ferns flora
of peninsular India.

OSBECKIA ARUNKUMARENSIS SP. NOV. FROM EASTERN

INDIA1

M. P. Nayar and G. S. Giri2
(With two text-figures)

New species of Osbeckia L., O. arunkumarensis sp. nov. is described from Eastern
India with illustrations. A diagnostic Key is also given for identification.

sed ramis conspicue quadrangularibus alatis-
que, foliis subsessilibus, calycis tubo glabro,
capsulo apice nonquam setoso differt.

Annual, erect, unbranched or rarely bran-
ched herb, up to 1.5 m high; stems and bran-

Osbeckia arunkumarensis sp. nov.
Afifinis O. stellatae Ham. ex Ker. — Gawl.,

1 Accepted July 1983.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Howrah-711 103.

436

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

10 -

Tnm

(0 r

Tnm

if 0

if ll

1 J< i •

1 1

• V Ff

9 : •• a

U <L

. Pi ¥

a 2

Fig. 1. a-f: Osbeckia arunkumarensis sp. nov. a. habit (natural size); b. flower; c. sepal;

d. intersepalar emergence; e. anther; f. part of infructescence.

Fig. 2. F-H: O. stellata Ham. ex Ker.-Gawl. : F. flower; G. single calyx-lobe; H. bract.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

ches strongly quadrangular and distinctly
winged; densely covered with short rigid ap-
pressed or subappressed hairs, hairs on the
wing usually longer, older part sometimes be-
come glabrate. Leaves simple, opposite, sub-
sessile, thinly coriaceous, ovate to ovate-ellip-
tic or rarely ovate-oblong (6-) 8 — 14 (-21)
x (2.5) 3 — 4 (-7) cm, base sub rounded to
subcordate, apex acute to shortly acuminate,
margin setosely ciliate, recurved or not, 5 — 7
nerved, cross-nervules arising from the midrib
with somewhat a curved nature, other nervules
more or less straight and parallel, nerves and
nervules impressed above, raised beneath, up-
per surface sparsely to densely appressed
hairy, hairs short, rigid, lower surface sparsely
hairy but long appressed hairs occur on
nerves and nervules of lower surface, upper
surface turns dull green to black and lower
surface becomes brown on drying; petioles
(0.5-) 2 — 3.5 (-5) mm long, appressed hairy.
Inflorescence axillary or terminal, usually a
many flowered, lax, cymose panicle, bracts
broadly ovate, 2.5 — 4.5 x 2 — 4 mm,
ciliated at margin, dorsally glabrous or with
few patent hairs. Flowers bisexual, 4-merous,
sessile. Calyx-tube urceolate, 7 — 8 x 3.0
— 3.5 mm, adnate to the ovary, glabrous, us-
ually with longitudinal striations. Sepals 4,
oblong, acute, 5.5 — 8.0 x 2.5 — 4.0 mm,
midrib distinct, long ciliated at margin, few to
many patent hairs occur on dorsal surface,
particularly on the midrib, otherwise glabrous,
deciduous. Intersepalar emergences with a
distinct stalk of 2 — 4 mm, terminated by a
bristle and not with a stellate head, few patent
hairs occur on the stalk at the base or near
the middle, deciduous. Petals 4, bright mauve
or dark to light violet, obovate, 16 — 18 x
10 — 14 mm, finely ciliated at margin. Stamens
8, equal; filaments filiform, 6 — 9 mm long,
glabrous, anthers ‘S’ shaped, 6 — 9 mm long

including a narrow beak, pore small, oblique
on the ventral side at the tip, connective ex-
tended into a small collar, collar more or less
trilobed, lateral lobes not prominent, anthers
not twisted. Ovary nearly \ adnate to the
calyx-tube, free portion glabrous or sparsely
hairy on the upperpart, anther pockets extend-
ing nearly to the base of the ovary, ovary
glabrous at the top or sometimes with few
soft hairs forming an indistinct crown, the
hairs deciduous; 4-loculed, placentation axile;
style slender, 16 — 20 mm long, glabrous,
slightly swollen below the punctate stigma.
Capsules up to 8 mm long, without a crown of
bristles at the apex; calyx tube in fruiting
condition with a long neck, 12 — 15 (-18) x
5 — 7.5 mm, glabrous, whitish with minute
black spots. Seeds minute, muricate.

Type. Sikkim, East Himalaya, Griffith
Kew Distrib. No. 2248 (Holotype CAL; K).
distribution: India: Assam : Matharguri to
Jongram Route, July 12, 1957, R. S. Rao 10022;
Between Dudhnai and Rangguli, Goalpara
Dist., June 25, 1964, R. S. Rao 39113.

Meghalaya : Shillong, 4500 ft. (1368m),

August 18, 1885, C. B. Clarke 38896E;

Khasia, G. Mann s.n. (CAL 171971).

Sikkim : Sikkim Himalaya, 1875, G. King
s.n.

Bengal : N. Bengal, Sikkim Terai, 9.68, S.

Kurz s.n. (CAL 172004), without precise
locality. Sine Coll., s.n. (CAL 171981).

Nepal. Napalia inferior, 1882.

[Osbeckia campestris Ham. in Wall., Num.
Dist. No. 4063, (nom. nud.)]

The species is allied to O. stellata Ham. ex
Ker.-Gawl., but can be easily distinguished
by the following key :

la. Branches not winged; leaves distinctly petiolate;
calyx-tube sparsely to densely covered with
stellate or glandular emergences and simple
hairs; intersepalar emergences usually with a

438

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

stellate head; capsules with a distinct crown of

bristles at the apex O. stellata

lb. Branches distinctly winged; leaves subsessile;
calyx-tube glabrous; intersepalar emergences
terminated by a bristle, stellate head absent;
capsules without a crown of bristles at the apex.
O. arunkumarensis sp. nov.

Note. Hansen (Ginkgoana, 4 ; 28. 1977),
merged the following taxa and kept them as
synonym under O. stellata var. rostrata
(D. Don) Hansen. These are : O. campestris
Ham. ex Wall., Num. List. PI. 143, No. 4063.
1831 ( nom . nud.) — O. nulchella Benth. ex
Wall., Num. List. PI. 143, No. 4059 (nom.
nud.) — Ceramicalyx pulchellus Blume, Mus.
Bot. Lugduno — Batavum 1 : 50. 1849 (Type
material : Wallich 4059 B) — O. rostrata var.
pulchella Triana, Trans. Linn. Soc. London

29 : 54. 1972 (nom. nud.)

We had the opportunity to examine all the
types for the plants referred to above. A
critical study support Hansen (1977) in his
reduction of O. pulchella Benth. ex Wall.
Num. List. PI. 143, No. 4059. 1831 (nom. nud.)
and C. pulchellus Blume, Wallich 4059B to
O. stellata var. rostrata (D. Don.) Hansen.
But O. campestris Ham. ex Wall., Num. List
PI. 143, No. 4063. 1831 (nom. nud.) is specifi-
cally distinct and can be easily distinguished
as mentioned earlier.

This beautiful species is named in honour
of Professor Arun Kumar Sharma, Univer-
sity of Calcutta, for the contribution he has
made in the field of cyto-taxonomic studies of
Indian plants.

NEW SPECIES OF PSYCHOTRIA (RUBIACEAE)

FROM INDIAN SUBCONTINENT1

D. B. Deb and M. Gangopadhyay2
(With three text-figures)

Three new species of Psychotria (Rubiaceae) from the Oriental Region namely,
Psychotria burmanica sp. nov., P. meeboldii sp. nov., and P. russellii sp. nov. are

described with illustrations.

Three of the novelties discovered in the
course of taxonomic revision of Psychotria for
the revised Flora of India are described below:
1. Psychotria burmanica sp. nov. (Fig. 1)

differt a P. symplocifolia Kurz habitu parva-
arbore, foliis magnis, stipulis oblongis, obtusis,
corollis fauce confertim lanuginosis fructi-
busque angustioris inter alia.

Type. Burma, Tavoy, Head waters of Sedi
chung, 3000 ft. (900 m), 15.5.1920, P. T.
Russell 1806 (in flower) A — holotype CAL,

1 Accepted October 1983.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Howrah-711 103.

B — isotype CAL; Head waters of Sedi
chung, 3000 ft (900 m), 1.6.1920, P. T. Rus-
sell 1832 (A,B,C in fruit, D. sterile — para-
types) CAL; Heinze no. 1 camp, 1700 ft (510
m), 18.4.1921, P. T. Russell 2027 A,B,C (in
flower) paratypes CAL.

Trees small. Branchlets quadrangular when
young, glabrous, striated, 0.3 — 1 cm in diam.
Leaves 15 — 27 x 3 — 6 cm, petiolate, obovate
or oblanceolate, acuminate, prominently incurv-
ed at margin, attenuate, coriaceous, glabr-
ous, green to olive-green when dry; midrib
stout, lateral nerves 10 — 16 on either side,
subopposite, slender, arcuate, bacterial glands

439

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Fig. 1. Psychotria burmanica sp. nov. A. Habit, B. Stipules, C. Flower, D. Opened
flower, E. Stamen (dorsal view), F. Fruit, G. Seed (dorsal view) , H. Seed (ventral view).

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

sometimes perforate the axil; nervules reticu-
late, petioles 1 — 3.5 cm, stout terete; stipules
4 — 6 x 5 — 6 mm, oblong, obtuse or retuse,
coriaceous, glabrous above, ferruginous villous
beneath. Inflorescence peduncled, terminal
corymbose heads, 2 — 7 x 2 — 3.5 cm,
branches 4 or 5, verticillate, branchlets short,
terminating in heads; peduncles 1 — 3.5 cm,
glabrous or puberulous; bracteoles 1 — 2 x
2 — 3 mm, ovate or triangular, acute, entire or
toothed, glabrous above, puberulous at the
base beneath. Flowers 4 — 5 x 3 — 4 mm,
sessile. Hypanthium about 0.5 mm long,
glabrous. Calyx persistent, about 1 x 2 — 3
mm, cupular, with short triangular teeth,
glabrous. Corolla tube about 2 mm long,
thin, glabrous above, densely woolly at the
throat, conspicuously veined; lobes 5, 1.5 —
2 mm long, ovate, inflexed, glabrous. Stamens
5, inserted at the throat; filaments ±0.5 mm
long, narrow, adnate just below the throat,
alternating with the corolla lobes; anthers ±
0 . 5 mm long, oblong, dorsifixed, dehiscent
through the longitudinal slits. Ovary — 0.5
mm, 2 celled, each with a solitary ovule;
style ± 3 mm long, narrow, glabrous;

stigma capitate, 2 lobed, papillose; disc annu-
lar, 0.5 — 1 mm across. Fruits sessile, ±
8x4 mm, ellipsoid, crowned with persistent
calyx; pyrenes 2, thin walled with raphides,
dorsally one ribbed. Seeds ±6x3 mm,
ellipsoid, acute at both ends, thin, dorsally
solitary ribbed, ventrally flat; albumen uniform.

Flowering time. April — May.

Fruiting time. June — ?

Distribution. Burma, Tavoy.

2. Psychotria meeboldii sp. nov. (Fig. 2)

differt a P. flavida Talb. foliorum nervis late-
ralibus numero minoribus, floribus majoribus,
calycibus pubescentibus, bracteolatis corolla-
rum lobis puberulis, antheris majoribus, stylis-
que puberulis.

Type. Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Colombo,
March 1905, A. Meebold 2323 (holotype)
CAL.

Shrubs branching; branchlets 3 — 5 cm
thick, compressed, glabrous. Leaves 14 — 17
x 4.5 — 5.5 cm, petiolate, obovate, acumi-
nate, tapering towards the base, coriaceous,
glabrous, pale green when dry; midrib promi-
nent on both surfaces; lateral nerves 7 — 9
on either side, subopposite, inconspicuous
above, arched towards the margin, with bacte-
rial gland opening by a pore at the axil; ner-
vules reticulate; petioles 5 — 8 mm, glabrous;
stipules persistent, 5 — 6 x 15 — 18 mm,
ovate-oblong, acute to acuminate, entire, con-
nate at the base, membranous, glabrous above,
loose ferruginous pubescent at the base be-
neath. Inflorescence terminal panicle of
cymes, ±13 x 11 cm, trichotomously bran-
ching, slender, puberulous; peduncle — 5 cm
long, slender, glabrous; bracts 2, foliaceous,
5 — 6 x 2.5 cm, obovate, acuminate, entire,
cuneate, coriaceous, glabrous, pale green.
Flowers in cymes, lax, middle one sessile,
laterals pedicellate, 9 — 10 mm long, tubular,
bracteolate; bracteoles 1 — 5 x 0.7 — 2 mm,
ovate or lanceolate, caudate acuminate, entire
or irregularly toothed, glabrous, puberulous at
margin; pedicel 1 — 1.5 mm long, puberulous.
Hypanthium about 1 mm long, puberulous
above. Calyx cupular, 1 — 1.5 x 3 — 4
mm, minutely toothed, puberulous above,
glabrous beneath, with a bracteole just below
the calyx-tube. Corolla tube 3 — 4 mm long,
puberulous above, gradually glabrous, throat
woolly beneath; lobes 5, reflexed, 4 — 4.5 mm
long, oblong, thick, keeled at the apex, pube-
rulous above, glabrous beneath. Stamens 5,
inserted; filament minute, adnate just below
throat; anther ± 2 mm long; dorsifixed,

linear-oblong, dehiscing longitudinally. Ovary
two celled, with solitary ovule in each cell,

442

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

2 c m

Fig. 3. Psychotria russeilii sp. nov. A. Habit, B. Inflorescence, C. Flower, D. Opened
flower, E. Fruit, F. Seed (dorsal view), G. Seed (ventral view), H. Embryo.

443

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

basally attached; rephides present in the ovary
and disc; style 5 — 7 mm long, gradually
widening towards the apex, densely puberulous
above, glabrous below; stigma 2 lobed, 1 — 1 . 5
mm long, oblong, obtuse, puberulous; disc
subglobose, ribbed, grooved, 0.5 mm in diam.

Flowering time. March.

Distribution. Sri Lanka.

3. Psychotria russellii sp. nov. ' (Fig. 3)

differt a P. monticola Kurz foliis angustis
ellipsoideis vel obovatis, capitulis angustioribus
sed numero amplis, fructibusque globosis an-
gustioribus.

Type. Burma, Tavoy, Heinze no. 1 camp,
1700 ft (510 m), 5.4.1921, P. T. Russell 1943
(in flower) A — holotype, B — isotype, CAL;
ibid., 23.11.1921, P. T. Russell 2186 (in
flower) paratype CAL; ibid., 28.4.1821, P. T.
Russell 2077 (in flower) paratype, CAL;
Tenasserim, March 1911, A. Meebold 14700
(in fruit) paratype CAL.

Shrubs branching; branchlets glabrous,
smooth, 0.2 — 1 cm in diam., quadrangular
when young. Leaves petiolate, slightly un-
equal in pair, 9 — 21 x 2 — 6 cm, elliptic
or obovate, acuminate at the apex, slightly in-
curved, cuneate at the base, thin coriaceous,
glabrous, punctate, green when dry; midrib
slender, channelled above, lateral nerves 7 —
14 on either side, subopposite, subparallel,
arcuate, slender, axil imperforate, nervules re-
ticulate, inconspicuous; petioles 2 — 4.5 cm
long, slender, glabrous; stipules 7 — 10 x 4
— 6 mm, ovate, two lobed, long acuminate,
sometimes each lobe again divided into two
irregular lobes, glabrous or densely irregularly
ferruginous tomentose above, dense almost
covering ferruginous tomentose sheath of hairs
(colleters ?) beneath. Inflorescence terminal,
trichotomous, umbellate heads; peduncles very
short, ± 5 mm long, tomentose, branches
and branchlets slender, tomentose; bracts deci-
duous, 4 — 6 x 1 — 3 mm, linear-lanceolate

444

entire or irregularly shortly lobed, tomentose;
bracteoles 2 — 4 x 1 — 2 mm, linear-lanceo-
late, entire or irregularly lobed at the base,
tomentose beneath; heads 4 — 6 mm across.
Flowers short tubular, subsessile; pedicel 0.5
mm long, glabrous. Hypanthium — 0.5 mm,
obovate, smooth. Calyx 1 — 1.5 x 2 — 2.5
mm; tube short, glabrous; lobes 5, ovate-
lanceolate, ciliate at the margin. Corolla tube
± 1 mm long, glabrous above, loose villous
at the throat beneath. Stamens 5, inserted;
filament short, adnate to the throat, alternating
with the petals; anther ± 0.5 mm, dorsifixed.
Ovary two celled; style ± 1.5 mm long,
stout; stigma capitate, 2 lobed, glabrous; disc
subglobose, smooth. Fruit 4 — 5 x 4 — 4.5
mm, globose or ovoid, very short stalked,
crowned with persistent calyx lobes, 6 ribbed
and grooved; pericarp warty, thick. Pyrenes
2, ovoid, obtuse at the apex, acute at the base,
plano-convex, dorsally 3 ribbed and 4 grooved,
wall thin, with raphides. Seeds 4 — 4.5 x
4 mm, plano-convex, obtuse at the apex,
shortly stalked at the base, dorsally 3 ribbed
and 4 shallow grooved, ventrally flat with a
shallow longitudinal furrow; albumen rumi-
nated; embryo 1 — 1.5 mm long; axis 0.5 —
1 mm long, blunt at base, two side with shallow
channel forming a wing like projection; coty-
ledons 2, 0.5- — 1 mm long, oblong, obtuse at
the apex, thin, inconspicuously veined, radicle
inferior.

Flowering time. March — April.

Fruiting time. November.

Distribution. Burma: Tavoy and Tenasserim.

Note. The specimens were tentatively deter-
mined as new by the collector P. T. Russell.
The species is nov/ named after him.

ACK NO WLEDGE M E NT

Thanks are due to Dr. S. K. Jain, Director,
Botanical Survey of India, Howrah, for pro-
viding facilities.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

DESCRIPTIVE NOTES ON THREE NEW OR RARE HIMALAYAN
TAXA OF IN DIGOFER A L. (FABACEAE — PAPILIONOIDEAE)1

M. Sanjappa2
(With two text-figures)

(i) Some specimens of Indigofera collected
by C. B. Clarke from Khasia Hills (Meghalaya)
were named by him as /. sesquipedalis and
noted its resemblance with ‘Khasia heter-
anth’ (i.e. I. heterantha Wall, ex Brandis of
Khasia). However, several other sheets which
resemble I. sesquipedalis were found to be
erroneously identified by him as /. dosua Ham.
(C. B. Clarke 7296), /. heterantha Wall, ex
Brandis (C. B. Clarke 18598), /. leptostachya
DC.? (C. B. Clarke 40103), and /. pule hell a
Roxb. (C. B. Clarke 18614).

D. Prain on examination of all the above
specimens at CAL has annotated them as 7.
sesquipedalis C. B. Clarke Mss* Indeed, on
critical study of all the above sheets and many
other specimens from different herbaria, they
were found to represent a distinct species
which is allied to /. heterantha as was suspected
earlier by C. B. Clarke. Since, this species
had not been published by Clarke or by others,
it is described here in detail with illustrations:
Indigofera sesquipedalis C. B. Clarke ex San-
jappa, sp. nov.

/. heterantha Wall, ex Brandis, affinis sed
differt habitu parniore (usque ad 1 m), ramis-
que blabrescentibus, foliis manifeste petiolatis,
sacemis pedunculatis, antheris sparsim barbatis,
leguminibusque brevioribus, deflexis, paten-
tibus.

Holotypus lectus a C. B. Clarke 38232 and
locum Shillong, alt. 5000 ped., die 1.6.1885,
et positus in CAL.

1 Accepted May 1982.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Howrah 711 103.

Indigofera sesquipedalis C. B. Clarke ex San-
jappa, sp. nov. (Fig. 1)

Allied to /. heterantha Wall, ex Brandis but
differs from it in being a small shrub (up to 1
m), and having glabrescent branches, distinctly
petiolate leaves, peduncled racemes, sparsely
bearded anthers and shorter deflexed spreading
legumes.

Type: Shillong, 5000' 1 Jun. 1885, C. B.
Clarke 38232 (holotype, CAL).

Undershrub c. 60 cm high, copiously bran-
ched from the base, branches 15-35 cm long,
angular adpressed pubescent when young,
terete and glabrous at maturity, root stock
thick. Leaves 2.5-3 cm long, pinnate, alternate,
petiole 6-10 mm long, canaliculate above,
adpressed pubescent; leaflects (5-) 7-11 (17),
opposite, 5-7 x 2-3 mm, tiny, oblong or
obovate, rounded to obtuse at base, obtuse at
apex, mucronate, glabrescent and green above,
adpressed pubescent and pale below; stipules
1-1.5 mm long, subulate, adpressed pubescent
without; stipels c. 1 mm long, setaceous; petio-
lules c. 1 mm long, pubescent. Racemes 2.5-3
cm long, axillary, many-flowered, compact,
peduncles 5 mm long, angular, adpressed pube-
scent. Flowers rose-purple or deep crimson-
purple; bracts 1.2-2 mm long, setaceous ad-
pressed pubescent without; pedicels c. 1 mm
long; calyx 2 mm long, campanulate, lobes 1.5
mm long, subulate, adpressed pubescent with-
out, tube 0.5 mm Jong; standard 3.5-4 x 2.5
mm, ovate, rounded at base, acute at apex,
mucronulate, thinly puberulous without; wings
3.5 x 1 mm, oblong-ovate, shortly clawed at
base, obtuse at apex, thinly pubescent along

445

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Fig. 1. Indigofera sesquipedalis C. B. Clarke ex Sanjappa, sp. nov. 1. A twig of the
plant with root stock. 2. Leaflet — adaxial surface. 3. Leaflet — abaxial surface.
4. Calyx. 5. Standard. 6. Wing. 7. Keel. 8. Stamens. 9. Carpel. 10. Mature pod.
11. Seed. 12. Young pods.

446

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

the margins; keels 4x1 mm, spathulate, cune-
ate at base, acute at apex, spurred, thinly
adpressed hairy; stamens diadelphous (9 + 1),
3-3.5 mm long, anthers sparsely bearded at
base; ovary 1.5-2 mm long, oblong, 5-8-ovuled,
glabrous; style 1-1.5 mm long, glabrous; stigma
capitate. Pods 15-20 x 2-2.5 mm linear, cylindri-
cal, reflexed, sutures thin, valves rounded,
shortly apiculate, sometimes faintly torulose,
thinly short adpressed pubescent, 5-8-seeded,
septate between seeds, endocarp red-spotted;
peduncles elongating in fruits. Seeds 2-2.5 x 1.5
mm, cylindrical, truncate at both ends, smooth,
reddish brown.

Flowering : May — August.

Fruiting : August.

Distribution : India: Khasia Hills — Megha-
laya, Naga Hills — Nagaland and Aka Hills —
Arunachal Pradesh ( — Based on Biswas, Ind.
For. Rec. 3(1): 17.1941).

Specimens examined’. At Cal’. INDIA'.
Meghalaya, Khasia Hills, Shillong, 5000', 1
June 1885, C. B. Clarke 38232 (holotype);
Maphlong, 5500', 18 Oct. 1872, C. B. Clarke
18598 B, 18614 (paratypes); Normai, 4500',
25 Aug, 1885, C. B. Clarke 40103 (paratype);
Boga Pani, 2000', 1 Jun. 1868, C. B. Clarke
7296; Shillong, 5000', Oct. 1867, C. B. Clarke
5757; Loitlynghat, 5-6000', 6 Dec, 1946, F.
Kingdon-W ard 2; Khasia, G. Mann s. n. (Acc.
no. 11007); Shillong, 5000', May 1890, Badal
Khan s. n.; Khasia, 6000', Hooker f. & Thom-
son s. n.\ Woodlands, New Colony, Shillong,
4 Jun. 1960, R. K. Raivaid 18184; 3-4000',
May, Herb. Sulp. Kurz 213, 521; 5000', May
1878, Forest Herb. no. 756; 5000', June 1876,
Herb, Sulp. Kurz 262; Cherrah valley, 6000',
1878, Gallataly 217 pro parte (Specimen on
right hand side only); Shillong, 5000', E. B.
Carter 851; Dumpep to Shillong, 5-6000', 4
Jun. 1911, Bur kill & Barter jee 35206; Shillong
to Dumpep, 4900'-6300', 29 May 1891, Bur kill

& Banerjee 44, 24 May 1911, Burkill & Baner-
jee 45; on the way to Cherrapunji from Shil-
long between 14th and 15th mile, 2 Jun. 1958,

R. S. Rao 2671; Shillong, 5500', 21 Aug. 1886,
C. B. Clarke 44611 A (K, Photo BSI Neg. No.
5328B — CAL); Woodlands, Shillong, 23
May 1972, H. Deka 38472; Woodlands, Shil-
long, Sept. 1960, Collector ? 21734,

At ASSAM : Umber falls, 18 May 1930,
P. C. Kanjilal 8062; Peak forests, 6000', 12 Jul.
1931, Shriram Sharma 9253; Khasia Hills,
5000', Jun. 1876, G. Mann 262, 5000', May
1878, G. Mann 756, 4-5000', July 1879, G.
Mann s. n.; Assam, locality? G. Mann s. n.
G. Mann 262, G. Mann s. n. (Acc. nos. 7193,
7194, 7200), Station Nursery, Shillong, June
1949, G. K. Deka 22787; Elephant fall, 22 Jul.
1951, H. Deka 23273; Mulki, Shillong, 5800',
10 Nov. 1930, Shivaram Sharma 8576; Upper
Shillong, 30 Jul. 1942, G. K. Deka 21444;
Woodland compound, Shillong, 30 May 1973,

S. Das 13168; Mirang to Nongkhland, 15 Jun.
1958, G. Panigrahi 16159; Shillong to Cherra-
punji, 14th and 15th mile, G. K. Deka 2671;
Nongkrem, 3 Jun. 1914, P. C. Kanjilal 592
M; Laitkar, Shillong, 20 May 1963, S. K. Kar
32486.

At NEHU ( Shillong ) : Upper Shillong, 10
Sept. 1978, B. Biswas 48; 26 Sept. 1978,
Albert Solo 146; 7 Sept. 1975, A. Handigae
10; Laitkon, 23 Jul. 1977, K. M. Kuruvika
42; S. E. falls, Shillong, 23 Aug. Z. Pachuan
28.

At DD: Khasia Hills, 5-6000', G. Mann
213; Shillong peak, 5000', 10 Aug. 1943, N. L.
Bor 17996, 17997.

At LWG : Shillong peak, 17 May 1960,

R. V. Sitholey and party s. n. (ACC, no.
43794); Cherrapunji, 5000', 29 April 1962,

S. Chopra and party s. n. (ACC. no. 48686).

NAGALAND: Naga Hills, May 1936,

N. L. Bor 20836 (ASSAM); Naga Hills, 1935,

447

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

N. L. Bor 5330 (DD, K). In the protologue of /. bracteata, Baker

This species differs from Indigo for a hete - (op. cit.) mentions ‘leaflets 7-17’, but all the

rantha Wall, ex Brandis in the following specimens cited by him have only 5-7 leaflets

characters : and never more than 7. This is also true with

/. sesquipedalis C. B. Clarke ex Sanjappa, sp. nov.

1. Shrub less than 1 m high.

2. Branches from the base, glabrescent.

3. Leaves petiolate.

4. Leaflets (5-) 7-11 (-17), thin, glabrescent

above adpressed pubescent below.

5. Racemes peduncled.

6. Anthers sparcely bearded at base.

7. Pods 1.5-2 cm long, deflexed-spreading, ad-

pressed short pubescent.

/. heterantha Wall, ex Brandis

1. Shrub or tree more than 1 m high,.

2. Branches above the base, adpressed white
pubescent.

3. Leaves sessile or sub-sessile.

4. Leaflets (5-) 7-15 (-25), coriaceous, densely
adpressed pubescent on both surfaces.

5. Racemes sessile.

6. Anthers glabrous at base.

7. Pods more than 2 cm long, spreading, ad-
pressed long pubescent.

(ii) Indigofera bracteata Grah. (in Wall.
Cat. no. 5477. 1831. nom. nud.) was validly
described by Baker (1876) based on collec-
tions from Nepal (by Wallich), Khasia (by
Hooker f. and Thomson) and Kashmir (by
Thomson). On critical examination of the
above specimens, it has been found that this
species is a mixture of two taxa with distinct
geographical distribution : Taxon 1 is restric-
ted to Nepal and taxon 2 to Khasia Hills in
Meghalaya (India). The differences between
taxa 1 and 2 are described in the following
table :

the specimens collected so far from Nepal
as well as India. Even in the wrongly iden-
tified specimen [cited by Baker (op. cit.)
as an exstipellate form from Kashmir —
Thomson s. n.], the levels have only 13 leaf-
lets. It is therefore, difficult to explain as to
how such an error had crept into the des-
cripion.

Baker (op. cit.) also states that he had not
seen the mature pods and seeds of the species.
Therefore, a detailed description of pods and
seeds of the typical variety of the species is
as follows :

Taxon 1

Taxon 2

Leaflets adpressed, pubescent on both sur-

Leaflets adaxially glabrous.

faces.

Pods more than 3 cm long with spine-

Pods less than 3 cm long with acute apex.

pointed apex.

Sutures wingless or obscurely winged.

Sutures prominently winged.

Valves smooth.

Valves rugulose.

The specimens with characters of taxon 1 re-
present the typical variety i.e. /. bracteata
Grah. ex Baker var. bracteata and those with
characters of taxon 2 is described here as a
new variety.

. . Indigofera bracteata Grah. ex Baker in
Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 2:100. 1876. var.
bracteata.

Pods 2-2.8 x 0.2-0.25 cm, linear, straight,
acute, glabrous, spreading, sutures narrow.

448

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

wingless to obscurely winged, valves smooth,
sometimes faintly torulose, up to 9-seed ed.
Seeds 2x1 mm, cylindrical, truncate at both
ends, smooth, deep brown (described from
the specimen : Nepal, Kukni, Naikot and the
valley of Likhu, 8 Dec. 1907, /. H. Burkill
29880 — CAL).

Distribution : NEPAL: Kukni, Patibay-

yang, Sivapuri, Ranikarka (Bagdwar) —
Endemic.

Indigofera bracteata Grah. ex Baker var.
khasiana Sanjappa, var. nov. Syn. /. bracteata
Grah. ex Baker in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Xnd.
2 : 100. 1876. p.p.

I. bracteata var. bracteata affinis sed dif-
fert foliis adaxiliter glabris, leguminibus
plus quam 3 cm longis, suturis latis alatis,
valvis rugulosis, opicibusque aristatis.

Holotypus lectus a Hooker f. & Thomson
s. n. ad locum Khasia Colies, 5000 — 6000
ped., et positus in herbario CAL. Tsotypi
positi in herbario CAL, MH.

Indigofera bracteata Grah. ex Baker var.
khasiana Sanjappa, var. nov. (Fig. 2).

Syn. /. bracteata Grah. ex. Baker in Hook,
f. FI. Brit. Ind. 2:100. 1876 p.p.

Allied to I. bracteata var. bracteata but
differs from it in having adaxially glabrous
leaflets, legumes more than 3 cm long with
broad winged sutures, rugulose valves and
spine-pointed apices.

Type: Khasia Hills, 5-6000', Hooker f. &
Thomson s. n. (holotype, CAL; isotype, CAL,
MH).

Under shrub, branches slender, trailing,
terete, (appear angular when dry), glabrous.
Leaves 5-8 cm long, pinnate, alternate, petioles
1-2 cm long, canaliculate above, glabrous;
leaflets (3-) 5-7, lateral opposite, 1. 2-2.8 x
0.6- 1.0 cm oblanceolate, elliptic- oblong, rarely
obovate, cuneate at base, obtuse to rounded
or slightly emarginate at apex, mucronate.

pale green and glabrous above, glacous and
thinly adpressed pubescent below; stipules
3-5 x 1-1.2 mm free-lateral, membranous,
lanceolate, acuminate, striate, glabrous, stipels
2-2.5 mm long, prominent, free-lateral, setace-
ous, glabrous. Racemes 8-13 cm long, axil-
lary, peduncles 3-5 cm long, striate, glabrous,
rachis adpressed pubescent becoming glabr-
ous. Flowers 10 mm long, violet-purple,
white when dry : bracts 4-4.5 x 2-2.5 mm,
lanceolate, cuspidate, veined, ciliate along the
margins, longer than buds, caducous; calyx
1-1.5 mm long, companulate, 5-lobed, teeth
short 0.5 mm long, deltoid, thinly adpressed
pubescent without, ciliate along the margins;
standard 10 x 4-5 mm, elliptic, rounded at
base, acute, mucronulate at apex, densely
short adpressed pubescent without tube 0.5-1
mm long; 10 x 2-3 mm, shortly clawed at
base glabrous; keels 10 x 4 mm, spathulate,
spurred, thinly adpressed pubescent without;
stamens diadelphous (9 + 1), anthers apicu-
late; ovary ca. 7 mm long, linear, 8-10-ovuled,
glabrous; style ca. 3 mm long, slightly bent,
glabrous; stigma capitate. Pods 3-3.5 x 0.2-
0.25 cm linear with spine-pointed apex, sutu-
res broad, winged, valves rugulose, glabrous,
reflected -spreading on rachis, 8-10-seeded,
septate between seeds. Seeds (reddish-brown)
2 x 1.5 mm, cylindrical, truncate at both
ends, smooth, brown.

Flowering : July— December.

Fruiting : November — December.

Distribution : INDIA : Endemic to Khasia
Hills in Meghalaya.

Etymology : This variety is named after the
type locality Khasia Hills in Meghalaya State.

Specimens examined : INDIA : Meghalaya,
Khasia Hills, 5-6000’, Hooker f. & Thomson
s. n. (CAL, MH); Rambari, 4000’ 10 Nov.
1871, C. B. Clarke 153 lOD (CAL); Laitlyn-
grat, 6000’, 17 Dec. 1946, F. Kingdon-ward

449

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoJ. 81

Fig. 2. Indigofera bracteata Grab, ex Baker var. khasiana Sanjappa. var. nov.

1. A twig of the plant. 2. Leaflet-adaxial surface. 3. Leaflet-abaxial surface. 4. Bract.
5. Calyx. 6. Standard. 7. Wing. 8. Keel. 9. Stamens. 10. Carpel. 11. Pod. 12. Seed.

13. Dehiscing pods.

450

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

s. n. (CAL); Maflong, 4 Oct. 1931 Shriram
Sharma 9891 (ASSAM); Laitlyngrat, 17 Jul.
1946, G. K. Deka 21901 (ASSAM); Peak
forest, 8 Sept. 1930, P. C. Kanjilal 8408
(ASSAM); Laitlyngrat, 17 miles from Shil-
long, 27 Aug, 1956, G. Panigrchi 3142
(ASSAM); Elephant fall, Shillong, 9 Oct.
1965, H. Deka 35591 (ASSAM); Shillong
peak, 13 Oct. 1950, G. K. Deka 23052
(ASSAM); Laitlyngrat, 11 Aug. 1938, R. N.

De 16909 (ASSAM).

ACK N O WLEDGE M E N TS

I am thankful to Director, Botanical Survey
of India, Howrah, for providing facilities, to
Dr. K. Thothathri, Deputy Director, Central
National Herbarium, Howrah, for encourage-
ment, and to Dr. N. C. Majumdar for render-
ing diagnosis of 2 new taxa into Latin.

451

REVIEWS

1. GRASSES OF MARATHWADA. By B. W. Fatunkar. pp. 300 (14 x
22 cm.) with 86 line drawings, 4 maps and one graph in the text.
Jodhpur, 1980. Scientific Publishers. Price Rs. 100, US $ 20.

The work comprises the doctoral dissertation
of the author and is divided into two main
parts — the Introduction and the systematic
treatment.

Marathwada is one of the four divisions of
Maharashtra State and consists of five districts.
It is situated on the Deccan Plateau at an
average height of about 650 m. above sea
level. Three vegetational types are represented
in the area viz., Tropical dry deciduous forest;
Dry deciduous scrub jungle; and. Dry grass-
lands. Among the grasses, the sub-family Pani-
coideae is better represented than sub-family
Pooideae and the tribes Andropogoneae and
Paniceae are the dominant tribes in the region.

The Introduction gives general information
on the topography of the region, its geology
and soil types, its climatic features and the
history of botanical exploration in the area.

The main part of the book deals with the
systematic treatment of the Gramineae cover-
ing the general feature, distribution and rela-
tionships of the family. Gramineae has been
divided into two subfamilies, each subfamily
into several tribes each tribe into its consti-
tuent genera, and each genus into species keys
are provided for each stage of classification.
These keys have been suitably modified and
adapted from Bor to include the taxa occur-
ring in the district.

The tribes, genera, species and infraspecific
taxa are alphabetically arranged. Each species
has been numbered and followed by the nomen-
clature. Only pertinent literature has been
cited in the synonymy. A detailed description
is provided for the species finally there are re-
marks on the phenology, flowering and fruiting
times, local names and uses wherever known,
and the herbarium specimens studied. These
specimens have been deposited in the Herba-
rium of the Department of Botany, Marath-
wada University. Diagrams have been provid-
ed for at least one species of each genus.

Altogether the work includes about 200
species belonging to 80 genera. Of these, five
are new species. There is no doubt that the
neglected and difficult family Gramineae has
been carefully studied by the author and this
compact book will be of much use to botanists,
foresters, ecologists and agriculturists.

The main drawbacks of the work are its
high cost and a large number of spelling and
typographic errors over and beyond those listed
in the errata. The keys to the tribes and genera
are sometimes ambiguous and contradictory.
The diagrams have suffered in the printing and
are not clear.

A. R. DARUWALLA

452

REVIEWS

2. A SYNOPTIC FLORA OF MYSORE DISTRICT. By R. R. Rao and
B. A. Razi. pp. xii + 674 (22 x 14.5 cm) with a map. New Delhi, 1981.
Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers. Price Rs. 325/-,
US $ 65.00.

Mysore District lies in the south of Karna-
taka State of peninsular India. This district is
bordered by Kerala to the S. W. by Tamil
Nadu to the South, and abuts on the Western
Ghats. The northern and central portions of
the district form a plateau whereas the southern,
eastern and western regions are hilly. As a re-
sult of this varying topography, Mysore district
has a variety of vegetation types from ever-
green forests to scrub jungles as one travels
from west to east.

The Mysore district covers an area of appro-
ximately 11,947 sq. kms. The present flora is
based on the exploration of the area for over
five years on the personal collections of the
authors and on collections of previous wor-
kers. In the introduction to the flora, the authors
have discussed the geography, geology, soil
types and climatic factors of the region. Notes
are added on the general vegetation and on
recent introductions and new records for
Mysore district. Cultural Plant Communities,
including agricultural crops and ornamental
plants are also listed.

All plants collected have been divided into
four groups according to their habits, viz.,
trees, shrubs, climbers & herbs. Each group is
provided with an artificial key leading directly
to the species. In case the habit of the plant
is variable, it is included under more than one
group. Both vegetative and reproductive charac-
ters are used in the keys. This presupposes an
astronomical and intimate knowledge of all
1601 species described in the flora. The keys to
the four groups occupy the major part of the
book.

In the systematic treatment, the 170 families
represented in Mysore district are arranged

according to Geonquist (1968). However, the
circumscription of the families is according to
Hutchinson (1959) and the Seattle Code (1972).
The genera and species included in each family
are listed alphabetically. The species are serially
numbered and the number corresponds to the
one given to the same plant in the key to
facilitate cross-reference. For the nomenclature
of each species, only the original citation is
mentioned and the synonyms have been omit-
ted in most cases. A very brief description is
provided with notes on the habitat, abundance,
and flowering season of the plant. The verna-
cular local name is cited whenever known.
Voucher specimens collected by the authors
are listed and these specimens have been depo-
sited in the herbarium of the Department of
Botany, University of Mysore, at the Manas-
gangotri campus.

The work concludes with a selected biblio-
graphy, a list of drugs from plants found in
Mysore district, an index to vernacular names
and an index to botanical names.

Inspite of the unorthodox and laborious
approach followed by the authors in the pre-
sentation of direct keys to the species, it cannot
be denied that the work is a significant con-
tribution to the regional floras of India. How-
ever, the price of the book (U.S. $ 65.00 —
Rs. 325.00) is considerable and its production
by Messrs Today & Tomorrow Printers and
publishers is shabby. There is a large number
of spelling errors, several pages are missing
from the book and quite a few pages are not
arranged in order (pp. 33-48 lie between p. 16
& p. 17; pp. 49-64 are missing; pp. 397-400
lie between p. 388 & p. 389).

A. R. DARUWALLA

453

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

3. ILLUSTRATIONS ON THE FLORA OF THE TAMILNADU CAR-
NATIC. (Vol. 2 of the Flora of the Tamilnadu Carnatic series). By K.
M. Matthew, pp. 46 + 1027 (25x 17 cm). Tiruchirapalli, 1982. The
Rapinat Herbarium, St. Joseph’s College. Price Rs. 150.00 or £ 25.00
or $ 50.

AND

THE FLORA OF THE TAMILNADU CARNATIC (Vol. 3 of the
Flora of the Tamilnadu Carnatic series). By K. M. Matthew — In two
parts. Part I: Ranunculaceae — Labiatae (Lamiaceae). pp. 84 + 1284
(25x17 cm) with 93 plates Si 1 map. Si Part II: Plantaginaceae —
Cycadaceae. pp. 84 + 1285-2156 (25x 17 cm) with 20 plates & 1 map.
Tiruchirapalli, 1983. The Rapinat Herbarium, St. Joseph’s College. Price

Rs. 250.00 or £ 40.00 or $ 80.
Vol. 2: Illustrations

The volume is an excellent example of
dedicated team work. It comprises of 960 plates
of line-drawings and 19 plates of 76 black
and white photographs. All line drawings are
based on meticulous observations and have a
high standard of accuracy. The whole work has
been carried out in the same pattern as of
Drakestein van Rheede’s plates of Hortus
Malabaricus. Actual figures have been drawn
by (a team of draftsmen, as author puts it)
A. Rajasekharan (899), V. Guna (863), J.
Jayarani (588), K. Navarasi (434), A. Arockia-
mary (246), J. Helen (196) and A. N. Nirmala
(40), under the supervision of a technical
adviser P. Michael and under guidance of re-
search scholars S. J. Britton and N. Rani. All
these people deserve compliments for valuable
service to Indian Botany.

The author, while explaining the scope of
the book, gives three reason for undertaking
the work. Of the three, the third is more appro-
priate in Indian context, viz. the older publi-
cations are scarce, and even when reprints
become available, these are prohibitively ex-
pensive. The author, in his comments, appre-

ciates the earlier works by W. Roxburgh, N.
Wallich, J. D. Hooker, J. F. Royle, R. H.
Boddome and R. Wight; but has totally for-
gotten the greatest pre-Linnean work of Drake-
stein van Rheede, who pioneered in this field
of plant-lithography with 794 plates on which,
father of modern taxonomy, Carl Linneaus
and subsequent taxonomist have established
hundreds of species of Indian plants.

882 species from 841 genera belonging to
170 families have been illustrated in the
volume. According to the author, ‘almost all the
indigenous genera included in the work are
represented by at least one species, generally
the less commonly known and so far unillus-
trated.’ This statement is not quite correct,
because a number of indigenous genera
in the flora which do not have a representative
figure in any of the previous works have been
neglected and number of exotics (introduced
as well as weeds) have found place in the
volume. The statement however points out the
intentions of the author and bottle-neck could
be well attributed to his adoption of initial
generic concepts according to Gamble’s Flora
of Madras Presidency.

454

REVIEWS

Analysis of plates give following figures:

Species illustrated in the volume 882

Species (illustrated) already having existing figures

(mentioned in text, vol. 3) 676

Additional figures located in few previous works re-
ferred by us (not mentioned in vol 3) 94

F irst-hand species illustrated ±112

As stated in the earlier review (for Materials
for Tamilnadu Carnatic) the sequence of
volumes of this series is running in reverse
direction. The author himself has stated how
that he had to publish the ‘materials’ before
the flora because most of the foreign herbaria
required his ‘material’ rather than his ‘Flora’.
Besides, in a way, the author was advertising
the sale of his specimens for foreign herbaria for
recovery of financial investments. But unfor-
tunately, while keeping in mind interests
of foreign herbaria, he has not cared for
his common reader of Flora of Carnatic, who
has to jump from volume to volume of such
heavy compilation to get complete information
on any single species.

The volume is brought out in great haste and
at least 17 plates have been renamed after the
completion of printing.

Plate — 114

Plant figured is Zanthoxylum ovalifoliwn
Wight (not Z. rhetsa DC.). Z. rhetsa (Roxb.)
DC. is a medium-size tree. Plant figured is a
scandent shrub (see also vol. 3, page 215). The
name Z. Umonella (Dennst.) Alston accepted
for this taxon is, according to F. A. Stafleu,
an illegitimate name because it is based on
invalidly published Tipalia Umonella Dennst,
the generic name of which is not validly
published.

As pointed out in the analysis of plates, at
least 112 species are illustrated in this volume
which do not have any representative figure.
The volume is recommended both for students
as well as for the research fraternity.

Volume 3: Flora — Part 1 & II

This volume in two parts gives accounts of
2037 species from 990 genera belonging to 180
families as compared to 2376 species listed in
the ‘Materials’ (Vol. 1); out of which 110
species of pteridophytes have not been dealt
with.

Introduction (comprising of 24 pages) gives
unnecessary details of every routine action
taken.

Acknowledgements (again comprising of 5
pages) are mostly to foreign taxonomists and
specialists, in addition to the Director and the
Joint Director of Botanical Survey of India.
Rather, the author seems unhappy with the
BSI and has criticised the organisation for not
helping him and finally suggesting a change
in the attitude of the leadership of BSI.

Notable among the achievements of the
books are two new names added to the Indian
Plant Taxonomy, namely Kleinla grandi flora
(DC.) Rani, a new combination resulting from
Nolonia grandiflora Wall, ex DC. and a new
species — Utricularia praeterita P. Taylor.

A number of nomenclatural changes are
adopted for Indian plants in place of old
names; but no much attention has been paid
to the works done by Indian botanists, taking
only in account the opinions and personal help
of overseas experts. Following nomenclatural
changes are brought out in the text (p. 456).

Introduction includes justifications of the
flora and explanations on I. Phytographic find-
ings such as: A. Restricted distribution: —
(a) Monotypic taxa and endemism, (b) Re-
placement taxa, (c) Endangered plants, (d)
Suspected extinction, (e) Rare species, (f) Iso-
lated populations, (g) Wild relatives of culti-
vated species. B. Extended distribution: (a)

455

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 81

Page no. New name

Old name

358

Crotalaria pallida Ait.

C. stricta DC.

351

Codariocalyx motorius (Houtt.) Ohashi

Desmodium gyrans (Linn, f.) DC.

346

Calpurnea aurita (Ait.) Benth. ssp.

C. aurea auct; Baker in FBI.

indica Brumm.

361

Crotalaria angulata Mill.

C. bi flora (Linn.) Linn.

380

C. pulchra Andrews

C. pulcherrima Roxb.

490

Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth.) Alston

C. sepiaria Roxb.

542

Entada rheedii Spreng.

E. pursaetha DC.

973

Enicostemma axillare (Lamk.) R. Raynal

E. hyssopifolium (Willd.)

New Records, (b) West coast elements, (c)
Mangroves, (d) Hill summits and (e) Weeds.

II. Taxonomy. III. Nomenclature. IV. Distri-
bution and finally a chapter on outlook for
the future.

In the text families are arranged according
to classification of Rentham & Hooker (1862-
1883). Within the family format followed is as
follows :

a. The name of the family (without author),

b. Family description,

c. Key to the genera,

d. Generic name (with author and reference of
publication),

e. Generic description,

f. Key to the species,

g. Species name (with author and reference of
the publication),

h. Vernacular (Tamil) names.

i . Species description,

j. Field notes,

k. Specimens examined, and

l. Distribution.

In addition to these, references in the syno-
nymy, citations to previous two volumes for
references of herbarium materials and figures
(wherever made) are given.

At the end of the volume following data is
given in form of appendices:

I. Authors bibliography compiled at the
herbarium. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
(1980), with corrections and additions of the
names and works of the authors included in
Matthew 1981 (Materials — vol. I).

II. Alphabetical list of authors of books
referred.

III. List of periodicals abbreviated after
Botanico Periodicum Hertianum, Pitts-
burgh (1968).

IV. Families of the plants of the Tamilnadu
Carnatic incorporated in to the system
of A. L. Takhtajan.

V. Families of the plants of the Tamilnadu
Carnatic incorporated into the system
of A. Cronquist.

VI. Synopsis of the field-trips.

VII. Chronological documentation of the
field-work under the Carnatic flora
project.

VIII. Library holdings, and

IX. Cumulative index to scientific names and
Tamil names in volumes I, II & III.

The format followed in the text is good.
Although, the author expresses satisfaction as
regards to the updating the names in the flora,
the lack of nomenclatural judgements is visible
to a considerable extent. Misapplication of
names is certainly as bad as the wrong des-
criptions.

The incomplete nomenclature especially the
missing basionyms of the synonyms men-
tioned do not give the clear picture of the
priority of publications, e.g.
p. 108 Abu til on muticum (DC.) Sweet
p. 124 Pavonia glethomifolia (A. Rich.) Garke
p. 271 Zizyphus jujuba (Linn.) Gaertner

456

REVIEWS

p. 393 Desmodium diffusum (Willd.) DC.
p. 411 Gliricidfa maculata (Steud.) Kunth.
p. 470 Tephrosia procumbens (Buch.-Ham.) Drumm.
p. 608 Lagerstroemia speciosa (Linn.) Pers.
p. 1361 Litsea sebifcra (Willd.) Pers.

Certain names in the synonymy cited show
priority over the accepted names. Nomencla-
ture is not clear to the understanding of the
reader, e.g.

Page Accepted name or basionym

33 Cardamine trichocarpa Hochst.

ex Rich. (1845)

83 Portulaca tuberosa Roxb. (1824).

242 Zanthoxylon connaroides

Wight & Arn. (1834)

281 Cissus pallida Planch. (1887)

364 Crotalaria spectabilis Roth. (1821)

543 Leucaena leucocephala (Lamk.) de Wit.

based on basionym dated 1783.

553 Polydontia ceylanica Wight (1840)

621 Jussaea adscendens Linn. (1767)

623 Oenothera octovalvis Jacq. (1760)

676 Buplerum wightii P. K. Mukerj. (1969)

810 Senecio hohenackeri Hook. f. (1881)

1037 Evol vulns emarginatus Burm. f. (1768)

1129 Spathodea falcata DC. (1845)

1203 Endopogon cuspidatum Benth. (1851)

1275 Plectranthus coleoidea Benth. (1848)

datum Linn, is cited after ssp. diandra (Blume)
Duke.

In many instances notes provided after parti-
cular species do not restrict to the taxonomic
treatment or the ecological observations but
gives presumptions without reasons.

Following names adopted in the text of the
flora require reconsideration and likely to bring

Synonyms cited

C. borbonica Pers. (1809)

P. pilosa Linn. (1753).

Heynea trijuga Roxb. (1815).

H. affinis A. Juss. (1830).

Vitis lanata Roxb. (1834).

C. sericea Roxb. (1788).

Mimosa latisiliqua Linn. (1753).

Pygeum zeylanica Gaertner (1788).

J. repens Linn. (1753).

Jussaea suffruticosa Linn. (1753).

B. ramosissimum Wt. & Arn. (1834).
Doranicum candolleanum Wight

& Arn. (1836).

Convolvulus gangeticus Linn. (1756).
Bignonia spathacea Roxb. (1800).
Endopogon versicolor Wight (1849).

C. wightii Benth. (1832).

Citations in the flora are unsatisfactory. Only
typical variety of Teramnus labialis (Linn, f.)
Spreng present in the area is given as Teram-
nus labialis (Linn, f.) Spreng. ssp. labialis var.
labialis. In case of typical variety, mention of
ssp. and var. is unnecessary when no other
variety for comparison is existant. Very often
references of the basionym of the type species
are given in the synonymy of the allied infra-
specific taxon confusing the whole nomencla-
ture. e.g. on page 76, in ssp. of Dry maria
cordata (Linn.) Roemer Schultes ssp. diandra
(Blume) Duke, the synonym ( Holosteum cor-

nomenclatural changes:

Polygala jacobii Chandrab. (p. 68)

Moringa oleifera Lamk. (p. 314)

Alysicarpus rugosus (Willd.) DC. (p. 338)
Desmodium diffusum (Willd.) DC. (p. 393)

Parkia biglandulosa Wight & Arn. (p. 547)
Ceropegia vincaefolia Hook. (p. 936)

Lycopersicon esculentum Miller (p. 1053)
Phaulopsis imbricata Sw. (p. 1194)

Prcmna serratifolia Linn. (p. 1229)

Surprisingly, distribution of an unidentified
species is given as: From India to Micronesia
and Tropical Australia; widely distributed in
Malesia (Kern. l.c.).

457

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Note under Prosopis spicigera (p. 549) is not
called for. It is one of the common trees in
Rajasthan which is known locally as ‘Khijda’.

Randia malabarica Linn. (p. 696), Randia
candolleana Wight & Arn. (p. 701) and Randia
rugulosa (Thw.) Hook, are misplaced in the
text and are not included in the generic key.

Inspite of few short-comings, the flora offers
quite a lot of first-hand information on plants

of Southern India and one must agree with the
author that, considering the cost and benefit
ratio, reader is offered much more for the price
of Rs. 150.00.

The flora, undoubtedly, would be a welcome
addition to all college and research libraries.

M. R. ALMEIDA

458

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1 . THE SUNDARBANS TIGER

The Sundarbans is a diverse ecosystem. It
is the largest tract of estuarine forests in the
whole world covering about 10,000 square kilo-
metres and presently one of the largest chunks
of undisturbed forests. It possibly forms an
ideal habitat for the tiger though an inhospi-
table one.

The vast expanse of swamps studded closely
with a network of tiny islands and mudflats
supports a low wooded forest of high density.
The rivers around the tiny mudflats form fan-
tastic labyrinths, where the hard and pointed
pneumatophores give a trying time to the life
forms of the Sundarbans.

Human casualty has been reported from all
over the 15 blocks (65 compartments) covering
2585 sq.km of Sundarbans tiger project area.
This observation records the presence of aggres-
sive maneaters all over the project area indi-
cating perhaps a high population of tigers.

The migration of tiger from block to block
and across international boundary is a feature,
as the animal has been sighted negotiating vast
expanses of open water. This may be in search
of elevated lands above inundation level and
also in search of prey, especially human beings.

The average annual human casualty has been
reported to be 36, but unofficial reports record
about 100 (the forest being contiguous with
Bangladesh forests). Dead bodies could only
be recovered from the maneaters in about
28.5% of cases.

Human casualty figures fluctuate from the
lowest recorded during the rains to the highest
during April and May. During these two
months the entire estuarine forests become very

active owing to millions of trees throwing out
new flush of leaves and flowers which attract
swarms of Apis dorsata and honey combs can
be seen all over the project area. This coincides
with the activities of all types of life forms
such as Molluscs and Crustacea. The tigers seize
this opportunity to kill large number of honey
collectors besides fishermen, shell collectors,
timber coupe workers, etc. during this season.

The maneaters have an uncanny understand-
ing of human nature as they kill men between
7 a.m. to 8 a.m. (morning), 3 p.m. to 5 p.m.
(afternoon) when the workers are either enroute
to their work site or are preparing to return to
their camps in the evening (80% human
casualty). Some of the most notorious and
cunning maneaters swim to boats, clamber
in, choose their victim and jump into water
with the dead body and get back to the forests.
This usually occurs after 11 p.m. when the
boatmen are fast asleep.

Middle aged men (between 35 to 45) form
about 80% of human casualty figures.

Pigs and deer which are primary food animals
occur in abundance but the terrain, is a serious
handicap for the tigers to catch such animals
and are compelled by circumstances, therefore,
to take monkeys, fish, birds, crabs and even
honey.

The maximum casualty occurs just before
full moon and new moon.

The Sundarbans forest need to be cohserved
not only for the tiger but to act as a natural
barrier against severe cyclonic storms during
the monsoon months. However, acute might be
the immediate public need, these estuarine

459

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

mangrove swamp have to be preserved to fight
the mighty tidal waves of the Bay of Bengal
and to protect the lives and properties of
millions of poor villagers residing adjacent to
the forests. Project tiger is therefore essen-
tially a environment conservation project.

The local people of the Sundarbans have a
firm conviction that death is an inevitable
phenomenon and occurs as decreed by the
Tiger-God and there is nothing one can do
about it; they have reconciled themselves to a

Divisional Forest Officer,

Planning & Statistics,

Office of the Chief Conservator of

Forests, West Bengal,

New C.I.T. Bldg.,

P-16, India Exchange Place Extn.,
Calcutta-700 073,

January 22, 1984.

co-existence with maneaters; as a supernatural
creature that cannot be exterminated. The
tiger is accepted as a hard reality in the life
style of the Sundarbans and people are only
made to observe elaborate rituals of ground
rules to ensure co-existence with the man-
eaters. People of all religions, irrespective of
their social position, caste and creed, sit to-
gether and prey for survival against this “magi-
cal” animal. This is the philosophy of man’s
relationship with the Sundarbans tigers.

KALYAN CHAKRABARTI

2. INTERACTION BETWEEN GAUR AND TIGER
IN BHADRA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

On 24.xi.1983, along with several forest offi-
cers I was on the wildlife viewing machan
located at ‘Chandrana Hadlu’, a grassy swamp
in Muthodi range of Bhadra Wildlife Sanctu-
ary (Karnataka State). We were observing
(through 8 x 50 binoculars) an artificial salt
lick in the open, surrounded by young Teak
plantations.

At 6.15 p.m. a young Bull Gaur (Bos gau-
rus) came rushing out of the teak plantation
and stood looking back anxiously emitting
snorts of alarm. Within a couple of minutes
a Junglefowl (Gall us sonneratii ) gave alarm,
followed by a herd of spotted deer ( Axis axis )
in the woods. AJong the path used by the gaur,
a tigress ( Leo tigris) came out of the
plantation into the open. The gaur which was

about 30 metres away started off to run, then
stopped. The tigress came out slowly, emitting
low moans but showing no sign of aggression
or hostility. The Gaur stood its ground, with
ears pricked forward alertly. At one point the
two animals were only about 20 metres apart,
the tigress totally ignoring the gaur, which took
a couple of hesitant steps towards the tigress
and then stopped. The tigress strolled onwards
leisurely, sniffing at the grass and moaning now
and then. While the tigress drank from a pool
of water 80 metres away, the gaur relaxed
and started feeding. Throughout the entire
period the tigress totally ignored the gaur as
well as the continuous alarm calls of spotted
deer and sambar ( Cervus unicolor) from the
surrounding woods. A wild tusker in musth

460

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

which was about 100 metres away from the
pool also ignored the tigress. Alarm calls indi-
cated the onward passage of the tigress as she
went out of our sight.

Though tigers appear to prey on gaur fairly
frequently in the Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary
as well as in Nagarahole National Park, it is
difficult to say whether this particular medium-
sized tigress could have taken on the young
bull gaur. Further, two tigers had killed two
domestic cattle and consumed a large amount

Hon. Wildlife Warden,

499, J. T. Extension,

Mysore-570 009,

January 22, 1984.

of meat from one of the kills two days earlier
at a spot barely two kilometres away from
the machan. It is quite possible that the tigress
which we saw could have been one of them,
and so was not hunting. In any case the gaur
seemed to be aware that it posed no immediate
threat.

Similar interaction between the Indian Wild
Dog ( Cuon alpinus) and their prey like sam-
bar has been reported by A.J.T. Johnsingh in
the Bandipur Tiger Reserve.

K. ULLAS KARANTH

3. A NOTE ON THE LONGEVITY OF TWO SPECIES OF
WILD CARNIVORES IN CAPTIVITY

Not much information is available on the
longevity of Indian wild animals in captivity.
The present note deals with the longevity of
two species of wild carnivores recorded at the
Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa.

Leopard Cat ( Felis bengalensis). A male
received as a kitten on 26.iv..l970 died on
21 .iii. 1983 after remaining for 12 years, 10
months and 24 days in captivity. The estimated
age at the time of death was approximately 13
years. After death it weighed 3.015 kg and
measured 93 cm tip to tip including 29 cm long
tail. This was housed in an enclosure having
a floor space of approximately seven square
metres; height 2.80 metres and with suitable
cavelike retiring dens. It was fed with 300 gm
of goat meat and 50 gm of beef daily. One
live chicken was given once a mouth in place
of goat meat and beef.

A female Leopard Cat of N ew York Zoolo-
gical Park lived for 13 years, 6 months and 4
days (Crandall, 1965). Flower (1931) gives

the longevity of a specimen of this species as
12 or 13 years.

Himalayan Palm Civet ( Paguma larvata).
A female received as a young in the park on
1.x. 1968 died on 7.iv.l983 after remaining for
14 years, 6 months and 7 days in captivity.
The estimated age at the time of death was
about 15 years. After death it weighed 5.4 kg
and measured 110 cm, including 46 cm long
tail. This was living in an enclosure similar to
that of the Leopard Cat’s. It was fed with 300
gm ripe banana, 50 gm minced goat meat, 200
ml milk and 50 gm boiled rice per day.

Flower (loc. cit.) has given the longevity
of this species as 15 years, 5 months and 17
days. The best longevity of this species recorded
at the New York Zoological Park was 1 1 years,
3 months and 27 days (Crandall, loc. cit.).
The average span of life of captive civets in
general is given as 12 to 15 years (Prater
1971).

461

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

However, we would be interested to know wild carnivores established in other Indian
the longevity of these two species of Indian Zoos.

Nandankanan Biological Park, L. N. ACHARJYO

P.O. Barang, Dist-Cuttack,

Orissa-754 005.

Wildlife Conservation Officer, S. K. PATNAIK

145-Saheed Nagar, Bhubaneswar-7,

Orissa,

January 22, 1984.

References

Crandall, Lee S. (1965) : The Management of
Wild Mammals in Captivity, The University of
Chicago press, Chicago and London, Pp. 348-413.
Flower, S, S. (1931): Cited by Crandall, Lee S.

(1965).

Prater, S. H. (1971) : The Book of Indian Ani-
mals, Third (Revised) Edition, Bombay Natural
History Society, Bombay, PP 88-94.

4. RECORD OF A PYGMY WHITE-TOOTHED
SHREW, SUNCUS ETRUSCUS (SAVI, 1822) FROM DAMAN, NEPAL

(With a text-figure)

The Pygmy Whitetoothed Shrew, Suncus
etruscus is widely distributed from the Medi-
terranean zone of Europe and North
Africa, Asia Minor, Indian peninsula to South-
East Asia (Ellerman & Morrison-Scott 1951).
In Nepal this species is represented by the
subspecies S. e. pygmaeoides Anderson, 1877
(Frick 1968, Mitchell & Punzo 1976). It is
known from Kakani, Melumchi (Mitchell &

Punzo 1976), Katmandu, Gurjakhani (Ingles
et al. 1980), Dunche (Abe 1982).

On September 1980 the French entomologist
T. Deuve caught in an insect trap a Suncus
etruscus at Daman (Mahabharat Hills, alt.
2600 m). The shrew, a young male, had been
caught in a grove of rhododendrons near a
forest of pines.

Table 1

Mandibular measurements: Results

Variable

Daman

.86

.99

3.57

2.93

1.31

1.08

1.46

1.99

Cerezo, NW Spain

.62

.81

3.33

2.88

1.10

1.05

1.28

1.90

Card, S. France

.65

.86

3.32

2.85

1.25

1.04

1.47

1.92

Gard, S. France

.75

.85

3.38

2.81

1.11

1.02

1.43

1.91

Gard, S. France

.73

.87

3.41

2.87

1.17

1.11

1.42

1.96

462

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Measurements : All measurements are in

millimetres.

external. Length of head and body = 35.6
Length of tail = 34.2
cranial. Total length = 12.68

Maximum breadth of rostrum = 3.91
mandibular. Mandibular measurements are indicat-
ed on Figure 1. Results on table 1.
According to Corbet (1978): “it seems
doubtful if some or any, of the Indian forms
allocated to this species ( S . etruscus) by e. and

Chamagnieu, 38460 Cremieu,

France,

January 8, 1984.

M. S. are in fact conspecific.” Therefore I think
that it is interesting to present here, compa-
rative, mandibular measurements of this species
from West Europe with the hope that mandi-
bles of other S. etruscus from the Indian penin-
sula will be measured for a comparative study.

Acknowledgement

I am grateful to T. Derive for the donation
of the shrew.

PATRICK BRUNET-LECOMTE

References

Abe, H. (1982): Ecological distribution and faunal
structure of small mammals in central Nepal. Mam-
malia 46 : 477-503.

Corbet, G. B. (1978) : The Mammals of the
Palearctic Region. A Taxonomic Review. British
Museum (Nat. Hist.) London.

Ellerman, J. R. & Morrison-Scott, T. C. S.
(1951) : Checklist of Palearctic and Indian mam-
mals. 1758-1946. British Museum (Nat. Hist.)
London.

Frick, F. (1968) : Die Hohenstufenverteilung der
nepalisclien saugetiere. Sauget. Mitt. 17: 161-173.

Ingles, J. M., Newton, P. N., Rands, M. R. W.
& Bowden, C. G. R. (1980) : The first record of a
rare Murine rodent Diomys and further records of
three shrew species from Nepal. Bull. Br. Mas. Nat.
Hist. C Zool .), 59(3): 205-211.

Mitchell, R. & Punzo, F. (1976): New mammal
records from Nepal. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73:
54-58.

463

Mean consumption (§ }

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

5. FEEDING ACTIVITY IN THE CAPTIVITY OF THE WESTERN
GHATS SQUIRREL FUNAMBULUS TRISTR1ATUS WATERHOUSE1

( With a text-figure )

Introduction

The Western Ghats squirrel ( Funambulus
tristriatus Waterhouse) is an important rodent
pest of cacao ( Theobroma cacao L.) in south
India (Bhat et al. 1981). But no effective

succeed the schedule of baiting must coincide
with the peaks of feeding of the target animal.
In this report the observations made by us on
the rhythm of feeding of the Western Ghats
squirrel are discussed.

Time periods (hours)

Fig. 1. Feeding pattern of

method has been evolved so far for its control.
Trapping by offering baits is one of the me-
thods usually tried for controlling this squirrel.
If this type of control of rodent pests is to

1 Part of the thesis submitted to the University of
Calicut by the first author for the award of Ph.D.
degree 1983.

Funambulus tristriatus.

Material and Methods

The study was undertaken in the laboratory
of the Central Plantation Crops Research Insti-
tute, Regional Station, Vittal, Dakshina Kan-
nada district of Karnataka under natural day-
light in November 1978. Six adult Western
Ghats squirrels (3 cf cf and 3 $ $ ) of recorded

464

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

all mean consumption per animal per two-hour-
period was 0.54 ±0.02 g. The morning peak in
feeding (1.44 ±0.09 g) was observed around
0800 h. After 0800 h the feeding activity
lessened gradually reaching a minimum
(0.1 8 ±0.08 g) at about 1400 h. Feeding acti-
vity increased again gradually after 1400 h
reaching a peak around 1800 h. Thereafter
feeding slowed down and ceased at about 2000
h. Feeding was never observed at night. It is
evident from this study that baits for these
squirrels are best set up in the early hours of
the day.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr N. M. Nayar, former
Director, CPCRI, Kasaragod, for labo-
ratory facilities at CPCRI (Regional Sta-
tion) Vittal and Shri B. P. Nair CPCRI (Re-
gional Station, Vittal) for statistical analysis.
One of us (SKB) is thankful to the
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research,
New Delhi, for a fellowship.

Department of Zoology,

University of Calicut,

Kerala-673 635,

May 16, 1984.

Reference

Bhat, S. K., Nair, C. P. R. & Mathew, D. N.

(1981) : Mammalian pests of cocoa in south India.

Trap. Pest Mgmt. 27:297-307.

1 Present Address : Central Plantation Crops

Research Institute, Reg. Stan., Kayangulam, Kerala-
690 533.

6 . REPORT ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE FAWN-COLOURED
MOUSE, MUS CERVICOLOR CERVICOLOR HODGSON, 1845
[RODENTIA: MURIDAE] IN THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR

ISLANDS, INDIA

A small collection of rodents obtained by of India, from the Andaman and Nicobar
Shri P. K. Das, Zoologist, Zoological Survey Islands included a grey-bellied mouse with

S. KESHA VA BHAT1
D. N. MATHEW

body weights were lodged individually in cells
of 50 x 30 x 30 cm. These squirrels were
allowed to acclimatise themselves to the con-
ditions in the cage for five days prior to the
experiment. On the sixth day each squirrel was
provided with weighed quantity of paddy
grains, previously air dried to a constant weight.
The experiment was continued for 10 days.
Each day the consumption of paddy was
recorded at two-hourly intervals between 0400
and 2000 h. The weighing was done to the
nearest 0.5 g using a common counter balance.
Absolute consumption values were transformed
to g/100 g body weight of the animal. The
average consumption during each period was
computed and analysed statistically.

Results and Discussion

The data (see Fig. 1) revealed the presence
of distinct bimodal feeding pattern in this
squirrel. Feeding was first observed around
0600 h, increasing rapidly thereatfer. The over-

465

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

bicoloured tail which was identified as the
Fawn-coloured Mouse, Mus cervicolor cerv/-
color Hodgson.

According to authoritative literature this
species occurs within the Indian limits in south-
ern India, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Arun-
achal Pradesh but it has not yet been reported
from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and
the present material constitutes the first authen-
tic record of its occurrence in the Andaman
and Nicobar Islands, India.

The details of the specimen are given below.
The external measurements were taken in the
field by the collector. All measurements are
given in millimetres.

Material. 1 adult $ ; Z.S.I. Registration Number
21113; in alcohol; Wrightmyo, South Andaman
Island, Andaman and Nicobar Islands; 10 April
1975; P. K. Das Collector; deposited in the National
Zoological Collection of India, housed at the Zoo-
logical Survey of India, Calcutta.

Measurements. External: Head and body 89; tail
89.5; hindfoot 17; ear 13.

Zoological Survey of India,

8, Lindsay Street,

Calcutta-700 087,

January 22, 1984.

Cranial: Occipitonasal 22.3; condylobasal 21.0;

nasal 8.4; palate 11.3; bulla 3.6; molar tooth row
3.4; anterior palatal foramen 5.1; diastema 6.0.

The tail is usually shorter than the head and
body length in Mus cervicolor, but three out
of the four examples of this sub-species from
Nepal have the tail longer (Ellerman, 1961).
In the above-mentioned example from the
Andamans, the tail is more or less equal to
the head and body length.

The specimen was trapped outside the kit-
chen of the Forest Rest House at Wrightmyo,
South Andaman Island.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Director, Zoological Survey of
India, Calcutta, for providing facilities, and
Dr. B. Biswas, Emeritus Scientist, Z.S.I, Indian
Museum, for going through the manuscript and
for valuable suggestions. We thank to Dr V. C.
Agrawal, Superintending Zoologist, and to
Shri P. K. Das, Zoologist, for suggestions and
encouragement.

A JOY KUMAR MANDAL
M. K. GHOSH

7. A LARGE FLOCK OF MIGRATING WHITE STORKS

On 8.i. 1981 at about 2.00 p.m. while return-
ning from Kalakad to Palayamkottai, I saw
an unusually large assemblage of white storks
( Ciconia ciconia) on either side of the road
from Kalakad to Nanguneri east of hamlet
Subramaniapuram.

There had been some recent showers. The
ground and grass were wet. The area consisted
of fallow fields. On the north of the road are
the hillocks, where A. J. T. Johnsingh studied
Indian Fox and a small rain fed irrigation tank.

Sheep, goats, buffaloes and cattle were grazing
to make it a perfect pastoral setting. The white
storks are not uncommon or unknown in this
area as it has been described in Tamil Sangam
Literature said to be 3000 years in age.

Near scientific descriptions of its looks,
migratory habits and habitat have been record-
ed by the Tamil Poet Sakthimuttar, The lines
“Pazhampadu Panayin kilangu Pilanthanna
pavala kurvai sengal narai ’ refer to the com-
missure of the beak which looks like the cleft

466

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

on the palmyrah seedling, coral coloured sharp
beak and red legs. But what is uncommon is
the large numbers seen. Salim Ali in his the
book of Indian birds states that it is a winter
visitor in small numbers. I counted them divid-
ing the area into smaller sections based on the
land marks and counting in the direction
opposite to their general movement they turned
out to be 360+. They were foraging and mov-
ing in a generally southerly direction.

Wildlife Warden,

Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary,

Templeton Cottage, Vannarpet,
Udhagamandalam-643 001,

Tamil Nadu,

March 3, 1982.

Another striking characteristic was the spac-
ing between adjacent individuals which was
about 8-10 m. The spacing was consistent when
two birds moved too close, one flew to the
nearest opening available.

On enquiry from local cowherds I learnt
that these birds arrived in small groups of 10
or 20, from about noon. They were unmind-
ful of the grazing cattle. They were still forag-
ing when I left at 4.30 p.m.

J. MANGALRAJ JOHNSON

8. PUDDLE-FEEDING OF FLAMINGOS PHOEN1COPTERUS

ROSEUS IN INLAND TANKS

In Koonthakulam (77.46 E., 8.29 N., 60 m
above MSL) situated in Nanguneri Taluk,
Tirunelveli District, Pelicans, Painted Storks,
Little egrets. Cattle egrets. Cormorants, Night
herons and Pond herons breed. The tank con-
tains water generally between the months Sep-
tember and April depending on rains, letting
in of water from Manimuthar and letting out
of water for irrigation. The breeding generally
coincides with availability of water in tanks of
Koonthankulam and nearby tanks.

Flamingos ( Phoenicopterus roseus) are seen
feeding in small groups of 5 to 27, when the
water is shallow. When there is heavy rain-
fall and tanks get filled with fresh water fla-
mingos leave to return after 15-21 days. Nov/
that we have taken up planting of Acacia ara-
bica in the foreshores of the tank, I frequently
enter the tank bed, which is partly or mostly
dry and noticed that they could be approached
very close as near as 30 m. It is then that I

noticed that they make a puddle with their feet
continuously while feeding. The head is kept
partly submerged in water or kept near the
surface. They stand either very close to the
edge of the water or in shallow areas where
the depth of water is around 15 cm to 30 cm
(as measured after the bird left). Keeping the
head in the centre the legs are moved in
quarter, semi- or three-quarter circles in clock
wise and anticlockwise directions in slowly
closing circles. While bringing the legs close
to the head, the neck is bent but the head is
kept in the same position continuously with-
out lifting up the head. The puddling is effected
by bending and lifting the legs and again
thrusting into the tank bed ooze. While lifting
legs the toes are partly closed. Flamingos
found here are sometimes in breeding plumage.
It has been reported earlier that Flamingos
were faily common throughout the Tirunel-

467

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 81

veli District and large flocks numbering 300 birds of India, burma and ceylon. 1921,
were seen in July 1898 (Stuart Baker in game Vol. 1, page 4).

Wildlife Warden, J. MANGALRAJ JOHNSON

Mudumalai Sanctuary,

Udhagamandalam 1,

Tamil Nadu,

March 4, 1983.

9. OCCURRENCE OF LESSER FLAMINGO PHOENICONAIAS
MINOR (GEOFFROY) IN POONA, MAHARASHTRA

Some eight kilometres west of Poona, lies
the man-made lake of Pashan, along the stream
named ‘Ram Nadi’. Barring the summer hot
weather season, the lake is fed by this stream.
With the drying up of the shoreline, a large
muddy expanse of the lake bed attracts a
number of birds such as the Openbilled Storks,
Painted Snipes, Yellow-wattled Lapwings in
addition to the locally resident birds.

On the 29th of June 1982 a lone Lesser
Flamingo ( Phoeniconaias minor) was seen
feeding along with two Openbilled Storks. This
is the first time the former species has been
seen in the area. The bird was uninjured and

124/9 Erandavana,

Poona-411 004,

January 21, 1983.

Refer

Abdulali, H. (1981) : Checklist of The Birds of
Maharashtra. Bombay Natural History Society,
Bombay.

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1969) : Handbook of the

10. SIGHTING OF RINGTAILED

LAKE, GREAJ

when disturbed would fly away to the other
edge of the lake. It roosted at the lake, as was
confirmed one night by a friend.

We last saw this bird on the 17th of July
1982 and photographed it. The Checklist by
H. Abdulali (1981) lists the bird as stray, in
flocks or parties. While the handbook, Vol. 1
(1969) gives the bird an ‘uncertain status’ with
birds seen all round the year; specimens re-
corded as far south as Bombay and Secundera-
bad, the latter city being south of Poona. The
article of W. B. Trevenen (1922) writing on
the birds of Poona does not mention this bird.

TAEJ MUNDKUR

EN CES

Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 1, Bombay. Ox-
ford University Press.

Trevenen, W. B. (1922): Shikar near and around
Poona, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 28 : 1075-1081.

FISHING EAGLE AT VIHAR
ER BOMBAY

This is for the record of BNHS that on 7th
August 1983 after the bird watching arranged
by BNHS some of the members, including the

undersigned had walked to Vihar lake. At
Vihar Lake among a large gathering of about
25 Brahminy kites ( Haliastur indus), both

468

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

immature and mature, a lone Ringtailed Fish-
ing Eagle ( Haliaeetus leucoryphus) was obser-
ved. The Fishing Eagle which has not been
sighted in this part of Maharashtra could be
a stray which had come with the group of
Brahminy kites. The bird in question was un-
mistakably a Ringtailed Fishing Eagle due to
the following, characteristics:

(i) Size — The size was very large, easily
comparable with the Brahminy kites, as
it chased the kites to snatch the fishes
they had captured. The size of the eagle
was atleast l\ times of the average Brah-
miny kites.

(ii) The ring round the tail was very clearly
visible, when the eagle during its course
of flight, was banking among the Brah-

8/ A Devyani Apartments,

M. G. Road,

Borivli (e), Bombay-400 066,

September 26, 1983.

miny kites.

(iii) When the eagle perched in a palm tree
the head with pale golden brown colour
was unmistakable. So also was the stance
of perching with the wing extending upto
the tail, more like that of vultures.

I have seen ringtailed fishing eagles at
Bharatpur and also in Northern India. The
identification was done at the site itself, as we
had the book of Indian birds. However,
before writing this note, other sources have
been checked up regarding identification. We
could not get a photograph, as the light was
not good for getting a picture in flight. The
other members who were with me were Messrs
N. D. Mulla, S. D. BhowmicL V. James and
Feroze Mistry.

D. P. BANNERJEE

11. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON NATURAL CHEER PHEASANT,
CATREUS WALLICHII, POPULATION AT MUKTESWAR RESERVE

FOREST, KUMAON, NAINI TAL, U.P.

Cheer pheasant, Catreus wallichii, is the only
representative of the genus Catreus of Phasi-
anidae family. In recent years, concern has
been expressed about the status of the species
which has disappeared from many of its for-
mer haunts (Gaston 1979). An approximate
estimate of the total world population of the
bird is worked out to be around 5000 only
(Gaston 1980) and the bird has been included
in Appendix I of the Red data book of the
IUCN.

Many authors have given the distribution of
Cheer pheasant as North-West Himalayas
from Hazara in West Pakistan, Kashmir, Hima-
chal Pradesh, Garhwal and Kumaon, and up

to West Central Nepal (Ah & Ripley 1969,
Stuart Baker 1928, Delacour 1977). Even as
early as 1922, Beebe had reported that fewer
Cheer pheasants are met with than any other
pheasant in the wild, excepting the Tragopans.
One of the reasons given by Beebe was that
even within their natural habitat they are very
much confined to particular localities (Beebe
1922). Recent information shows that the bird
is virtually extinct from Pakistan (Gaston
1980). Several areas in Himachal Pradesh hold
populations each likely to be in excess of 50
birds and the Ravi valley population of more
than 100 birds is considered to be the largest
known population. But densities in all the

469

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

localities appear to be low, with the densest
population in the Chail Wild Life Sanctuary
(6 pairs /Km2) and each population is isolated
(Gaston 1980, Gaston & Singh, J. 1980).
Lelliott & Yonzon (1980) conducted a short
survey in western Nepal for locating Cheer
pheasants which turned out to be futile. In a
later survey, conducted in 1979 and 1980,
Lelliott (1981) could locate Cheers in one
area in west central Nepal above ‘Muri’ village
in the Athhazar Parbat region.

There are very few authentic records of the
presence of Cheer in the Kumaon hills in
recent years. Nearly 20 years ago. Dr (Kr.)
Suresh Singh of this Institute had seen a pair
of Cheer crossing the road near Mahesh Khan
which is in between Bhowali and Ramgarh in
Naini Tal District (Singh, K. S. 1982, pers.
comm.). Lamba (1977) mentions that the
species was widespead in the Uttar Pradesh
foothills 20 years ago but has since decreased
drastically. Singh was of the view that a small
population of Cheer pheasant could be present
still at Mukteswar for which he invited Dr.
A. J. Gaston of Canadian Wildlife service to
survey the area. Gaston could not locate any
Cheer at Mukteswar and was doubtful if Cheer
was present in the area (Gaston 1979). I also
surveyed the area twice earlier for getting an
idea about the different species of pheasants
present in the Mukteswar reserve forest, but
could not get any evidence for the occurrence
of Cheer pheasants, either by direct observation
or from local enquiries. However, quite sur-
prisingly, a remnant Cheer pheasant popula-
tion has been observed during a recent survey
conducted at Mukteswar.

The survey was conducted on 4 days from
21st (evening) to 24th (morning) November,
1980, to locate some pheasants at Mukteswar
for the purpose of studying their behaviour.
Mornings and evenings on these days were

spent in the probable pheasant habitat of the
reserve forest. On 21st evening while visiting
the area north-west and below the temple I
heard the feeble chuckling sound of Cheer
pheasants, with which by now, I was quite
familiar from captive birds. On 22nd morning
at 6.05 a.m. I reached the same spot and
watched for the birds. The atmosphere was
very clear without any fog or rain. By 6.15 a.m.
I could hear the chuckling sound and by 6.17
a.m. located an adult male Cheer pheasant,
perched on a small oak tree about 6 metres
above the ground.

This male Cheer was observed continuously
for 11 minutes from 6.17 a.m. to 6.28 a.m.
without the help of binoculars. The bird was
sleeping, perched on a branch very near to the
main stem. The tail was held at an angle to-
wards the ground and the legs were covered
by the body feathers. Some feeble chuckling
sound was heard again a short distance away
and a female Cheer was located. At 6.19 a.m.
the male got up, defecated, and looked
around. Suddenly it partly spread its wings and
produced calls exactly like the cock bird at
feeding time in captivity. The female reci-
procated with the chuckling sound. At 6.20 a.m.
the male Cheer presumably after seeing the
observer, flew down producing a high metallic
koel like alarm call. The same sort of alarm
call was heard within seconds from an esti-
mated 30 m further, clearly showing the pre-
sence of another pair. At 6.22 a.m. the pair
was seen foraging on the ground, within 3 m
of each other. Another Cheer chuckling was
heard from a different direction showing the
possibility of one more pair within the small
area. At 6.28 a.m. the Cheer pair was lost
from sight, but the chuckling sound was heard
for some more time. First sunlight was observed
at 6.55 a.m.

The observation gives some more evidence

470

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

to the view that Cheer pheasants roost on trees
(Ali & Ripley 1969) as opposed to the view
that they roost on ground (Delacour 1977).

Cheer habitat at Mukteswar

According to Ali & Ripley (1969) the Cheer
pheasants inhabit steep, rugged hill-sides in
oak forest covered with long grass and scrub
cut up by wooded ravines. It was the lack of
adequate long grass in the reserve forest which
made Dr Gaston to doubt the occurrence of
Cheer in that area. However, the slope on the
north-western side of the temple does have a
patch, approximately 2 sq. km in area which
has long coarse grasses and thus is suitable as
a Cheer habitat. This grass area appears to be
rather isolated since similar areas were not
seen in the surrounding forest. In this context
it may be recalled that earlier observers had
also noticed that Cheer inhabits very restricted
areas and thus can be called stenecious.

The site where birds were observed is a
slope of about 60°. More than 25% of the
area is covered by rocks which are not easy

Scientist, S-l,

Wildlife Section,

Division of Epidemiology,

Indian Veterinary Research Institute,
IZATNAGAR, U.P.,

August 20, 1982.

Refe

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1969) : Handbook of
the Birds of India and Pakistan, Vol. 2 Oxford
University Press, Bombay, 1-345.

Baker, Sturt E. C. (1928) : The Fauna of British
India including Ceylon and Burma. Birds, Vol. 5,
Taylor & Francis: London, 1-469.

Beebe, W. (1922): A Monograph of the Pheas-
ants, Vol. Ill H. F. & G. Witherby, London. 1-204.

Delacour, Jean (1977) : The Pheasants of the
world. 2nd ed. WPA — Spur Publication, Survey,

for a man to climb without help. Sparsely
scattered secondary oak and pine trees were
present which were considered as suitable roost-
ing trees for the birds. The area is very near to
human habitation. The local people keep dogs
which may be disturbing the birds. During my
visit dogs were seen frequently and barks were
heard quite often. To some extent, the birds
seem to have adjusted to this as they did not
react when a bark was heard at the site. The
most unfortunate part about the habitat is that
the area is not under the control of Indian
Veterinary Research Institute, Mukteswar-
Kumaon and people frequently cut the grass
and graze domestic animals which will reduce
the grass coverage drastically.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Dr (Kr) Suresh Singh,
Administrator, World Pheasant Association,
India for suggesting the study and for the criti-
cal assessment of the note during its prepara-
tion. I am also thankful to Director, I.V.R.I.,
and Head, Division of Epidemiology, I.V.R.I.
for allowing me to carry out this study.

T. J. RASOOL

ENCES
England. 1-395.

Gaston, A. J. (1979) : Report on Indian Veteri-
nary Research Institute, Mukteswar as a possible
site for reintroduction of Cheer Pheasant Catreus
wallichii. Unpublished report submitted to I.V.R.I.

(1980): The Himalayas: A sum-
mary of current knowledge on the status of phea-
sants. In Phesants in Asia 1979. Ed. Savage, C.
WPA, Exning (U.K.), pp. 33-35.

& Singh, J. (1980) : The status of

471

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

the Cheer pheasant Catreus wallichii, in the Chail
Wildlife Sanctuary, Himachal Pradesh. WPA Journal
V, 1979-80, pp. 68-73.

Lamba, B. S. (1977) : Recent threat to Wildlife
by man in the western Himalaya. Memories of the
School of Entomology 6:6 1-66 (Quoted by Gaston,

12. POSSIBLE NORDMANN

On 28th January 1981, whilst walking along
the Rapti Dun near Sauraha in southern Nepal,

I noticed what appeared to be a group of com-
mon Greenshank ( Tringa nehularia). On closer
inspection I realised that one of the birds whilst
superficially resembling T. nebularia was in
fact quite different. I was able to obtain the
following notes;

A dumpy squat looking Greenshank, with a
thick basal section to the bill and a short legged
appearance.

Bill. Compared to accompanying Greenshank
( T . nebularia) the bill was very much thicker,
being approximately 2-3 mm at its base; there-
by giving the head a more solid appearance.
Coloration quite marked i.e., two tone, with
basal half being a dirty yellow colour with the
tip section being a very dark brown or black.
The bill was quite distinctly different from the
other birds. Bill up-turned as per T. nebularia.

Legs. Appeared shorter than those of the
accompanying Greenshank ( T . nebularia )

thereby giving an overall dumpy appearance.
The distance of the tibio-tarsal joint from the
belly seemed longer and thus, the tarsus seem-
ed shorter than that of T. nebularia. The leg
coloration was a clear yellow and not greenish
as on the associated birds.

Size. Appeared slightly smaller than the

Warden,

Calf of Man Bird Observatory,

Isle of Man,

U.K.,

November 3, 1982.

A. J., 1979).

Lelliott, A. D. (1981) : Cheer pheasants in West-
Central Nepal. WPA Journal, VI, 1980-81, pp. 89-95.

& Yonzon, P. B. (1980) : Studies

of Himalayan Pheasants in Nepal. WPA Journal,
V, 1979-80, pp. 11-30.

S GREENSHANK IN NEPAL

other birds, and certainly less elegant. Body
length seemed slightly shorter.

Plumage. All birds exhibited coverts with
broad huffish fringes with a dark brownish
central vane. The primaries of all birds seemed
slightly worn. Thus, all the birds were identi-
fied as juveniles, however, the breast markings
of the individual were more streaked rather
than spotted. The tail appeared to have less
barring on it than the Greenshank ( T . nebu-
laria) however, this was only seen briefly whilst
the bird flew away.

General notes. The bird was seen for ap-
proximately five minutes at a minimum range
of 30 ft and a maximum range of 250+ft. Light
conditions were favourable and good visibility
was obtained using Leitz Trinovid 10 x 40
binoculars.

On departure the flight of the bird seemed
slightly more laboured and less of the legs
could be seen. No call was given.

Although this bird was seen relatively briefly
it is suggested that it was a Nordmann’s Green-
shank ( Tringa guttifer) in juvenile plumage.
It was markedly different from the accompany-
ing common Greenshank ( T . nebularia) If this
is correct then this would be the first record
of Nordmann’s Greenshank ( T . guttifer) for
Nepal.

A. J. DEL-NEVO

472

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

13. UNUSUAL COMMUNAL NEST-FEEDING IN SOUTHERN
SMALL MINIVET PERICROCOTUS CINNAMOMEUS
C1NNAMOMEUS LINNE

The WWF-I, Nature Leadership Camp at
N.D.A., Pune from the 20th to the 25th of
September 1982 coincided with the nesting
season of many birds in the vicinity. During
this period, while leading the participants on
nature trails, I observed the nests of the
Yellowcheeked tit ( Pams xanthogenys) , White-
bellied minivet ( Pericrocotus erythropygius) ,
Redvented bulbul ( Pycnonotus cafer ), Tailor
bird ( Orthotomus sutorius) , Rain quail ( Cotur -
nix coromandelica) , Baya weaver bird ( Ploceus
philippinus) , Spotted muni a ( Lonchura punctu-
lata), Tickell’s flowerpecker (Dicaeum erythro-
rhynchos ) and Small minivet ( Pericrocotus
cinnamomeus ) .

On the 24th of September 1982 at 9.35 a.m.
while photographing the nest of the Small mini-
vet ( Pericrocotus cinnamomeus), I made an
unusual observation which I think is worthy
of mention. This nest was located on a teak
tree ( Tectona grandis) at Peacock Bay of
Khadakwasla lake. The tree was on the em-
bankment of the road about seven metres high
and the nest was at about four metres height
from ground level, thus, well protected, though
near the road. The tiny fibre cup nest was
welded on to the upper surface of a branch
and was almost invisible as it merged with
the tree like a knot on the branch.

There were three chicks in the nest as I
could see them peeping out when the adult
birds alighted on the tree. Initially I saw a
female feeding the chicks with a caterpillar,
while an adult male alighted on the tree with
an insect in its beak. As soon as the female
moved aside, the male approached the nest
and fed the chicks. After a short while the
pair moved away from the nest. Four minutes

later, I saw a pair of adult males coming to the
tree with insects in their beaks. Very soon,
both the males, one after the other, fed the
chicks in the nest. Almost at the same time
another adult male attracted my attention with
a chit — chit call from a nearby tree. Immedi-
ately after departure of the two males, a third
male also arrived at the nest and fed the chicks
with an insect. I began to suspect that the nest
was in possession of more than two birds and
continuing my observations with interest I
found that one light coloured female and four
brightly coloured males, singly or in pairs,
were feeding the chicks at an average interval
of 3j minutes. I continued observation till 11.00
a.m. and saw the birds feeding the chicks with
caterpillars, insects and spiders and twice, just
to confirm my suspicion, all the birds — one
female and four adult males arrived at the
tree simultaneously and fed the chicks one
after the other. This behaviour has been des-
cribed for the Jungle babbler — . .the four

adults were all queued up like a line of waiters
bringing dishes to a group of diners.” (Mac-
donald, /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 56: 132).

An hour later, I brought a few camp parti-
cipants to the site and showed them the strange
communal activity of the small minivets. Once
again I confirmed that the nest was in posses-
sion of five birds — one female and four males.

The small minivet has been consistently
known to have nests in possession of three
birds, two females and one male (Jesse, The
Ibis, II, 1902: 541). Jesse however did not
know whether both females take part in incu-
bation and in rearing the young.

In 1950, K. K. Neelakantan has reported in
his ‘Stray bird notes from Malabar’ (/. Bom-

473

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. Si

bay not. Hist. Soc. 49: 554) about the small about sharing the duty of incubation and was
minivets, a male and two females, sharing the not sure whether the less active female was a
labour at a nest — from building the nest to chick of previous brood,
feeding the chicks. He did not say anything

Laxmi Narayan Bhuwan, ULHAS RANE

G. D. Ambekar Marg,

Bhoiwada, Parel,

Bombay-400 012,

November 26, 1982.

14. OCCURRENCE OF WHITEBREASTED LAUGHING
THRUSHES ( GARRULAX JERDONl BLYTH) IN GOA

The report on the ornithological survey of
Goa by Robert B. Gmbh and Salim Ali (/.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73, No. 1) refers to
an “excursion . . . made to the top of Vagheri
in Valpoi taluka, just under 1000 m, and said
to be the highest hill in Goa. This was specially
in order to establish whether or not the plant
genus Rubus (brambles) and its symbiotic bird
genus Garrulax (laughing thrushes) also occur
in Goa as both do in the Kerala ranges a
couple of hundred metres above this elevation.
While bracken ( Pteridium sp.) another regular
member of this plant-bird association, was
plentiful near the top, there was no sign of
Rubus or Garrulax although otherwise the
biotope seemed eminently appropriate.”

I visited the forests of Goa with a few mem-
bers of WWF-India, from the 6th to the 10th
of April 1982. Our visit was confined to the
localities of Castlerock-Dudhsagar, Molem and
Mayem lake. On the 6th of April, at about
18.00 hrs, while coming back from a trek along
the Kali river at Castlerock, I saw an active
flock of babbler-like birds. The birds were not
shy and they kept moving from tree to tree,
sometimes descending to shrubs and under-
growth. Closer inspection revealed them to be
Whitebreasted laughing thrushes in a flock of

about 30. They were feeding on the fruits of
Atki {Maes a indiea Wall.) a medium-sized
tree abundant in the evergreen forest of Cast-
lerock and on the fruits of Luvunga eleutheran-
dra Dalz., a scandent glabrous shrub common
in the forest. Occasionally they would come
down to the ground presumably for insects.
The birds continued with their noisy feeding
activity for a while and then gradually dis-
appeared into the thick forest behind.

Next day, i.e. on the 7th of April, we trekked
along railway track from Castlerock to Dudh-
sagar waterfall. At about 15.00 hrs, just before
Dudhsagar railway station, a mixed hunting
party of birds was seen in the valley to the
west. The party included four Redvented bul-
buls, three Yellowb rowed bulbuls, eight Jungle
babblers and fourteen Whitebreasted laughing
thrushes. Along with the bulbuls, the laughing
thrushes were seen feeding on the fruits of
Gol (Trema orient alis Blume), a common
forest shrub. At times the thrushes were seen
hunting for insects in moss-covered branches of
trees and on occasion they would come to the
ground along with the babblers. The party
moved after sometime.

The first sighting of the Whitebreasted
laughing thrushes was at Castlerock which is

474

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

in Karnataka, albeit on the boundary of Karna-
taka and Goa. The second sighting was at
Dudhsagar (alt. about 800 m), which is well
within the Goa region. These hills of Goa have
luxuriant evergreen forests, a typical habitat
for laughing thrushes. The region does not seem
to have the well-known food plants of these
birds : 1) brambles ( Rubus sp.), and 2) hill
guava ( Rhodomyrtus tomentosa Wt.), but the
other known associated plants: 1) atki ( Masea
indica Wall.), 2) gol ( Trenia orient alls Blume)
and 3) bracken ( Pteridium aquilinum) are
quite common. Out of these the fruits of Maesa
indica and Trema orientalis are definitely con-
sumed by laughing thrushes, but the association
of the birds with bracken ( Pteridium aquili-

Laxmi Narayan Bhuwan,

G. D. Ambekar Marg,

B HOI WAD A, PAREL,

Bombay-400 012,

November 3, 1982.

num ) may be related to the fact that the plant
contains insect moulting hormones. This may
increase the likelihood of finding insects in the
vicinity of the plant.

Garrulax jerdoni has been previously re-
corded in the hills of Kerala and Western
Tamilnadu north of the Achankovil Gap (c.
9°N. lat.) ; Cardamom, Kannan Devan and
Palni hills, and High Wavy Mountains; from
c. 1200 m to the summits. This observation con-
firms the occurrence of the bird also in the
Goa region.

I am grateful to Mr Marcelin Almeida who
helped in the identification of plants and sup-
plied much useful information about the forests
of the region.

ULHAS RANE

15 . A NEW RECORD OF SUNBIRDS AS AVIAN PESTS ON GRAPE

AROUND HYDERABAD

Around Hyderabad, grape is grown in about
1000 ha. It is one of the important fruit crops
and is being occasionally damaged by many
species of birds causing heavy loss to the grape
growers.

Perumal et a!. (1972) recorded three species
of birds visiting grape gardens in Tamil Nadu.
Toor and Ramzan (1974) recorded ten species
of birds causing damage to grapes in Punjab.
During the survey of bird pests of grapes in
February to March, 1981, we recorded 22
species of birds visiting grape orchards around
Hyderabad. Among them 15 species were
beneficial and 7 species harmful to the ripening
berries.

Among the harmful birds two species of

Sunbirds, namely Purple Sunbird, Nectarinia
asiatica Linnaeus, and Purplerumped Sunbird
Nectarinia zeylonica Latham, are recorded for
the first time, as new avian pests damaging
ripening grape berries, in grape gardens around
ITyderabad. These birds pierce and puncture
the berries and suck the juice making them
unfit for human consumption.

The extent of damage caused by these birds
was assessed in two gardens — one in Grape
Research Station, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural
University, Rajendranagar and another in a
private orchard nearby. In these gardens 50
bunches of Anab-e-Shahi variety were examin-
ed at random to estimate the extent of damage
by these birds. In each bunch, the total num-

475

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

ber of berries present and number of berries
damaged by these birds were recorded. The
percentage of damage ranged between 3.2 and
45. The percentage of damage was found to

Department of Entomology,

College of Agriculture,

A. P. Agricultural University,
Rajendranagar,

Hyderabad-500 030,

December 10, 1982.

be more in bunches in the periphery of the
garden as compared to those in the interior
of the garden.

S. TEJ KUMAR
A. RANGA REDDY
K. LAKSHMINARAYANA

References

Perumal, R. S., Subramaniam, T. R. & David
P. Leela (1972) : Some observations on the birds
visiting grapevine. South Indian Hort. 20 (1-4) :
94-95.

Tej Kumar, S., Reddy, A. Ranga & Lakshmi-
narayana, K. (1981) : Birds associated with grape

gardens around Hyderabad. Mayura News Letter of
the Bird Watchers Chib of Andhra Pradesh 2 (2) :
8-9.

Toor, H. S., & Ramzan, M. (1974): A study on
grapes lost to birds. Punjab Hort. J. 14 (1-2) : 46-48.

16. SOME NOTES ON THE REPTILES OF THE ANDAMAN AND

NICOBAR ISLANDS

The snakes of the Andaman and Nicobar
islands are fairly well covered by Smith’s
Fauna of British India, Volume 3(1943),
but the lizards have received less attention. In
recent years, the Zoological Survey of India
has arranged several collecting trips to various
islands in that group and a paper on the last
trip, which included Mr Humayun Abdulali,
has already been published (Biswas & Sanyal
1980). Over the same period, Mr Abdulali,
though primarily interested in birds, has also
made small collections of reptiles for the Bom-
bay Natural History Society in the course of
his several tirps. The present notes refer mainly
to the specimens collected during his last trip
to the Andamans and Nicobars in March/

1 The delay in submission is due to Mr Abdulali’s
inability to examine the earlier material collected
by him and to include it here — Author’s note at
the instance of Mr Abdulali.

April 1976, which I have had the opportunity
of examining1. The earlier specimens referred
to were identified at the Bombay Natural His-
tory Society and the notes other than taxono-
mic are by Mr. Abdulali. Another small
collection of Dr K. K. Tiwari collected in 1977
from Andaman and Nicobar has been also
examined.

The first figure is the serial number in Smith’s
fauna of British India and the volume and
page number are also quoted. The measure-
ments are in millimetres.

Family Emydidae

9 . Ctiora amboineesis (Daudin) (Type : is-
land of Amboyna). Malay Box-tortoise
Smith 1 : 84.

1 ex,. Car Nicobar

Collector’s No. CN 34. Carapace length 48,
breadth 42, plastron length 41.

476

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

This was found preserved in a school
museum at Mus, Car Nicobar, and Mr Abdul-
ali was assured by the Headmaster, Mr God-
frey Lambert, that it had been locally obtained.
This is the first record from Car Nicobar,
though one young specimen obtained on Great
Nicobar in 1966 is in the Zoological Survey
Collection (Biswas & Sanyal 1977).

Family Gekkonidae

25. Gymnodactylus rubidus (Blyth) (Anda-
man Islands) Smith 2 : 54.

1 ex. Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar. Col. No.

GN 89.

11 specimens were obtained on earlier trips
to the Andamans, as also on Car Nicobar, and
at Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar, but no record
of its occurrence in the Nicobar appears to
have been published2. The specimen is a male
with the longitudinal prenal groove well deve-
loped. The reddish and/or light chocolate
transverse bars on the body though diffused
and irregular can be distinctly seen. The two
postanal pores on each side at the base of
tail, as figured by Smith (1935) are well deve-
loped and prominent.

65. Hemidactylus frenatus Schlegel (Java)

2 : 95.

4 ex. Car Nicobar. Col. Nos. CN 10, 11, 16, 23.

1 ex. Camorta. Col. No. C 30. 1 ex. Campbell

Bay, Great Nicobar. Col. No. CB 79. 1 ex. Port

Blair, South Andaman, Col. No. 9.

In two specimens the tails are regenerated
and lack the enlarged pointed tubercles other-
wise present.

The species is widely distributed over Indo-
China, Malaysia and Australasia. In India it
has been recorded from Bengal and is the com-

2 After completion of this paper one was recorded
from Great Nicobar (1980, Biswas & Sanyal, p. 258).

mon gecko in southern India; also Ceylon; as
far west as East Africa and on St. Helena.

It has not been recorded before from Great
Nicobar. At Port Blair, both pale and dark
coloured individuals were noted, perhaps more
of the former. Common in houses and in trees
at Port Blair, and in other places in South and
Middle Andamans.

76. Gekko gecko (Linnaeus) (“Habitat in
Indiis”) 2: 111.

1 ex. Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar, Col. No. 78.
A dried-up individual was found stuck on a
barrel of tar by the roadside. A detailed exa-
mination is not possible but it differs from the
specimens from the Andamans in the rostral
not touching the nostril, having 5 or less small
scales longitudinally arranged between two
lines of tubercles along the body, and with
more than six small scales in each annulus of
the tail.

G. gecko is known in Burma for its very
distinctive call tuktoo heard over long distances.
This all has not yet been recorded from the
Andaman or Nicobar Islands.

77. Gekko smiths Gray (Type locality Pen-
ang). 2 : 113.

1 ex. in forest near Port Blair, Andamans. Col.
No. 84, obtained on 12 April, 1976. 1 ex. Wright-
myo, South Andaman; collector K. K. Tiwari on
21st April, 1977. 2 ex. Campbell Bay, Great
Nicobar, Collector K. K. Tiwari 26830, March,
1977.

This specimen as well as the earlier ones
from the Andamans in B. N. H. S. collection
have the rostral touching the nostril, and do
not agree with the key to species in Smith’s
fauna. The material available does not permit
any definite conclusions, but if it should be
found to be different from smithi, Tytler’s name
verreauxi (JASB 33, 1865, p. 546) from Anda-
mans is available.

According to Tytler the cry is a loud “tuk,

477

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

tuk, tuk”, repeated five or six times, while
Abdulaii on an earlier trip to Great Nicobar
recorded a gecko call as “A slow deep truk
truk truk changing into a rapid tuk tuk tuk
with many variations” (7. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 64 (2) : 142), which he said was similar
to that notes for this species in the Andamans.
He also noted another gecko call at night as
a loud bird-like “tk-chr-rr-rr” and in March
1977 a similar call was noted in Great Nicobar.
81. Ptychozoon kuhli Stejneger (Ramri Is-
land off Arakan Coast) 2: 117.

Col. No. C 32. Camorta, Central Nicobar.

On wall of a shed in jungle in Camorta in
daylight. Not green in colour but various
shades of grey as in Hemidactylus sp. and
very cryptically coloured.

On 25 March 1976, in heavy forest in Car
Nicobar, the vertical trunk of a tree, about
18 inches from ground showed two eggs stuck
to the surface close together with traces of two
other pairs and a single egg, all forming a
cluster within a few inches. The pair of intact
eggs were white and showed dark inside, pre-
sumably developing. Each hemispherical egg
had a fiat circular base 15.5 mm in diameter
but only 10.6 mm high. Adults were not seen
but the eggs agreed well with the recorded des-
cription (Tiwari, 7. Bombay nat . Hist . Soc.
58 (2) : 523-527). The other eggs of which
marks were visible may have been of the same
or other individuals.

83. Phelsunia andamanense Blyth (Andaman
Islands) 2 : 121.

One was obtained on Narcondam earlier and
Rex Pimento, the Society’s assistant, obtained
several on Sopari-palms in a garden at Port
Blair during the day, in April, 1976.

107. Goniocephalus subcrisfatus (Blyth)
(Port Blair, Andamans) 2 : 163.

7 ex. Car Nicobar. Col. Nos. CN 1, 18-21, 26,

5 ex. Little Andamans. Col. No. LA 4-8.

There is considerable variation in colour and
pattern which cannot be linked with size or
sex, except that the young are more brightly
coloured. The collector thought that those
from Little Andaman were of two species.
Though Stoliczka is quoted in the fauna
(1935, p. 164) as indicating that they were
20 or 30 feet up a tree, all were obtained on
the ground and on tree trunks within 5 feet
of the ground.

Two of the females from among 5 specimens
obtained in the Andamans earlier contained
two eggs each. It has also been recorded as G.
humei of Tillinchang in Central Nicobar by
Kloss (1903, p. 67). The species is common
and widespread and specimens were obtained
on the small island of Battye Malve, south of
Car Nicobar.

124. Calotes cristatelhis (Kuhl) (type loca-
lity unknown) 2: 184.

2 ex. Car Nicobar. Col. No. CN 3 and 26.

One with white stripes down its sides was
obtained in a coconut grove on 26 March,
1976.

Smith (1935) gives its distribution as over
a scattered area and refers to a specimen from
Great Nicobar in the Zoological Museum at
Copenhagen. Though Pseudocalotes archidu-
cissae, of which the type is lost and which is
synonymised with this species, was described
by Fitzinger from the Nicobars; the present
specimens are presumably the first definite re-
cords from Car Nicobar.

126. Calotes jofeatus (Dum. & Bib.) (Java).

There is a specimen in BNHS collection
obtained by J. C. Anderson in Nicobar but
with no additional data. One was obtained
by Zoological Survey of India at Camorta,
Middle Andamans 1970 (Biswas & Sanyal
1980).

478

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Calofes danieli Tiwari & Biswas (Campbell
Bay, Great Nicobar).

2 ex. Great Nicobar. Col. Nos. GN 82 & 83.

This was described (Tiwari, K. K. & Biswas,
S., 1973) on a single specimen and the present
specimens confirm the differences noted. In
addition, the present opportunity of compar-
ing them with Calotes cristatdlus reveals some
more points of difference.

In danieli the nuchal crest is not so well
developed and prominent as in cristatellus in
which the spines, usually 9, are large, com-
pressed and dagger-shaped, whereas in danieli
they are small triangular, compressed and
erect, these scales numbering 12-14. The supra-
ocular scales are large and flat without keel
or carina. On the other hand in cristatellus
these scales are smaller, narrow and with keels.
The range of scales round the body is 68 to 71.
The tail is a little more than three times the
body length.

In life the body colour is brilliantly green or

Table 1

Zoological Survey of India Reg. No. 22455

Registration number

Holotype

GN 83

GN 82

Head length /breadth

22/11.5

22/11

21/11.5

Snout to vent

Axilla to groin

Vent to tip of tail

271

198+?

254

Fore limb

Hind limb

Scales round body

Spines of nuchal crest

bluish green but it changes into brown or dark
brown after preservation. The characteristic
patch between eye and the tympanum with a
white spot in the middle remains unchanged.

Following are the measurements (in mm)
and scale counts of the three specimens, one
holotype and two topotyes: (Table 1).

One of the specimens was rescued from a
domestic hen when it was noted to be mud
brown all over and with black below the eye.
The collectors Rex Pimento and Cyrus Toorkey
are positive that this was not due to earth or
other substance but that it became green be-
fore insertion into formalin.

179. Mabuya multifasciata (Kuhl).

3 ex. Car Nicobar. Col. Nos. CN 2, 17 & 24.

The three specimens have 33 and 34 scales
round the body and 19 lamellae under the
fourth toe.

One was obtained on Pandanus roots and
a field note states that it appeared to climb
up coconut palms. One had yellow under the
chin

179a. Mafeoya rudis Boulenger

Mabuya rudis Boulenger, Cat. Lizards. Brit. Mus.

3 : 188. 1 ex. Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar. Col.

No. 80.

Smith (1935, p. 369) had suggested that this
should be a subspecies of M. multifasciata but
the following differences indicate a different
species. (Table 2).

Some more differentiating characters are
noticed after comparing the specimen with
three specimens of the collection assigned to

Table 2

M. multifasciata M. rudis

1 . Hind limb not reaching axilla. 1 . Hind limb reaching the axilla or beyond.

2. Subdigital lamellae smooth. 2. Subdigital lamellae keeled.

3. 30 to 34 scales round the body dorsal 3 rarely 3. 30 to 36 scales round body, dorsal and laterals

5 keeled, lateral quite smooth. strongly keeled.

479

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

multifasciata. Anterior border of the tympanum
of the specimen referred to the present species
is without larger projecting lobules but gran-
ular lobules instead round the border of tym-
panum. In the specimens belonging to multi-
fasciata, there are 1 to 3 enlarged lobules in the
anterior border. The scales from tympanum
to the forelimb are comparatively very small
and these are very prominently keeled as also
the parietals and nuchals of the head shield.
In rudis the 6th upper labial is the largest and
the first lower labial is nearly equal to the 2nd
but in the specimens of multifasciata the 5th
upper (4th in one) labial is the largest and
the 1st lower labial is smallest.

The body coloration is dark and a whitish
line is there from lower border of eye to the
tympanum. Following are the measurements
(in mm) of the specimen and one of multi-
fasciata'. (Table 3).

Table 3

multifasciata

M. rudis

Snout to vent

117

Tail

155

Head length

(snout to tympanum)

24.9

Head width

19.2

8.5

Axilla to groin

Fore limb

Hind limb

Scales round the body

Zoological Survey of India,
34, Chittaranjan Avenue,
Calcutta 700 016,

March 9, 1984.

Remarks. As this longlegged form occurs
occasionally from widely separated parts of the
Malay Archipelago, therefore according to
Smith (1927) the name applied to a geogra-
phical race in its strict sense cannot be used
but he had also objections to placing the speci-
mens having the above mentioned characters
under the species rudis as he thought inter-
mediate examples between rudis and multifas-
ciata were available. Unless it is definitely
proved so the present species stands.

Family Colubridae

Xenochrophis piscator melanzostus (Boie)

2 ex. Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar, collector
K. K. Tivvari on 8th April, 1977. 1 ex. Wright-
myo, S. Andaman, collector K. K. Tiwari in
April, 1977.

So far this subspecies was known to occur
only in Andaman but the present record ex-
tends its distribution further to the south in
the Great Nicobar and it also very closely
resembles the colour form of the X. piscator
occurring in the Malay Penninsula (Smith
1943).

Acknowledgements

I thank the Director, Zoological Survey of
India for facilities to work out the collections
and I am particularly indebted to Mr Humayun
Abdulali, a well-known naturalist of Bombay
for allowing me to examine his small but valu-
able collection. His field observations add to
the value of this note.

S. BISWAS

References

Biswas, S. & Sanyal, D. P. (1977): Notes on
Reptilia collection from the Great Nicobar Island
during the Great Nicobar Expedition, 1966. Rec.

Zool. Surv. India 72: 107-124.

(1980): A report
on the Reptilia fauna of Andaman and Nicobar

480

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Plate I

Rao et al: Crocodylus palustris

•m >

Above: Fig. 1. An affected crocodile with hunchback.

Below: Fig. 2. Radiograph of a normal specimen.

Fig. 3. Radiograph of the calcium defficient animal showing abnormality in the vertebral column

and pelvic girdle.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Islands in the collection of Zoological Survey of
India, ibid. 77 : 255-292.

Smith, M. A. (1927) : Contributions to the herpe-
tology of the Indo- Australian regions. Proc. Zool.
Soc. pp. 199-225.

(1935) : Fauna of British India

(Sauria). Vol. II. London, pp. xii+440.

(1940): Contribution to the Herpe-
tology of the Andaman and Nicobars Islands. Proc.

Linn. Soc. Lond., Part II.

(1943) : Fauna of British India.

(Serpentes). Vol. III. London, pp. vii-583.

Tiwari, K. K. (1961) : The eggs and flight of
Gecko Ptychozoon kuhli Stejneger from Car Nicobar.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58(2) : 523-526.

& Biswas, S. (1973) : Two new

reptiles from the Great Nicobar Island. J. Zool. Soc.
India 25 ( 1&2) : 57-63.

17. NUTRITIONAL DISORDERS OF YOUNG CAPTIVE

CROCODILES

(With a plate)

The female of a pair of mugger crocodile,
Crocodylus palustris kept for exhibition at
Indira Gandhi Zoological Park, Visakha-
patnam has been laying eggs successfully since
1977. The eggs laid were allowed to hatch in
situ in the enclosure every year, but the hatch-
lings were removed from the parents for sepa-
rate rearing in specially designed rearing
pools.

During the rearing of the young, it has been
noticed that most of the hatchlings of the age
group 0-2 years which are fed with lean beef
meat alone are being affected with the cessation
of the growth succeeded by hunchback (Plate
I; 1) and death follows if untreated. This has
been proved as a nutritional disorder and the
symptoms are as follows,

(1) Appearance of hunchback between pec-
toral and pelvic girdle progressing from the
eigth lumbar vertebra towards pelvic region.

(2) Poor appetite and sluggish movements.

(3) Increase of hunchback.

(4) Death due to hypoglycemia, specially
on cold nights.

(5) In older animals (1-2) death due to the
fracture in vertebral column.

These symptoms are found to be due to the
resorption of calcium from the bones into the
plasma or due to severe imbalance of calcium

to phosphorus ratio, or because of low vitamin
D content in the diet, as the diet of meat has a
very low percentage of calcium. The abnor-
malities in the vertebral column and pelvic
region are clearly shown in the radiograph
(Plate I; 3) of calcium deficient animal. The
difference between normal crocodile and affect-
ed can clearly be seen in the radiographs
(Plate I; 2 and 3). The mortality occurs within
15-20 days after the onset of the symptoms in
case of 2-5 months old hatchlings. Whereas
in the case of yearlings the cessation of growth
is clearly noticed and subsequently death
follows.

It has been established that the crocodiles in
captive rearing suffer from this common nutri-
tional disorder due to feeding with imbalanced
diet. The lean beef with which the crocodiles
are fed with, generally has a low calcium and
vitamin D content.

In an attempt to prevent this death of
hatchlings (below one year age), several
combinations of diet were given to the reptiles.
They are crabs, fish, liver, beef etc., and finally
it has been found out that the best suited diet
for hatchlings should be the combination of
beef, liver and crabs on one day, alternate
with beef, liver and fish on the second day but
for yearlings (1-2 years age) beef, liver, fish

481

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

and crabs should be given every day. It is
advisable to administer the diet in the follow-
ing proportions (Tables I and II).

Table I

Diet for hatchlings

Diet

Quantity

Beef

250

Per

ii)

Liver

twelve

iii)

Fish /crabs

150

hatchlings

Table II

Diet for yearlings

Diet

Quantity

Beef

450

ii)

Liver

100

Per

iii)

Fish

100

twelve

iv)

Crabs

100

yearlings

The success of survival after administration
of this balanced diet may be seen from
Table III.

Asst. Curator,

Indira Gandhi Zoological Park,
VlSAKHAPATNAM 530 040.

Curator,

Indira Gandhi Zoological Park,
VlSAKHAPATNAM 530 040.

Veterinary Officer,

Indira Gandhi Zoological Park,
VlSAKHAPATNAM 530 040.

Department of Zoology,

Andhra University,

VlSAKHAPATNAM 530 003,

February 9, 1984.

Table III

Survival of crocodiles with and without

BALANCED DIET

Year

No. of
hatch-
lings

Mortality No. of
due to survi-

nutritional vals
disorder

Survival Diet
(%)

1978

13.3 Not

balanced

1979

6.2 Not

balanced

1980

71.4 Balanced

1981

Nil

100.0 Balanced

The hunchback in case of yearlings, how-
ever, persists even after the change of diet
though the disease no longer remains.

Acknowledgements

We wish to express our thanks to Sri Pushp
Kumar, I.F.S. Conservator of Forests, Wild
Life Management, Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad
for his encouragement and guidance.

K. TULASI RAO

B. THRINADHA RAO

Y. RAMA

B. BHARATHA LAKSHMI

482

J. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. 81

Desai: Eryx conicus

Plate I

Above : Two headed earth-snake Eryx conicus.

Below : Two headed earth-snake Eryx conicus. X-ray photograph of the anterior portion of
tne body, showing two separate skulls and portions of the vertebral columns.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

18 . A REPORT ON THE RARE OCCURRENCE OF TWO HEADED
RUSSELL’S EARTH-SNAKE OR RED EARTH BOA ERYX CON1CUS

(OPHIDIA: BOIDAE)

{With a plate )

Earth snake or Russell’s Sand Boa Eryx
conicus is a sluggish and shy snake common in
the dry arid zones of northeastern parts of
Karnataka State. An unusual specimen of
Eryx conicus with two heads was collected by
a farmer of the village Hole-Alur (Dist. Dhar-
war; Karnataka State) on 4th June, 1983 and
was handed over to Shri M. V. Waddin., Asst.
Conservator of Forests, Dharwar Division,
Dharwar. The specimen was maintained alive
for two months being fed with earthworms,
grubs, etc. Through the courtesy of Shri Wad-
din it was possible to bring the specimen to the
Zoology Department and make some obser-
vations on it, which are as follows:

The specimen is uniformly elongate, show-
ing no constriction between the head and trunk.
It measures 200 mm long and 40 mm in girth
in the trunk region (Plate I). The animal
has two separate heads and both are of the
same size. Further, as the X-ray photograph
reveals, the vertebral columns following the
heads are separate for some distance (Plate I).

The movements of the snake were slow and
sluggish. When the animal was moving in a
particular direction, only one head used to lead

1,2,3,4,5 Cited in Whitaker, R. (1971): Notes on
Indian snakes-I. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68(2) :
461-463.

Zoology Department,

Karnatak Sc. College,

Dhar war-5 80 001,

Karnataka State, India,

November 29, 1983.

and the other used to trail. On disturbing the
snake and making it to change the direction,
the other head used to lead while the first one
trailed. The bifid tongue from each of the
mouths was seen quivering in and out of the
month. As we observed, the twin brains
smoothly co-operated and co-ordinated with
each other to make the animal feel “function-
ally single headed”.

This freak specimen may be regarded as an
instance of monstrosity. There are some reports
from countries other than India, on the double-
headed snakes such as rattle snake Crotalus
sp., the king snake Lampropeltis getulus (Fam:
Colubridae) and the garter snake Thamnophis
sp. From India such a feature has been obser-
ved in the snakes such as the wolf snake Ly -
codon aulicus1, Cobra Naja naja2, Russell’s
viper Vipera russellii 3 and Water snake Xeno-
chrophis piscatoE and in the water snake
Cerberus rhynchops 5 (Whitaker 1971). The
present report on the double-headed snake of
the genus Eryx is the first of its kind.

The specimen has been displayed in the
Museum of our Department. Sincere thanks are
due to Shri M. V. Waddin, Asst. Conservator
of Forests, Dharwar Division, Dharwar, for
readily donating this rare specimen to me for
study and preservation in the College Museum.

R. N. DESAI

483

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

19. PREDATION ON A SYMPATRIC SPECIES BY
HEMIDACTYLUS LESCHENAULTl (SAURIA: GEKKONID AE )

The tree gecko Hemidactylus leschenaulti is
sympatric with //. frenatus (the common house
gecko in south India) in houses in urban and
suburban areas. The former is the larger spe-
cies averaging 166 mm in total length (snout-
vent: 83 mm), the latter has a total length of
125 mm (snout-vent : 60 mm) (Smith 1935).
Both species are territorial, predominantly
nocturnal, feed primarily on insects and have
identical hiding place preferences. The incident
reported here occurred in a dimly lit room in
my house in Madras city. South India. Hiding
places for geckos in the 3 m square room are
few and restricted mainly to the 1 m long gap
behind the metal frame of the tubelighl in the
room. The gecko population in the room con-
sisted of one adult pair of H. leschenaulti.
H. frenatus although present in adjacent rooms
was conspicuously absent, no doubt due to the
presence of the larger tree gecko.

At 14.30 hours on 10th February, 1983 an
adult H. frenatus (HF) (sex unknown) was
seen moving away from the tubelight at a

Research Associate,

Madras Snake Park Trust,

Madras-600 022,

March 30, 1984.

distance of 1 metre. It was noticed also by
one of the resident H. leschenaulti (HL) ) from
its hiding place behind the tubelight resulting
in a short chase which ended about 2 metres
from the light, with HL seizing HF violently at
midbody, inflicting a deep wound. HF retaliated
by seizing the side of HL’s lower jaw. HL
then released its grip on HF’s midbody seizing
the head instead, and, after a brief pause,
commenced swallowing the faintly struggling
HF. HL then returned to its hiding place. The
entire sequence of events took approximately
4 minutes. It is suggested that HL is an aggres-
sive predator and opportunistic feeder and that
the gradual disappearance or decline in num-
bers of the smaller house geckos following the
colonisation of an area by HL may be a result
of predation (Whitaker, R. pers. comm, and
personal observations). The food habits of
H. leschenaulti is poorly documented and the
only other published account of this gecko
feeding on vertebrate prey is that of Sumi-
thran (1982).

SHEKAR DATTATRI

Referen ces

Smith, M. A. (1935): The Fauna of British India Sumitfiran, S. (1982): Gecko feeding on mouse,
including Ceylon and Burma, Reptilia and Amphi- J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc 79(3): 691.
bia, Vol. II, Sauria.

484

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

20. ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT OF THE
HIMALAYAN NEWT ( TYLOTOTR1TON VERRUCOSUS
ANDERSON) IN THE EASTERN NEPAL

{With a plate)

A detailed account of the Himalayan newt
belonging to the genus Tylototriton (Caudata:
Salmandroidea) was published by Anderson
(1871), which was based on a collection from
western Yunan. Annandale (1908) was the
first to record the breeding habit of the Hima-
layan newt. Smith (1924) described the tad-
poles and Chaudhari (1966) studied the habits
and behaviour.

Soman (1966) reported the newt from the
Dingla (Nepal) and made a brief comment on
the eastern distribution of the newt. Further,
Mansukhani et al. (1976) recorded the
newt from the Arunachal Pradesh of India.
Recently, the generic status of the Tylototriton
has been reviewed by Nussbaum and Brodie
(1982). The present find from various localities

Table 1

Measurement of Tylototriton verrucosus
Anderson

Total Length

137.0

170.0

200.0

166.0

130.0

Head Length

13.2

20.0

26.0

20.0

18.0

Width

15.2

20.0

21.6

19.0

16.0

Interorbital

8.0

9.0

10.0

8.0

Internasal

6.0

7.0

6.0

Orbit

4.0

3.0

Snout to
gular fold

15.0

21.0

22.0

20.0

17.0

Gular fold
to vent

43.5

70.0

75.0

52.0

Axilla to groin

33.6

50.0

55.0

40.0

32.6

Tail Length

65.0

85.0

95.0

82.0

81.0

Length of
forelimb

20.0

26.2

29.0

26.0

28.0

Length of
hindlimb

21.6

26.4

30.0

28.0

27.0

of eastern Nepal is of considerable significance
for it extends the known range of distribution
of the species further westward and throws
light on the ecology of the newt.

While studying the aquatic vertebrate fauna
of the rock pools along the hills of the eastern
Nepal, five examples of the Himalayan newt
of the genus Tylototriton measuring from 130
to 200 mm (Table 1) were collected and have
been identified as Tylototriton verrucosus.
There being no detailed previous record on
the Newt from eastern Nepal so far, the present
report on the urodel from different areas is
an attempt to provide information on the
distribution and habitat.

Material Examined 5 Examples. Chulachuli
hills, lat. 2 6°55', long. 87°55', 1900 m. Mai
river valley, lat. 26°55', long. 87°20', 1300 m.
Hilae Dhankuta, lat. 26°59', and long. 87°21'.
Maipokhari (Ham), lat. 26°55', long 87°54',
1300 m. One of the specimen has been de-
posited in the British Museum and rest are
deposited in the Zoological Museum, Tribhu-
van University, Kirtipur Campus.

Palatine series of teeth forming a A, commen-
cing on a line with, or a little in front of, the
choanae. Head somewhere broader than long,
surrounded by a distinct osseous porous ridge,
a short similar ridge along the parietals, snout
short, broad, eyes moderate, no labial lobes.
Body 3 to 3.5 times the length of the head, no
dorsal crest, but a broad prominent porous
vertebral ridge, produced by the great develop-
ment and transverse expansion of the neural
processes of the dorsal vertebrae a series of 15
or 16 knob-like porous glands along the side.

485

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

the last three behind the leg when it is extended
at right angles to the body. Limbs moderate,
fingers and toes free, depressed. Tail as long
as head lower crest, ending in a point. Anal
opening a longitudinal slit, the borders not
much swollen. Skin tubercular, parotoids large,
very distinct, a strong gular fold. Colour. Uni
form blackish brown, paler on the lips, snout,
chin, throat, and under surface of limbs, lower
of tail orange-yellow. (Body measurements are
given in the Table 1; Plate I).

The newt occurs in the upland pools of the
Chulachuli hills. As such the water quality of
the pools varies from time to time and some-
times becomes highly acidic (pH4 to 6) during
the late spring (April-May). The oxygen con-
centration varies from 5 to 10 ppm and tem-
perature ranges from 15° to 25 °C. During the
rainy season the newt inhabits shallow, recently
flooded rock pools, rice fields and boulder
strewn creeks flanking the course of the Mai
river and Rautae khola (hill stream). Lurking
in the crevices between large, partially sub-
merged boulders it shares its niche with typical
mountain brook hylid and rhacophorid frogs
as well as many a genera of the aquatic insects
such as Belostoma, Rantara, Perla and
Ephimtra and Anax. During the night the
newts leave their shelter and move about acti-
vely. They also wander far from the water
holes and water loaches. The newt is an ex-
cellent example of camouflage and concealment
and is rather difficult to locate in the pond as
it blends perfectly with water weeds. They are
encountered through rainy season but more
frequently in premonsoon rainy days (May
and June), which is appearently their breeding
season. The chief food of newt appears
to be zoo-benthos, mushrooms, aquatic
insects and tadpoles. The newts lead a terres-
trial life during the cold days of the winter and
lie sheltered under a decaying log or wood near

water. On two occasions I collected hibernat-
ing newts during the month of December. They
showed very little movement on handling.
There was no water hole near the hibernating
dens. During December the atmospheric tem-
perature ranges from 9° to 15°C. Probably the
newt emerges out of the hibernation dens after
the first rains in the spring and breeds in the
pools formed in the latter part of the spring
(April to May).

In Nepal the Himalayan newt is known as
Pani kukur (Water Dog) and long-ling (animal
with a long tail). The dried and smoked pre-
paration of newt is used by witch doctors as
a cure for typhoid and gastric ailments. Newts
are susceptible to water pollution and com-
plete ban of detergents should be made in newt
habitat. The Himalayan newt is on the verge
of extinction in Nepal and is scarcely avail-
able for detailed study.

The newt has been reported from various
places in Asia. For example, Anderson (1871)
recorded it from Yunan and China, Kakhein
hills of upper Burma, Chien Deo in Northern
Siam and Darjeeling, Sikkim. Smith (1924)
gives an idea of its past distribution in India.
According to him ‘ Tylototriton verrucosus is
common at certain places in Darjeeling district
at altitude 4000 to 6000 ft, but is very local.
I have been unable to obtain any evidence of
its occurrences west of the Tista river’. But
Soman (1966) reported the newt from the
Dingla district of Nepal (Lat. 27°22' and Long.
87°09') and furnished the proof of more
western distribution of the newt. My collection
from various areas of east-west Nepal reveals
that distribution of the newt is not so local
as it was believed previously. The newt
can be found far west of Tista in isolated
pockets of the Siwalik and Mahabharat hills
where humidity and temperature are favour-
able.

486

J. BOMBAY NAT. HlST. SOC. 81
Shrestha: Tylo to triton verrucosus

Plate I

Above: X-ray photograph of the Himalayan Newt. Note unbranched ribs and limb structures.
Below : Newt in the Natural habitat of Mai river valley. They avoid direct sunlight at the day time.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

The newt is still thriving well in the luxuriant
highland forests of Chulachuli hills, Mai valley
of far eastern Nepal. My find shows clearly
that a great deal lies unsurveyed in that com-
plex and in the unique highlands of Maha-
bharat and Siwalik hills of eastern Nepal. It
is appalling to witness the environmental degra-
dation in many of these highland aquatic eco-
systems that were once lush with green plants
and are now deforested, degraded and eroded
today. As a result, many of the newt’s breed-
ing pools have dried up, and their larvae are
stranded during the dry season. Those breed-
ing pools that are wet and moist are polluted
by DDT and agricultural insecticides. If such

Department of Zoology,

Kirtipur Campus,

Tribhuvan University,

Nepal,

January 22, 1984.

activities are unchecked there will be no ecolo-
gical stability for the newt. The Himalayan
newt from its intrinsic scientific, academic and
educational interest, requires that its wetland
habitat within the higher hills need to be
protected for its continued survival.

Acknowledgements

I thank to Miss A.G.C. Grandison, Curator,
Herpetology, British museum for providing me
literature. Also I am grateful to Ors. Nauss-
baum and Brodie, University of Michigan and
Aldephi University respectively for their advice
and help.

TEJ KUMAR SHRESTHA

References

Anderson, J. (1871) : Description of a new species
newt from western Yunan. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.
423-425.

Annandale, N. (1908): Breeding habits of Tylo-
totriton verrucosus. Rec. Ind. Mus. 2: pp. 305-306.

Boulenger, G. A. (1980) : The fauna of British,
India, Reptilia and Batrachia, pp. 513-514. Fig. 141.

Chaudhuri, S. K. (1966): Studies on Tylototri-
ton verrucosus (Himalayan Newt), found in Dar-
jeeling, /. Beng. nat. Hist. Soc. 35 : 32-36.

Mansukhani, M. R., Julka, J. M. & Sarkar, A.
K. (1976): On occurrence of Himalayan Newt

Tylototriton verrucosus Anderson, from Anmachal
Pradesh, India. News Letter Zool. Surv. India 2(6) :
243-245.

Nussbaum, R. A. & Brodie, D. (1982): Parti-
tioning of the Salamandrid genus Tylototriton

Anderson (Amphibia Caudata) with a discretion of
a new genus. Herpetologica 38(2) : 320-332.

Shrestha, T. K. (1980): Wildlife of Nepal.

Curriculum Development Centre, Tribhuvan Univer-
sity, Kathmandu, pp. 444.

(1982) : Rare Species of Newt found

Near Damak. Rising Nepal, July 12.

Smith, M. A. (1924) : The Tadpole of Tyloto-
triton varrucosiis Anderson. Rec. Ind. Mus. 26 :
309-310.

Soman, P. W. (1966) : An Addition to Amphi-
bia of Nepal and an extension of the range of the
Indian Newt Tylototrition verrucosus. Sci. Cult.
(Calcutta) 32: 427-428.

Zoological Survey oe India. In Saharia’s (ed.)
Wildlife in India. Natraj Publishers. Dehradun,
urv. of India. 3( 1&2) : 97-101.

487

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

21. DISTRIBUTION OF BUFO CAMORTENS1S MANSUKHANI &
SARKAR IN THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS

In 1976 Mr Humayun Abdulali obtained
some toads on Camorta Island, Central Nico-
bar s. As they appeared different in structure
and habit from Bujo mdanostictus he left them
at the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta
on his way back to Bombay.

They have been included as paratypes of a
new species Bufo camortensis based on earlier
specimens obtained by Dr A. G. K. Menon
of ZSI at Camorta and Nancowry by Dr
(Mrs) M. R. Mansukhani and A. K. Sarkar
(1980). Except for paratypes from Camorta
and Nancowry, (both in Central Nicobars)
there is no reference to the species being found
anywhere else.

An examination of the Bombay collection,
has revealed earlier specimens of this species
obtained by Mr Abdulali at Wright Myo in
South Andaman (9th Feb. 1964) and Great

Research Assistant,

Herpetology Section,

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House,

Bombay 400 023,

February 15, 1984.

Nicobars (27th February and 3rd March 1966)
which have remained listed as Bufo melano-
stictus. This re-examination reveals that this
toad apparently extends throughout the length
of the Andaman and Nicobar islands.

It is also interesting to note that a specimen
of Bufo melanostictus was also obtained at
Port Blair, South Andaman on the same day
(9th February 1984) as Bufo camortensis and
that these two species are not geographically
isolated. It is of course possible that they
occupy different habitats for though the mode
of progression appeared different (Abdulali
1982), no different habitat was recorded.

To assure that there is no error in the label-
ling, inquiry at the ZSI reveals that they have
specimens of Bufo melanostictus from the
Andamans.

A. G. SEKAR

References

Abdulali, Humayun (1982) : Some field notes on a new species of Toad (Anura: Bufonidae) from

the newly described Toad, Bufo camortensis Man- Camorta, Andaman and Nicobar, India. Bull. Zool.

sukhani & Sarkar. J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 79: 430. Surv. of India. 3(1&2): 97-101.

Mansukhani, M. R. & Sarkar, A. K. (1980) : On

22. THE OCCURRENCE OF THE MARBLED BALOON FROG
UPERODON SYSTOMA (SCHNEIDER) (FAMILY
MICROH YLID AE ) IN BARODA (GUJARAT STATE)

A specimen of this microhylid frog was River Vishwamitri passing through the Uni-
collected from a dried out tributary of the versity of Baroda campus. The coloration is

488

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

pinkish above, marbled and spotted with
brown spots. Ventrally it is pale, pinkish or
yellowish white.

The presence of Uperodon sy stoma in

Gujarat is being recorded for the first time
with my finding a specimen of this species
from Baroda.

Department of Zoology, Y. M. NAIK

Faculty of Science,

The M. S. University of Baroda,

Baroda-2,

March 1, 1984.

23. SOME ECOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS LEADING TO A NEW
SOURCE OF SEED OF THE FRESHWATER PRAWN
MACROBRACHIUM ROSENBERGII (DE MAN) IN

MAHARASHTRA

(With two text-figures & a map)

The freshwater prawns Macrobrachium
rosenbergii and M. malcolmsonii constitute the
jumbo prawns in India, being larger than even
the largest marine prawns. As such, they are
in great demand as an item of food and fetch
a high price. In nature, innumerable young
ones of these prawns perish due to unfavour-
able environment and predation. Survival of
these young by collection and transplanting
into suitable stretches of water is one step
towards their conservation and fuller utilisa-
tion of the valuable natural resource.

A peculiar habit of these “freshwater”
prawns is their requirement of sodium chloride
(dilute saline water) during early stages in
their life cycle. Thus, even Macrobrachium
malcolmsonii (H. Milne-Ed wards) which is
found in Nanded, Chandrapur and Bhandara
districts of Maharashtra, hundreds of kilo-
metres upstream of the mouth of the river
Godavari (Rajyalaxmi 1960, Ibrahim 1962),
cannot reproduce successfully unless they en-
counter brackish water for their crucial larval
stages. Once this larval development has been

successfully accomplished, the young crawl
laboriously upstream until they reach the fresh
waters where their parents had resided. This
upstream migration forms the basis of a regu-
lar prawn fishery on the River Godavari.
Collection of tiny prawnlets in astronomical
numbers below the anicuts like Dhavaleswaram
and others and their age-old use as food is a
colossal waste of our natural resources as the
prawnlets, if allowed to grow to adult size,
would yield much greater returns. Similar is
the case of M. rosenbergii which occurs more
predominently on the west coast of India,
where the rivers being of shorter length, the
prawn spends longer time in the estuarine eco-
system though its urge to go upstream remains
unabated, as described hereafter. Moreover,
collection of seed of M. rosenbergii from natu-
ral environment has not been reported so far.

Although both these prawns have been suc-
cessfully bred and reared in the laboratory
(Ling 1969, Kewalramani et al. 1971), pro-
curement of prawn seed in large numbers still
necessitates collection of the natural seed.

489

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

490

Map. 1. Showing location into the river Bhatsa on which seed of Macrobrachium

rosenbergii is collected below the Pise Dam

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Attempts are, therefore, being made all over
India to survey water stretches to assess the
availability of prawn seed. In the Thane dis-
trict of Maharashtra, a potential source of
seed of M. rosenbergii has been found just
below the Pise Dam. The dam was constructed
in 1979 by the Bombay Municipal Corporation
as an anicut or a pick-up weir into which
flows the water coming from the Bhatsa Dam,
the Bhatsa river being a tributary of the Ulhas
river which empties into the Arabian Sea at
Bassein. (Map 1).

Towards the end of the rainy season, i.e. in

September and October, post-larval young of
this prawn, varying in length from 30-50 mm,
abound in the stream below the dam. At this
stage they develop a natural instinct to avoid
estuarine environment and prefer ascent into
fresh water. During the spring tides when the
tidal flow is strong, wide range of fluctuation
in salinity was observed below the anicut,
ranging from 1 ppt to 15 ppt. The water tem-
perature too varies from 25°C to 29°C depend-
ing upon the tidal influx. The pH recorded
at the time of observation was 7 . 5. The
brackish water caused by the incoming tidal

Fig. 1. Collection of Macrobrachium rosenbergii.

491

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

influx forces the young fry to go away from
the changing environment and on approaching
the anicut, to move in rows, negotiating the
freshwater flow over the indented rocky edges
while advancing. In some cases where their
desparate bid to advance is foiled by the
current, they crawl up on the wet side-rocks in
thousands and cover the stones entirely. This
movement is more pronounced during night
and in the light of an electric torch, their eyes
glow in the dark and make a spectacular sight.
On other days when the quantity of tidal water
entering the river is less the number of young
prawns approaching the anicut is also small.

Attempts to capture the young prawns were
first made in 1981, and in the preliminary
attempt very few young could be caught. How-
ever, when the net was modified (Fig. 1)
thousands of them literally rushed into the col-
lecting net in a moving stream. The net was
a monofilament rectangular piece, 2x1 metres,
with two long bamboo poles at the extremities.
The net is held by two persons who walk
downstream below the dam. In the right season
and time, as many as 50,000 young could be
collected in half an hour. Concentration of
such large numbers in a restricted stretch of
water is attributed to the reluctance of the
young to move through brackish water brought
in by the rising tide. The young congregate
near the dam in the fresh water, waiting for
the ebb tide to take away the brakish water
downstream when they could spread them-
selves into the fresh water. Collections have
been repeated in subsequent years, and in the
proper season have always yielded excellent
catches.

The local tribal fishermen were aware of

this migration and they used to trap the
young prawns in cylindrical bamboo trap nets
fixed in the stream with their mouth facing
the current (Fig. 2). The fishermen used to
catch the prawns for their own consumption
or sell them in the market at a rupee for two

Fig. 2. The bamboo trap net used by the
local fishermen.

handfuls of the prawns, i.e. some 4000-5000
prawns. However, when the collection was
made systematically and the prawnlets were
kept alive for prawn culture, the tribal fisher-
men were also benefitted as thev received a

more lucrative return and the prawn rearing
occupation too received a significant boost.

I am grateful to Shri A. G. Kalawar, former
Director of Fisheries & Fisheries Adviser to
the Government of Maharashtra, Shri S. S.
Naik, Director of Fisheries, Maharashtra
State, and Shri S. S. Desai, Deputy Director
of Fisheries (Marine), for their encourage-
ment and guidance during the collections as
well as the preparation of this Note. I am
thankful to Dr. B. F. Chhapgar, Scientific
Officer, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, for
associating himself with this work from the
beginning and for giving constant encourage-
ment and help. I am also thankful to my
colleagues Sarvashri V. M. Sawant & T. D.
Mahadik.

492

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Department of Fisheries, J. N. PANDE

Taraporevala Aquarium,

Bombay 400 002,

May 11, 1984.

References

Ibrahim, K. H. (1962) : Observations on the

fishery and biology of the freshwater prawn
Macrobrachium malcolmsonii Milne-Edwards of
River Godavari. Ind. J. Fish. (A) 9(2) : 433-467.

Kewalramani, H. G., Sankolli, K. N. & Shenoy,
S. S. (1971): On the larval history of Macrobra-
chium malcolmsonii (H. Milne-Edwards) in capti-
vity. J. Ind. Fish Ass. 7(1) : 1-25.

Ling, S. W. (1969a): Methods of rearing and
culturing Macrobrachium rosenbergii (de Man). FAO
Fish. Rept. (44) 3: 291-309.

(1969b) : The general biology and

development of Macrobrachium rosenbergii (de
Man), ibid.: 589-606.

Rajlakshmi, T. (1960) : Observations on the em-
bryonic and larval development of some estuarine
palaemonid prawns. Proc. nat. Inst. Sci. India 26
B(6): 395-408.

(1961) : Studies on maturation

and breeding in some estuarine palaemonid prawns,
ibid. 27B(4) : 179-188.

24. A NOTE ON SPECIES NAMED LYCAENA P AVAN A
(LEPIDOPTERA: LYCAENIDAE)

Wynter-Blyth (1957: 301) has given the
distribution of a lycaenid butterfly Lycaena
pavana Horsfield as Kashmir to Kumaon. This
is partially incorrect. There are in reality two
separate species, which have been named
‘ Lycaena pavana at different periods of time.

Horsfield (1828: 77) described a small
butterfly from Java and named it Lycaena
pavana. It has a 26-28 mm wing span. Sub-
sequently, it was recorded from Tavoy, S.
Burma and Andamans, with ‘not rare’ status
(Evans 1932). This species was brought under
the genus Nacaduba by Wood-Mason & de
Niceville in 1886 and referred to as such in the
3rd vol. of BUTTERFLIES OF INDIA, BURMA &
ceylon (de Niceville 1890: 145). Later, Cor-
bet (1938) described a new subspecies of it
from Singapore, and this Nacaduba pavana
singapura is now considered the subspecies
found in Assam, Burma, Andamans and
Malaya (Cantlie 1962: 75). This species has
been recently placed in the subgenus Rapsidia
by Sibatani (1974: 109), though he wrongly

gave Evans as the author of the species.

Kollar (1948: 416) in Huegel described
another lycaenid butterfly as Polyommatus
pavana from the Western Himalayas. It was
published in Huegel’s series, in German, on
“Kashmir” Part 2 of vol. 4 meant for 1844 and
appeared in 1848. This species of Kollar was
transferred to genus Chrysophanus by Hors-
field & Moore in 1857 and referred to as such
by de Niceville (1890: 317). This butterfly
is a little larger than the pavana of Elorsfield,
its wing span being 37-40 mm, and its range
of occurrence is recorded in literature as from
Kashmir to Kumaon where it is ‘common’ in
status. Since as early as 1871 Kirby,
brought this species into the genus Lycaena,
both Evans (1932) and Cantlie (1962) have
cited it as Lycaena pavana.

Thus, what was initially called Lycaena
pavana is now a species of Nacaduba, and
what was initially Polyommatus pavana is now
referred to as Lycaena pavana, in well-known
works on Indian butterflies.

493

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

However, on further study it was revealed
that Kollar misidentified his new species as
pavana of Horsfield, with the result that his
new species had no valid name of its own.
In 1852, Westwood gave it a new name as
Thecla panava (note ‘nava’ in the place of
‘vana’). Thus, as per nomenclature rules,
Westwood’s epithet is the oldest available name
applied to this species and accordingly it is
its valid name, now under Lycaena.

To conclude, at least during 1871 to 1886
there were two different species having the
same name — Lycaena pavana. But presently
both species are not called Lycaena pavana,
as shown below. Besides it is evident that
Lycaena pavana of Horsfield does not occur
from Kashmir to Kumaon.

The two species may be briefly separated
as follows (character details may be seen in
Cantlie, 1962):

Zoological Survey of India,

34, Chittaranjan Avenue,

Calcutta 700 012,

July 7, 1984.

R E FE 1

Cantlie, K. (1962): The Lycaenidae portion (ex-
cept the Arhopala Group) of Brigadier Evans’ The
Identification of Indian Butterflies, 1932 (India,
Pakistan, Ceylon, Burma). Revised & Reissued.
Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Corbet, A. S. (1938) : A revision of the Malayan
species of the Nacaduba group of genera (Lepidop-
tera: Lycaenidae). Trans. R. cnt. Soc. Lend. 87(5):
125-146.

de Niceville, L. (1890) : The Butterflies of India,
Burmah and Ceylon. Vol 3. Calcutta Central Press

1 Present address: Deputy Director, Desert Re-
gional Station, Paota ‘B’ Road, Jodhpur- 342 006,
Rajasthan.

White bordered; prominent white band on under-
side of hindwing; female having basal half wing
dark brown; Forewing length from base to apex
18.5-20 mm Range — Kashmir to Kumaon,
Nainital, Almora, Nepal [and Garhwal: new
record]; Common name — ‘White — bordered

Copper’ Lycaena panava (Westwood)

Comparatively smaller specimens with pale violet
blue wings; underside markings broad and all
bands white; forewing length from base to apex
13-14 mm. Range — Java, Singapore, Burma,
Sikkim, Bhutan, Assam and Andaman Is. Com-
mon name — ‘Small Four Lineblue’

Nacaduba pavana (Horsfield)

ACK NOWLEDGEM E NTS

Thanks are due to the Director, Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta, for providing faci-
lities, and to Dr R. V. Melville Secretary,
International Commission on Zoological
Nomenclature, London, for his kind com-
ments.

R. K. VARSHNEY1

E N CE S

Co. Ltd.

Evans, W. H. (1932): The Identification of In-
dian Butterflies. 2nd revised ed. Bombay Natural
History Society.

Horsfield, T. (1828) : A descriptive catalogue of
the Lepidopterous insects contained in the museum
of the Honourable East India Company. Part 1 :

80 pp.

Kollar, V. (1848) : In Huegel’s “Kaschmir und
das Reich der Siek”. Vol. 4(2) (1844) : 395-496, pis.

Sibatani, A. (1974): A new genus for two new
species of Lycaeninae (s. str.) (Lepidoptera : Lycae-
nidae) from Papua New Guinea. J. Austr. ent. Soc.
13(2): 95-110.

Wynter-Blyth, M. A. (1957): Butterflies of the
Indian region. Bombay Natural History Society.

494

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

25 . CORRECT NAME OF THE RED-BASE JEZEBEL BUTTERFLY

(LEPIDOPTERA: PIERIDAE)

The Red-base Jezebel butterfly is presently
known as Delias aglaia (Linn.) and named as
such in the well-known works of Evans (1932),
Talbot (1939) and Wynter-Blyth (1957). I too
noted it as D. aglaia while recording it for the
first time from Indian mainland (Varshney &
Nandi 1973). Unfortunately, the name aglaid
has turned out to be an incorrect one and
even invalid in this case.

A perusal of the original work systema
naturae, 10th ed. by Linnaeus (1758) show-
ed that this butterfly was named as “Papilio
agalaja ’ as SI. No. 44 on page 465. Hence
“aglaja” is incorrect (spelling), which inciden-
tally Corbet & Pendlebury (1956) corrected.

Linnaeus however, in the same work has
named another nymphalid butterfly also as
“Papilio aglaja ’ at SI. No. 140 on page 481.
Thus, although strange, Linnaeus the father
of Zoological Nomencalture, himself has com-
mitted primary homonymy ! He has definitely
considered these two species separate, while
giving their different characters and placing the
first in ‘Papilio, Eques’ Group, and the second
in ‘Papilio, Nymphalis’ Group. At present the
first Group is recognized as Family Pieridae
and the second Group as Family Nymphalidae.

There is no such thing as a rule of ‘page

Zoological Survey of India,

34, Chittaranjan Avenue,

Calcutta 700 012,

February 14, 1984.

Refef

Corbet, A. S. & Pendlebury, H. M. (1956): The
Butterflies of the Malay Peninsula. 2nd revised ed.
Oliver & Boyd, London.

1 Present address : Deputy Director, Desert Re-
gional Station, Paota ‘B’ Road, Jodhpur- 342 006,
Rajasthan.

priority’ in Zoological Nomenclature. The
choice between two names published simul-
taneously is made, not according to their rela-
tive positions in the work, but by the first
reviser, since the whole of one volume is con-
sidered published at the same time. In this
case Linnaeus himself acted as the first re-
viser. In, the 12th edition of Systema Naturae
(Linnaeus 1767) he has retained “ aglaja ”
name for the nymphalid species, and replaced
it with “pasithoe" for the pierid species.

The International Commission of Zoological
Nomenclature have approved these changes,
vide their Opinion No. 974, in 1971. Hence,
pierid Red-base Jezebel butterfly should now
be called as Delias pasithoe (Linn.).

In my revised nomenclature lists for Wynter-
Blyth’s book (Varshney 1980), an addition
should be made in Table 5 as follows: “SI.
No. la; page 418; For Delias aglaia (Linn.),
read Delias pasithoe (Linn.)”.

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. R. V. Melville, Secretary, Inter-
national Commission on Zoological Nomen-
clature, London, for comments, and the Direc-
tor, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta for

providing facilities.

R. K. VARSHNEY1

E N C E S

Evans, W. H. (1932) : The identification of
Indian Butterflies. 2nd revised ed. Bombay Natural
History Society.

Linnaeus, C. (1758) : Systema Naturae. 10th ed.
Holmiae, 1 : 824 pp.

(1767) rSystema Naturae. 12th ed.,

1(2) : 533-1068.

495

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Talbot, G. (1939) : The fauna of British India
including Ceylon and Burma butterflies. 2nd ed.
1 : 600 pp., 3 pis. Taylor & Francis, London.

Varshney, R. K. (1980): Revised nomenclature
for taxa in Wynter-Blyth's book on the butterflies
of the Indian region. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76
(1) (1979): 33-40.

Varshney, R. K. & Nandi, B. (1973): Delias
aglaia aglaia (Linn.) from Indian mainland, ibid.
69 (3) (1971) : 667-668.

Wynter-Blyth, M. A. (1957) : Butterflies of the
Indian region. Bombay Natural History Society,
Bombay.

26. CASSIA S1AMEA LAMK.— A NEW EIOST PLANT FOR THE
CASTOR SLUG CATERPILLAR, PARAS A LEPIDA
(COCHLIDIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA)

Vasanthraj David and Kumarswami (1978)
noted Parasa lepida as a polyphagous pest feed-
ing on castor, coconut, pomegranate, mango,
palmyrah, citrus and wood apple. During the
months of August-September 1982 the larvae
of this pest were found attacking the leaves
of Cassia siamea a very common avenue tree.
The early instar caterpillars scraped the chloro-
phyll content resulting in skeletonization of the
leaves whereas the later instars fed on the
leaves acting as a severe defoliator. The larvae
fed both from the centre as well as from the
margins. However, the majority of the larvae

fed from the margins. The number of larvae
per leaflet varied from 2 to 3. A few larvae
were collected from the trees and reared in
rearing cage by providing the leaves as food
material. All the larvae completed their life
cycle without any deformity. The full grown
larvae pupated in a hemispherical, oval, dark
brown cocoon which was surrounded by loose-
ly wooven-silk webbing. Under field conditions
pupation was observed on the branch or bark
of the tree. Parasa lepida could be a serious
pest on Cassia siamea.

Department of Entomology, R. RAJASHEKHARGOUDA

College of Agriculture, M. C. DEVAIAH

Dharwad,

January 24, 1984.

Reference

Vasanteiaraj David, B. & Kumarswami, T.

(1978) : Elements of Economic Entomology. Popular
Book Depot, Madras 514.

27. ADDITIONS TO THE TERMITE FAUNA OF THE THAR

DESERT

The Great Indian Desert, also known as the
Thar Desert, comprises a huge area of c. 44,600
sq. km in Western India and Pakistan. It forms
the eastern extremity of the Great Palaearctic
Desert which extends from North Africa, via

496

Palestine, Arabia and Iran, to northwestern
India. The major portion of the Indian arid
region of Thar is contained in Rajasthan
(62%), followed by Gujarat (20%), Punjab
(5%) and Haryana (4%). Termites from the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Rajasthan portion of the Thar Desert were
studied in considerable detail by a number of
workers, as reviewed by Roonwal (1982). As
many as 27 species have been recorded from
this region (Roonwal 1976). But there is no
published information available on the Gujarat,
Punjab and Haryana portions of the Thar
Desert.

Termite fauna of Gujarat State were worked
out comprehensively (Thakur 1982) and 46
species were recorded. Out of these, as many
as 27 species have been recorded from the
arid and semi-arid areas of Gujarat, of v/hich
11 are additions to the termite fauna of Thar
Desert. This considerable increase in the ter-
mite fauna of this region has brought out the
fact that even an arid area like the Great
Indian Desert can sustain a great variety of
termites, which shows the great resistance of
termites to arid climates.

Zoological Survey of India,

Desert Regional Station,

Jodhpur,

July 27, 1983.

Refer

Roonwal, M. L. (1976) : Field ecology and eco-
biogeography of Rajasthan Termites: A study in
Desert Environment. Zool. Jahrab. ( Syst .), Berlin,
103 : 455-504.

(1982) : Fauna of the Great

Indian Desert. In Desert Resources and Technology.

Termites hitherto unrecorded in gujarat

PORTION OF THE TFIAR DESERT

Family TERMITIDAE
Subfamily Termxtinae

Eremotermes fletcherl Holmgren and Holmgren
Microcerotermes cameroni Snyder
Microcerotermes Iieimi Wasmann

Subfamily Macrotermitinae

Odontotermes assmuthi Holmgren
Odontotermes beilahimisensis Holmgren &
Holmgren

Odontotermes girnarensis Thakur
Odontotermes lokanandi Chatterjee & Thakur
Odontotermes paralatiguloides Thakur
Odontotermes redemanni (Wasmann)
Odontotermes sasangirensis Thakur
Odontotermes waSIonensis (Wasmann)

R. K. THAKUR

ENCES

Vol. 1 : 1-86. Ed. Alam Singh. Jodhpur Scientific

Publishers.

Thakur, R. K. (1982) : Studies on the termite
fauna (Xnsecta: Isoptera) of Gujarat, India. Ph.D.
Thesis, Univ. Jodhpur, Jodhpur.

28. FURTHER RECORDS OF OCCURRENCE AND INCIDENCE
OF DAMAGE BY TERMITES OF THE GENUS CRYPTOTERMES
BANKS IN INDIA (ISOPTERA: KALOTERMITIDAE)

Introduction wood termites which are popularly known as

“ powder post termites”. These are essentially
The genus Cryptotermes includes one of the coastal termites, except for records of some
most economically important groups of dry- species further inland in native habitats (Emer-

497

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

son 1952, Chhotani 1963). The genus is gene-
rally tropicopolitan in distribution, approxi-
mately between 33° North latitude to 35°
South latitude with the exception of a few
species which occur in the warmer temperate
regions, as far north as California and Wash-
ington D. C. in United States and England in
Europe (Chhotani 1970). These are probably
cases of accidental introductions. Within their
range of distribution, these termites attack
dead and dry portions of living trees in nature
(native species) and woodworks in buildings,
household furniture and other wooden struc-
tures (introduced species). The genus is repre-
sented by six species in the Indian region. Of
these, C. bengalensis, C. karachiensis and C.
roonwali are native species, while the remain-
ing three, C. domesticus, C. dudleyi and C.
havilandi, are introduced species, occurring in
the Andaman and Nicobar islands (C. havi-
landi) and along the coastal regions of the
Indian subcontinent (C. domesticus and C.
dudleyi). This paper gives an account of
further records of occurrence and incidence of
damage by the above two introduced species
in India.

Cryptotermcs domesticus (Haviland)

Gay (1970) opines that the centre of origin
of this species is probably the coastal regions
of associated islands of South-East Asia. The
only known record of its occurrence in ex-
clusively wild habitat is from Botal Tabago
Islands off the coast of Formosa (Hozawa
1915, Gay 1970), from where it appears to
have dispersed to other localities through in-
troduction and is now very widely distributed
in Neotropical, Oriental and Papuan regions.
In the Oriental region, it has been recorded
from Andales (Sumatra), Taiwan, India,
Japan, Java, Kalimantan (Borneo), Singapore,
Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam (Chhotani
1970, Sen-Sarma et at. 1975, Thakur 1980).

Recently during the course of a survey in
Kerala, the species was recorded as common
at Kovalam beach (c. 20 km south from
Trivandrum) and from a wooden pole at
Kesavadasapuram (c. 10 km from Trivan-
drum).

Table 1

Body measurements (in mm) of five imago of
Cryptotermcs domesticus (Haviland) from
Kovalam Beaci-i, Trivandrum

SI.

No.

Body parts

Range

Mean

Caste - Imago

Total body-length

with wings

c. 8.50-9.20

9.00

Total body-length

without wings

c. 5.40-6.30

5.80

Head - length to tip

of labrum

1.20-1.30

1.26

Head - length to base

of mandibles

0.85-1.00

0.93

Maximum width of head

(with eyes)

0.85-1.00

0.95

Maximum height of head 0.60-0.65

0.63

Maximum diameter of

eye

(with ocular selerites)

0.30-0.35

0.33

Maximum diameter of

lateral ocellus

0.08-0.13

0.10

Minimum diameter of

lateral ocellus

0.05-0.09

0.07

10.

Minimum ocellus -

antennal distance

0.15-0.20

0.18

11.

Maximum length of

pronctum

0.55-0.60

0.58

12.

Maximum width of

pronotum

0.95-1.05

1.03

This species appears to have established it-
self in Singapore and Sarawak during the fag
end of the nineteenth century and where it is
now confined primarily to buildings, dry,
seasoned timber, furniture and other fibrous
products. In Vietnam, it has been reported

498

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

to cause considerable damage to wooden fur-
niture and constructional timber (Gay 1967).
In India, it was recorded earlier from wooden
boat model of Mangifera indica, fence posts
and timber godowns. It has now been collect-
ed from the base of dead blown down trees
of coconut (Cocos nucifera), timber of old
abandoned boats and a pole of a varandah in
a house.

Individual colonies of Cryptotermes domes-
ticus are usually small, not exceeding possi-
bly 250-350 individuals. However, one of the
colonies excavated at Kovalam was quite large
and contained more than a thousand indivi-
duals. It had eaten away a large section of the
interior of the infested materials, leaving only
the outer rind. Faecal pellets accumulated in
the chambers and the galleries had been
pushed out through the exit holes at in-
tervals. The faecal pellets piled up at the base
in small heaps were conspicuous evidence of
infestation. The shape of faecal pellets is cylin-
drical with rounded bulged out lateral faces.
The surface is pentagonal, with five pit like
depression and size varies from, 0.7-0. 8 mm

length; 0.4-0. 5 mm width. The colour is dirty
brown.

The swarming period varies with locality
and occurs during the greater part of the year
from April to November. From Kesavadasa-
puram, the alates were collected in May, emerg-
ing from a pole at ground level, while at
Kovalam beach, fully matured adults were col-
lected along with soldiers and pseudoworkers
in the last week of November.

Cryptotermes dudleyi Banks

Cryptotermes dudleyi is a very widely distri-
buted species in Australian, Ethiopian, Neo-
tropical, Oriental and Papuan regions. How-
ever, clear evidence of its centre of origin
and subsequent dispersion remains obscure. In
the Oriental region, it has been recorded from
East Andalas (Sumatra), Bangladesh, Java,
India, South-East Kalimantan (Borneo),
Malaya, the Philippines and Sri Lanka. From
India, it has been reported from the Andaman
Islands, union territory of Daman and Goa,
Kerala (Cannanore), Orissa and West Ben-
gal. Recently, it has been collected from Aryad
village, about five km north of Alleppey town

Table 2

Body measurements (in mm) of soldiers of two
SPECIES OF Cryptotermes banks

C. domesticus C. dudleyi Banks

SI. No. Body parts (Haviland)

Range Mean

I-General

( 5-examples )

(1 -example)

1 . Total body-length

c. 5.95-6.40

6.23

5.30

11-Head

' - - ' ' ■ -c '

2. Head-length with mandibles

1.85-1.90

1.88

2.20

3. Head-length to lateral base

of mandibles

1.28-1.40

1.35

1.55

4. Maximum width of head

1.30-1.40

1.37

1.30

5. Maximum height of head

0.98-1.08

1.03

6. Maximum length of pronotum

0.80-0.95

0.87

0.80

7. Maximum width of pronotum

1.28-1.35

1.33

1.18

499

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 81

(c. 9°30' N., 76°23' E.) on a piece of land,
separating Arabian sea and Vembanad back-
water lake. It is about eight kilometres from
the sea coast. This is a new distribution record.

In India, it is also an introduced species
and is restricted to coastal regions, where it
is a serious pest, damaging and destroying all
types of wooden structures in buildings. At
Aryad, it was recorded from roof rafters of
an old house. The locality is densely popu-
lated and thatched huts with wooden roofs
are very common. More than 50% rafters were
found attacked, being completely riddled with
chambers and galleries. The chambers are
interconnected by an irregular net work of
galleries. The chambers were found packed
with faecal pellets. The faecal pellets are

Disease-Insect Survey,

Forest Research Centre,

Coimbatore, South India,

December 31, 1983.

Refer

Chhotani, O. B. (1963): The termite Cryptoter-
mes havilandi (Sjostedt) from the interior of India.

/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60: 277-78.

(1970): Taxonomy, Zoogeogra-
phy and Phylogeny of genus Cryptotermes (Isop-
tera : Kalotermitidae) from the Oriental Region.

Mem. Zool. Surv. India., Calcutta., 75(1) : 1-81.

Emerson, A. E. (1952): The biogeography of
termites. Bull. Amer. Mus. nat. Hist., New York, 99
(Art. 3): 217-225.

Gay, F. (1967) : A world review of introduced
species of termites. — Bull. Commonwealth Sci. In-
dustr. Res. Organ., Melbourne, 286: 1-88.

(1970) : Species introduced by man. In

somewhat oblong in shape, slightly tapering to
one side. The colour is usually transparent
brown to opaquish grey. However, the colour
varies according to texture of the host timber.
The size of pellets varies from, 0.6-0. 8 mm
long; 0.3 -0.5 mm wide. The smaller pellets
are either smooth or with faint depression,
whereas the larger pellets are similar to that
those of C. domesticus.

Remarks

Though the measurements of alates of C.
domesticus from Kovalam beach, Trivandrum,
come within the range (as given by Chhotani
1970), the soldiers are distinctly larger in size,
as is evident from the measurements given
in Table No. 2.

M. L. THAKUR

E N C E S

Biology of termites Vol. II : 459-494. Ed. Krishna
& Weesner (Akademic Press, New York).

Hozawa, S. (1915): Revision of Japanese ter-
mites. J. Coll. Sci. Imp. Uni., Tokyo 35 : 1-61.

Sen-Sarma, P. K., Thakur, M. L., Misra, S. C.
& Gupta, B. K. (1975) : Studies on wood-destroying
termites in relation to natural termite resistance of
wood. Final Tech. Rept. PL 480 Project A-7-58
(1968-73), Dehra Dun: 1-187.

Thakur, M. L. (1980): Bioecology and Zoogeo-
graphy of termite Genus Cryptotermes (Isoptera :
Kalotermitidae) in the Indian Region. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 76(1) : 106-114.

500

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

29. A SPIDER AS PREDATOR OF LAMPIDES BOETICUS
(LINNAEUS) (LEPIDOPTERA : LYCAENIDAE) FROM PUNJAB,

INDIA

Pea blue butterfly, Lampides boeticus
(Linnaeus) a polyphagous pest primarily of
leguminous crops has been reported infesting
42 host plants (Singh 1982). A wasp, Eumenes
gracilis Rauss as predator, Microbracon greeni
Ashm. as larval parasite, Trichogramma minu-
tum, Trichogramma dendrolini, Trichogramma -
toidea guamensis as egg parasites have already
been recorded as natural enemies of this butter-
fly (Alfieri 1916, Sen 1938, Sweez 1906,
Nagarkatti and Nagaraja 1975).

The yellow nymphs of two spider species
namely Thomisus shivajiensis Tikader (Thomi-
sidae) and Clubiona abboti Koch (Clubio-
nidae) were recorded feeding on the adults

Department of Entomology,

Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana 141 004,

August 8, 1983.

of Lampides boeticus in the pigeon pea fields
around Ludhiana (Punjab). In the laboratory
the butterflies were trapped in spider webs and
killed immediately by sucking their internal
body contents. The spiders never fed on the
dead butterflies. It was observed that a spider
took 49. 60 ±6. 74 minutes to devour an adult.

Ack no wledge m e n ts

We are grateful to the Prof.-cum-Head,
Department of Entomology for facilities and
Dr. G. L. Sadana, Assistant Professor, Depart-
ment of Zoology, Punjab Agricultural Univer-
sity, Ludhiana for the identification of the
spider species.

JAGTAR SINGH
G. S. MAVI

References

Alfieri, H. A. (1916) : Insect enemies of Sesbania
aegyptiaca Pers. Bull. Soc. ento. d. Egypte Cairo
Part I: 22-24.

Nagarkatti, S. & Nagaraja, H. (1975) : Biosyste-
matics of Trichogramma and Trichogrammatoidea
species. A Rev. Ent. 22: 157-76.

Sen, H. K. (1938) : Entomological Section: Rep.
Indian Lac Res. Inst. Namkum Calcutta, 1937-38:
16-26.

Singh, J. (1982) : Biology and Chemical Control
of Blue butterfly, Cosmolyce ( Lampides ) boetica
Linn. (Lepidoptera : Lycaenidae) on pea ( Pisum
sativum Linn.). Unpubl. M. Sc. Thesis, Punjab agric.
University, Ludhiana.

Sweezy, O. H. (1906) : Life history, notes and
observations on three common moths. Proc. Hawaii
ent. Soc. 1(2) : 53-58.

30. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIOLOGY OF PLANORBID
SNAIL HELICORBIS COENOSUS (BENSON) IN PUNJAB

(With three text-figures)

Helicorbis coertosus (Syn. Segmentina coe-
nosus) is reported by different authors
(Buckley 1939, Dutt and Srivastava 1966)

to act as intermediate host of two important
trematode parasites of man and pig in India,
namely Gastrodiscoides hominis (Lewis & Mc-

501

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 81

Connel 1876) and F asciolopisis buski (Lanke-
ster, 1857). This snail has been recorded in
four districts, namely Amritsar, Ludhiana,
Kapurthala and Ropar in a year round survey
of the Punjab State. No account on the vari-
ous aspects on the life history of this important
snail of zoonotic importance was found in the

Table 1

Laboratory Temperature (°C)

Month

Mean air
temperature

Mean water
temperature

Daily

range

Monthly

Daily

range

Monthly

January

13.5-19.7

19.0

14.4-15.7

15.5

February

19.2-21.8

18.67

13.9-17.5

15.7

March

20.6-23.9

22.3

15.4-19.8

17.6

April

27.4-30.6

29.0

22.4-27.6

25.0

May

29.1-35.0

32.0

24.1-33.5

28.8

June

30.2-36.1

33.2

26.4-33.1

29.8

July

31.1-34.5

32.8

29.2-32.6

30.9

August

28.6-32.5

32.2

27.8-31.0

31.0

September

28.0-31.8

29.9

26.1-32.0

29.0

October

26.7-29.7

28.2

24.9-28.9

26.9

November

22.2-27.0

24.6

21.6-25.0

23.3

December

22.5-26.8

24.6

18.1-22.3

20.2

literature, except a very preliminary work done
by Tripathi et al. (1973). This paper records
our observations about its life history under
laboratory conditions.

Materials and Methods
Adult specimens of the snails were collect-
ed from a semi-dried pond at Katli village in
Ropar district. Snails were reared in beakers
of 500 ml. capacity, and fed with spinach
(Spinacia oleracea) and Trienthema govinda
(Hindi, Santhi; Punjabi, It sit). Some decaying
leaves and grass stems collected along with the
snails were also kept in the beakers. A few
plants of an aquatic weed Hydrilla verticillata
were planted in the aquaria to serve as aera-

tors and egg traps. The water of aquaria was
changed once a week. Egg clutches laid by
adult snails on the weed were collected and
kept in Petri-dishes for development. Freshly
hatched snails were transferred to different
aquaria each containing one to three snails.
In summer hatch group (March to May) and
18 in similar combinations in winter hatch
group (Nov. and Dec.). Observations were
recorded daily and any snail found dead was
removed. Monthly size of the egg clutches,
eggs and newly hatched snails was measured
by eye piece micrometer and growing snails
by slide calipers.

Temperature of the laboratory was regulat-
ed by using room heaters during winter and
air conditioner during summer and tempera-
ture was recorded daily. Similarly water tem-
perature of the glass aquaria was also recorded.

Observations

Laboratory air and water temperature is
given in the table 1. From the table it can
be seen that the daily mean air temperature
varied from 19.2-36. 1°C and monthly mean
from 18.7 to 33.2°C. During winter months
(Nov. and December) the mean monthly air
temperature was 24.6°C. Mean water tempe-
rature for the month of November was 23.3
and for December it was 20.2°C.

During summer months (March to May)
the mean air temperature varied from 22.3 to
30.0°C and mean water temperature varied
from 17.6 to 28.8°C (Fig. 3).

Egg clutches. Leaves of the aquatic weed
(Hydrilla verticillata) were found to be very
congenial for egg laying as 99% of the egg
clutches were found on them possibly as these
were the only leaves available to the snails. Egg
clutches were found firmly attached on the
surfaces of dead leaves and stems. They were

502

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 2

Growth rate of Helicorbis coenosus in laboratory cultures

Summer hatch Winter hatch

Shell size (mm) Shell size (mm)

Age/ Minimum

(Months) L B

Maximum

L B

Average

L B

Age /No.
of snails

Minimum
L B

Maximum
L B

Average

L B

(A)

Snail reared in groups

1(10)

1.5

1.25

3.5

3.0

2.28

2.17

1(10)

—

— . — ■

2(10)

3.5

3.0

5.0

4.5

4.58

3.75

2(10)

1.5

1.0

4.0

3.0

2.85 2,25

3(10)

5.0

4.0

6.0

5.0

5.33

4.45

3(10)

2.75

2.0

5.0

4.0

3.38 2.55

4(10)

4.5

4.0

7.0

6.5

5.68

4.9

4(10)

2.75

2.0

5.25

4,0

3.98 3.0

5(10)

5.0

4.0

7.0

6.5

5.83

5.05

5(10)

2.75

2.0

6.5

6.0

4.78 4.1

6(10)

5.0

4.0

8.0

7.0

6.23

5.2

6(10)

3.0

2.0

6.5

6.0

5.43 4.75

(B)

Snails reared singly

1 (6)

2.0

1.5

3.5

3.0

2.70

2.25

1 (6)

—

— —

2 (6)

3.0

2.5

6.0

4.0

4.50

3.58

2 (6)

1.5

1.0

3.5

3.0

2.29 1.75

3 (6)

3.5

2.5

7.0

6.0

5.37

4.33

3 (6)

2.75

2.0

4.5

4.0

3.29 2.41

4 (6)

4.0

3.5

7.0

6.0

6.41

5.16

4 (6)

3.0

2.0

6.0

5.5

4.37 3.50

5 (5)

4.5

3.5

7,25

6.0

6.10

5.10

5 (6)

3.75

3.0

7.0

6.5

5.45 4.66

6 (3)

5.0

3.5

7.5

6.25

6 . 66

5.25

6 (4)

5.5

4.0

7.0

6.5

6.37 5.37

Note: Figures in parentheses indicate number of snails.

suboval, round or elliptical. These clutches had
an outer membrane enclosing a gelatinous
material in which eggs varying from 1 to 22
were arranged in a characteristic fashion. Shape
of the egg was roughly oval.

Thirty egg clutches brought in the month
of November (Mean temp. 24.6°C) from the
field biotope measured 1.0 x 0.75 to 4.75 x 3.0
(mean 2.70 x 1.72) mm). A number of eggs
in these clutches ranged from 1-33. These eggs
failed to hatch in the laboratory although the
development in them was normal.

Growth. Data on the growth in shell size
of the snail reared in groups of two or three
both in summer and winter groups are pre-
sented graphically in figure 1, and single reared
snail in figure 2. Monthly record of their
development for both summer and winter
hatch group is given in table 2. During summer
hatch young snails under laboratory cultures
attained the average size of 2.28 mm in

Fig. 1. Mean growth rate of Laboratory bred
Helicorbis coenosus. (10) reared in groups.

503

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Table 3

Number of eggs clutches & eggs laid by H. coenosus in laboratory
Cultures during months following first oviposition and maximum size(s) reached by snails in

FULL LIFE SPAN.

No.

of snails

No.

of egg masses

Number of egg

Size of snails at
the time of death

Life

span

Total

Range

Mean

Total

Range

Mean

Range

Mean

(Months)

(A)

SUMMER

HATCH

970

0-134

14.92

6125

11-929

94.23

2.5 x 2.0
to 9.0 x 7.75

4.7 x 3

.9 13

(B)

WINTER

HATCH

277

0-82

15.38

1692

0-591

94.0

3.0 x 2.0
to 7.25 x 6.0

5.5 x 4

.7 10

length and 2.17 mm in breadth during the
first month of their life. Average maximum
length reached during the sixth month period
for which the observations were recorded was
6.23 x 5.2 mm.

Fig. 2. Mean growth rate of Laboratory bred
Helicorbis coenosus. (6) reared singly.

J fmAMJJASO h

Fig. 3. Mean Room Temperature.

Singly reared snails attained the size of
6.66 x 5.25 mm during the same period.

In winter hatch snails the average size
attained by the snails in six months was 5.43
x 4.75 mm whereas singly reared snails attain-

504

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ed the size of 6.37 x 5.37 mm. during the
same period.

Development in 65 snails maintained in 1, 2
and 3 snail groups in separate glass aquaria
during summer months was recorded. Obser-
vations were recorded till they died. Eggs laid
by the snails varied in size from 0.35-0.52 x
5.5-0.85 mm. No. of eggs in one clutch
ranged from 1 to 33. First cleavage of embryo
was noticed within 8 hours after deposition
and vigorous movement of all embryo was
observed after 12-15 hours. Hatching of eggs
took place in 3-14 days when the daily tem-
perature range was 29.1° to 35.0°C. Embryo
was surrounded by yolk material which was
enclosed in their vitelline membrane.

In winter hatch groups when the water tem-
perature was below 23 °C eggs ceased to hatch
although the development of larvae within the
egg clutches was normal and movement of
juveniles within the eggs was seen.

Maturity 8c Fecundity. Snails became mature
at the age of 26 to 52 days during summer
months when the shell size ranged from 1 . 5 x
1.25 to 4.5 x 4.0 mm only 6.3% of the snails

Dept, of Vety, Parasitology,

Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana,

May 8, 1981.

laid eggs when kept singly and the number
of eggs laid in life time ranged from 0 to
216. Eight per cent of snails when kept in pairs
or more in a laboratory culture laid eggs and
the number in life time ranged from 0 to 929.
Age of egg laying of the snail varied from 26
to 145 days.

In winter hatch groups temperature below
23 °C the age of maturity was delayed. It reach-
ed upto 137 days although the size attained
by such snails was 5.5 x 5.0 mm. Egg to egg
cycle in this snail was completed in 4-20 weeks.

Longevity. The maximum longevity record-
ed was 13 months and the size reached by this
snail was 8.0 x 7.5 mm. However, the maxi-
mum size of one snail recorded in laboratory
was 9.0 x 7.5 mm in seven months in singly
kept group.

Ack n o wledge m e n ts

We are grateful to Dr Johl, Director of
Research, Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana and Dr Sawai Singh, Professor of
Entomology and Head, Deptt. of Veterinary
Parasitology for providing facilities.

H. S. BALI
G. S. SRIVASTAVA

References

Buckley, J. J. C. (1939) : Observations on Gastro-
discoides honvnis and Fasciolopsis buski in Assam.
J. Helminth 17 1: 1-12.

Dutt, S. C. & Srivastava. H. D. (1966): The
intermediate host and the cercaria of Gastrodiscoides
homonis (Trematoda: Gastrodiscidae). Preliminary

Report. ./. Helminth, Vol Nos. 1/2: 45-52.

Tripath i, J. C., Srivastava, H. D. & Dutt, S. C.
(1973): A note on experimental infection of Heli-
corbis coenosus and pig with Fasciolopsis buski.
Indian J. Anim. Sci. 43(7): 647-49: 649-649.

505

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

31. “CAESALP1NIA HYMENOCARPA (PR AIN) HAITINK,

COMB. NOV. — A SUPERFLUOUS NAME”-— A CORRECTION

In accordance with article 34 . 1 . d Inter- Comb. Nov. — A superfluous name, J. Bom-
national Code of Botanical Nomenclature bay nat. Hist. Soc. 1982, 79(3): 713” is in-
097 8) Utrecht, the proposal in the article correct. As such, the combination Caesalpinia
“Caesalpinia hymenocarpa (Prain) Hattink hymenocarpa (Prain) Hattink, stands valid.

Publications & Information TENJARLA C. S. SASTRY

& Directorate, G. B. KALE

Hillside Road,

New Delhi 110 012,

April 30, 1984.

32. FAMILY ALISMATACEAE IN THE KASHMIR HIMALAYAS

( With two plates)

Alismataceae, an interesting family with
about 13 genera and about 60 species, is
cosmopolitan in distribution. It is represented
by 2 genera with about 6 species in our area.

Six species included in 2 groups were paly-
nologically investigated. The species have no
distinction in the number of apertures and in
their structure, but differ markedly in the
exine stratification. The grains are polyporate,
polyhedral, cribellate; exine subechinate, spines
sharp, conical and the meshes of the reticulum
are polygonal in Sagittaria, where as in Alisma
the pollen grains are 5-7 porate; exine reti-
culations polygonal fine, without spines. The
specific delimitations in both the genera is
difficult, because of the presence of the same
type of pollen grains, but there is slight varia-
tion in shape, size, meshes of the reticulum and
in the size of the spines in Sagittaria species.

Key to the genera

Flowers bisexual, stamens 6; carpels borne in one
series; achenes verticillate; endosperm helobial. . . .

Alisma

Flowers unisexual; stamens more than 6, borne

in more than one series; achenes capitate; endo-
sperm nuclear type Sagittaria

alisma L. Sp. PI. 342 (1753)

A genus with about 10 species, widely dis-
tributed in the temperate and tropical regions
of the world. It is represented by 3 species
in this area.

Key to species

1 . Style recurved shorter than ovaries; anthers sub-

orbicular A. gramineum

1 . Style erect, longer than the ovaries; anthers
elliptic oblong.

2. Leaves broadly linear lanceolate, gradually
narrowed at the base into a petiole; petals

acute A. lanceolatum

2. Leaves broadly lanceolate, ovate, rounded
or slightly cordate at the base; petals obtuse
A. plantago-aquatica

Alisma lanceolatum With. Arrang. Brit. PI. ed.
3.2: 362 (1796); Gafoor, FI. W. Pak. 68;
4 (1974).

A. plantago-aquatica L. var. lanceolatum
(With) Koch, syn. FI. Germ. 669 (1837).
Radical leaves lanceolate, long petioled,
smooth, sheathing at the base. Scapes triqu-
trous; petals in two series; outer ones ovate.

506

J. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. 81 PLATE I

Kak: Family Alismataceae

Fig. 1. Alisma gramineum Gmel.: A. Habit; B. Flower; C. Bract; D. Ovary; E. Stamen; F. Achene; G. Fruit.

Fig. 2. Alisma plantago-aquatica L.: A. Habit; B. Leaf; C. Flower; D. Fruit; E. & F. Achene.

Fig. 3. Alisma laceolatum With.: A. Habit; B. Flower, l.s.; C. Outer perianth; D. Inner perianth; E. Stamen; F. Ovary;

G. Fruit; H. Achene.

Fig. 4. Sagittaria latifolia Willd.: A. Habit; B. Flowering branch; C. Fruiting branch; D. Stamen; E. & G. Achene

(variations).

Fig. 5. Sagittaria sagittifolia L.: A. Habit upper portion; B. & C. Leaf variations; D. Staminate flower, l.s.; E.

Pistillate flower; F. Achene; G. Embryo.

Fig. 6. Sagittaria greggi Smith.: A. Habit; B. Flower branch; C. Fruiting branch; D. Stamen; E. Achene.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Plate II

Kak: Family Alismataceae

Figs, a, b: Aiisma plantago-aquatica.
c, d, e: Aiisma lanceolatum.
f : A. gramineum.
g, h: Sagittaria sagittifolia.
i: S. greggi.
j: S. latifolia.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

inner rhomboid, white or rosy pink; carpels
17-21, in a ring on the flat receptacle, style
straight, lateral; stigma linear, long. Achenes
obovate with 1-2 furrows at the back, 2-3
mm dia., pale brown. Seeds oblong 1.5 mm
dia.

Common in shallow water, on wet mud, in
the marshes, on the sides of streams and float-
ing islands, also in the running waters of the
irrigating channels. Boulevard AMK 744;
Shalimar AMK 870; Suderbal AMK 3389.
Alisma plantago-aquatica L. Sp. PI. 342 (1753);
Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 5: 559 (1893); Gafoor,
l.c. 4.

A robust scapigerous herb, which can be
distinguished in the field by the radical leaves
tufted, broadly linear-ovate, lanceolate, cor-
date; outer perianth slightly fused at the base;
ovate or oblong; pale pink; ovary globular.
Achenes oblong, obovoid, 2-3 mm dia., 1-2
grooved on the back, pale brown.

Usually in shallow waters, marshes, streams
and in the ponds; near bogs; Anchar lake
AMK 3100; Shalimar AMK 3149.

Distribution. India, Burma, Russia, Europe
and Tropical Africa.

Alisma gramieeem Lej, FI. Spain I: 175
(1811): Gafoor, l.c. 6. Alisma plantago-
aquatica L. var. decumbens Boiss. FI. Or.
5:9 (1882).

In the field it can be readily identified in
having thick rootstocks, variable leaves; linear
lanceolate or elliptic oblong. Flowers in scapose
verticillate panicles; outer ones ovate; inner
ovate rhombic caducous, white or purplish
white; ovary subovate; stigma punctate; style
recurved. Achenes raniform or orbicular, 3
ridged on the back, broadest near the apex.

On the mud in shallow waters; in the quiet
or swift moving streams, near boggy or marshy
places. Verinag AMK 3400; Shalimar AMK
3806; Hokhar Sar AMK 3101.

Superficially the taxon resembles A. lanceo-
latum but can be differentiated from it in
having anthers suborbicular; style recurved,
shorter than the ovaries.

sagittaria L. Sp. Pi. 993 (1753)

A cosmopolitan genus with about 40 species,
represented by 3 species in this area. It is a
highly plastic genus exhibiting much variation
in the leaves and in the flowers depending on
the nature of the habitat in which it grows.
It is observed that all these varients do not
deserve taxonomic status. However, on the
basis of the characters given in the key we
have been able to recognise 3 species in this
area.

Key to species

1 . Achenes triangularly obovate, with a conspicous
dorsal wing; long beaked.

2. Beak horizontal, 1-2 mm long

S. latifolia

2. Beak laterally bent, more than 2 mm long

S. sagittifolia

1 . Achenes minute or inconspicuously beaked,
equally winged both sides S. greggi

Sagittaria latifolia Willd. Su. PL 4: 409(1806);

S. virabilis Engelm in A. Gray Man. 461
(1848); S. esculentus Howell. FI. NW. Am.

679 (1903)

In the field the species can be readily iden-
tified by the thick rootstocks. Leaves much
variable; scapes equalling leaves, angular
above; pistillate flowers in lower whorls.
Achenes obovate, 3-3.5 x 3 mm with broad
marginal wings and no facial keel; beak slight-
ly incurved, horizontal or nearly so.

Common near damp areas, on the margins
of the lakes. Leper Hospital (Nagin lake) AMK
3806, 3807; Shalimar AMK 3872; Brean
(Nishat) AMK 3734.

Distribution. Europe, America, Asia, Hima-
layas.

507

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

The tubers are eaten in India under the
name Wappato. In China it is cultivated and
frequently eaten. In Kashmir the tubers are
sold in the market under the name Keuw,
they are eaten raw or after boiling. But now
they are not at all available, may be because
of the near extinction of the habitat in which
it grows.

Sagittaria sagittifolia L. Sp. PI. 993 (1753) :
Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 6 : 561 (1893); 5.
trifoliata L. Sp. PI. 993 (1753): Yuzechuk
in Kamarov. FI. URSS 7: 288 (1934):
Fafoor, l.c. 8.

Ohwi (1905) and Gafoor (1974) considered
S. sagittifolia L. as S. trifoliata L. and Gafoor
(l.c.) thinks that north-west Himalayan speci-
mens differ from the European and N. Asian
S. sagittifolia in having petals white without the
basal purple spot, yellow rather than purple
anthers, reflexed rather than spreading sepals
and very acute rather than blunt tips of the
basal lobes of the leaf, which are often longer
than the blade. He has studied all these charac-
ter in a specimen collected by Stewart from
Kashmir and preserved in the Herbarium,
University of Rawalpindi (Pakistan). However,
our population has white petals with yellow
spots at the base, sepals spreading but reflexed
at the fruiting stage and the sepals usually
obtuse. Therefore the characters are those of

Department of Botany,

Islam i a College of Science
and Commerce,

Srinagar, 190 002, Kashmir,

Refer

Abrams (1955): Illustrated FI. Pad States, I,
102.

Boisser, E. (1882) : Flora Orientalis, Enumeratio
Plantarum Orientalis. Geneva.

S. sagittifolia L. and the name has been re-
tained.

In shallow waters of ditches, ponds and
swamps, especially near road side ditches, rare
on the sides of the lakes. Shalimar AMK
3151; Gagribal Park AMK 2094; Malgam Rakh
AMK 3324; Ugjan (Anantnag) AMK 3735;
Verinag AMK 3809.

Distribution. India, China, Malaysia, Japan,
Philippines.

The aerial parts are fed to cattle and the
tubers are eaten raw.

Sagittaria greggi J. G. Smith, Rep. MO. Bot.

Gard. 6 : 43 (1894); Abrams et al. Ulus.

FI. Puci. States. 1 : 102 (1955).

The species is very rare and can be easily
identified in having polymorphic, sagittate
leaves, lateral lobes acuminate. Scapes erect
with 6-9 whorls of unisexual (rarely perfect)
flowers; bracts ovate or orbicular, reflexed;
filaments dialated at the base; carpillodes pre-
sent in the staminate flowers. Achenes obo-
vate, 2-3 mm long, winged lateral ribs irregu-
larly thickened, winged or tubercled, orbicular
in outline, beak short erect or lateral.

Common in shallow ditches, marshy or boggy
places, near slow running streams. Dialgam
(Ugjan) AMK 3214; Verinag AMK 3871.

Distribution : Europe, Australia, Asia, Kash-
mir.

A. MAJEED KAK

E N CE S

Gafoor, A. (1974): Alismataceae FI. W. Pak.
No. 68. Karachi.

Hooker, J. D. (1893) : Flora British India 6: 561.
Linnaeus, C. (1753) : Species Plantarum Holmiae.

508

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

33. ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF BIHAR AND ORISSA— IV

The paper reports 14 new records of plants
for Bihar and Orissa, collected by us from
Bhubaneshwar and Ganjam district of Orissa.
Ophiorrhiza trichocarpos Bl., hitherto restricted
to Andaman and Nicobar Islands is reported
from the main peninsula of India for the first
time.

All the specimens are preserved in the her-
barium of the Regional Research Laboratory,
Bhubaneshwar.

Acalypha lanceolata Willd.

Gollabandh, occasional on sandy ground
around coastal plantations, fl. 21.x. 1978.
Saxena & Brahmam 3350.

Distribution. Deccan Peninsula from Karna-
taka and Circars southwards; Sri Lanka,
Burma, Java and Sumatra.

Ammannia octandra Linn. f.

Aska, occasional weed in fields, fl. & fr.
27. ii. 1978. Saxena & Brahmam 3249.

Distribution. Deccan Peninsula; Sri Lanka,
Burma, and Malaysia.

Cyperus alopecuroides Rottb.

Occasional along the margins of ponds —
Sorada, fl. & fr. 16. ix. 1977. Saxena 2891; Ber-
hampur, fl. & fr. 22. ii. 1978. Saxena &
Brahmam 3201.

Distribution. Widely distributed in India;
Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Africa, Tropi-
cal Australia.

Eulalia quadrinervis (Hack.) O. Ktze.

Mahendragiri, 1000-1400 m., frequent in open
grassy hill-slopes, fl. & fr. 25.x. 1978 and
24. ix. 1979. Saxena & Brahmam 3656, 3943.

Distribution. Subtropical Himalayas from
Simla to Sikkim, Mishmi and Khasia Hills;
Burma, China, Laos and Thailand.

Glycine wightiana (Wight & Arn.) Verdcourt
G. javanica auct. non Linn.

Serango, occasional in forest undergrowth.

fr. 5. i. 1978. Brahmam 3024.

Distribution. Plains of Western Peninsula;
Sri Lanka, Java, Tropical Africa.

JansenelSa grhTithiana (C. Muell.) Bor

Mahendragiri, 1450 m., in open marshy
grassland, fl. 25.x. 1978. Saxena Si Brahmam
3678; fl. & fr. 23. xi. 1979. Saxena 8i Brahmam
3883.

Distribution. Khasia Hills, Assam, Western
Ghats, Bailadilla (Madhya Pradesh), Karna-
taka, Tamil Nadu; Sri Lanka, Burma.

Lepidagathis cristata Willd.

Berhampur, in open dry places, fl. & fr.
8. i. 1978. Brahmam 3123.

Distribution. East coast of India from
Krishna river to Kanyakumari.

Neanotis quadriiocularis (Thw.) Lewis
Anotis quadriiocularis (Thw.) Hook. f.
Mahendragiri, 1000 m., in open grasslands
under partial shade, fl. & fr. 27.x. 1978. Saxena
8i Brahmam 3729.

Distribution. Karnataka, Travancore; Sri
Lanka.

Ophiorrhiza trichocarpos Bl.

Mahendragiri, occasional in forest under-
growth, fl. & fr. 26.x. 1979. Saxena 8i Brah-
mam Acc. No. 3773.

Distribution. Andaman and Nicobar; Ban-
gladesh, Burma, Java, Malaysia.

Parthenium hysterophorus Linn.

Bhubaneswar, an introduced weed along
roadsides and railway lines, fl. 20. xi. 1977.
Brahmam 2945.

Distribution. Introduced in India in 1956
and spread to many parts — Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Delhi, Uttar
Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, etc.; a native in
tropical America from Florida to Texas, local-
ly north to Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Ohio,

509

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Michigan, Illinois, Missouri and Kansas; also
collected from West Indies and S. Africa.
Paspaltira compactum Roth

Mahendragiri, 1400 m., common in open wet
grasslands, fl. 25.x. 1979. Saxena & Brahmam
3680.

Distribution . Mount Abu (Rajasthan), Khasi
and Naga Hills, Nilgiris and other hills in the
Southern and Western India.

Paspahiin eonjugatum Berg.

Mahendragiri, 1400 m., frequent in open
marshy grassland, fl. & fr. 22. xi. 1979. Saxena
& Brahmam 3882.

Distribution. Kachar, Assam; Sri Lanka,
Malaysia, Singapore and other tropical and
subtropical regions of the world.

Plectrasitlms mlghericus Benth.

Mahendragiri, over 1300 m., in shady places,
fl. 25.x. 1978. Saxena & Brahmam 3611.

Regional Research Laboratory,
Bhubaneswar 751 013,

March 5, 1982.

Distribution. Western Ghats, Anamalai Hills,
Nilgiris.

Psyehotria £ulva Buch.-Ham. ex Hook. f.

Mahendragiri, 1000 m., in semi-evergreen
forests, fl. & fr. 21. xi. 1979. Saxena & Brah-
mam 3969.

Distribution. Assam and Khasia Hills upto
1200 m., Kachar, Manipur; Burma.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Prof. P. K. Jena, Direc-
tor and Dr. P. K. Dutta, Project Coordinator,
Regional Research Laboratory, Bhubaneswar
for providing the facilities. Thanks are due to
the Director and the staff of the Botanical
Survey of India, Howrah for extending their
cooperation for consulting the Central National
Herbarium.

M. BRAHMAM
H. O. SAXENA

34. THE GENUS CURCUMA L. (ZINGIBERACEAE) ON
ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS

{With a plate)

The majority of the Zingiberaceae are very
poorly known due to the fact that a clear
understanding of the genera and species can
be had only from live plants. Herbarium mate-
rials are hardly sufficient to know the nature
and characters of the floral parts. In order to
get a better understanding of these obscure
species, they were collected, brought under
cultivation and studied in live condition when
in flower. As a result of these studies the genus
Curcuma is revised here for these islands.

The genus Curcuma with about 45 species
is confined to Indo-Malesian region. Apart

from the classical world monograph of the
genus by K. Schumann (1904), the genus has
been revised for Malaya by R. E. Holttum
(1950) and for Assam by A. S. Rao & D. M.
Verma (1972). Further van Zijp (1915), van
Zijp & Valeton (1917) and Valeton (1919)
have published several notes and descriptions
of Malaysian and Javan species. Apart from
these few papers, very little work has been
done on the taxonomy of this genus.

The characteristic features of the genus are
the usually aromatic rhizomes, the broad adnate
pouched bracts with a cincinnus of several

510

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

flowers in each pocket, the tuft of differently
coloured coma of sterile bracts at the apex of
the spike and the versatile anthers which are
often spurred. Some of the species are culti-
vated for spices, medicinal uses and for food
and have often run wild and established them-
selves in waste ground. Hence the natural
distribution of these are obscure.

A review of literature so far published on
the flora of Andaman and Nicobar Islands
indicate that no species of Curcuma has been
reported from these islands except the mention
of C. kurzii by Hooker in FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 216.
1890 under ‘imperfectly known species’ with a
meagre description. This species is found to
be synonymous to the Burmese species C.
petiolata Roxb. which appears to be the only
indigenous species of these islands, always seen
in primary forests and never in waste ground.
C. longa, the well known spice ‘ Turmeric ’ is
often cultivated near home-steads and fringes
of cultivated fields and is very rarely seen in
wild condition, C. mangga and C. zedoaria
grow commonly in waste-ground near villages
and roadsides and never in primary forest
areas and are probably introduced exotics.

CURCUMA

curcuma L. Sp. PI. 1: 2. 1753 et Gen. PI.
ed. 5.3. 1753; K. Schum. in Engler, Pflanzenr.
20: 99-115. 1904; van Zijp in Rec. Trav. Bot.
Neerl. 12: 340-347. 1915; van Zijp 8c Valeton
in Rec. Trav. Bot. Neerl. 14: 127-142. 1917;
Valeton in Bull. Jard. Bot. Btzg. II, 27: 1-167.
1919; Holttum in Gard. Bull. Singapore 13:
65-72. 1950; A. S. Rao & D. M. Verma in
Bull. Bot. Surv. India 14: 121-122. 1972.

Detailed generic descriptions are available in
literature.

Distribution : Indo-malesian region and tropi-
cal Australia; about 35 species, 4 in Andaman

& Nicobar Islands.

Key to the species

la. Inflorescence central, arising through the mid-
dle of leaf shoot; peduncle surrounded by
sheaths of normal developed leaves.

2a. Cultivated plants of human habitations
and waste grounds; rhizome bright orange
yellow inside; petioles less than 1 cm
long; floral bracts acute; coma bracts white
or white streaked with green; flowers

white; anthers spurred

1. C. tonga

2b. Wild plants of primary forest areas;
rhizome pale yellow inside; petiole 8-15
cm long; floral bracts obtuse; coma bracts
pink or pinkish orange; flowers creamy

white; anthers not spurred

3. C. petiolata

lb. Inflorescence lateral, separate from leaf
shoots; peduncle not surrounded by sheaths
of normal developed leaves.

3a. Rhizome citron yellow within; leaves uni-
formly green; bracteoles white; median

band on lip not with red margins

2. C. mangga

3b. Rhizome light yellow within; leaves with

feather-shaped purplish flush on either
side of midrib above throughout its
length; bracteoles pinkish at apex; median
yellow band on lip with red margins. . . .

4. C. zedoaria

1. Curcuma longa L. Sp. PI. 1: 2. 1753,
pro. max. parte; Koenig in Retz. Obs. Bot.
3: 72. 1783; Baker in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind.
6: 214. 1890; K. Schum. in Engler, Pflanzenr.
20: 108. 1904; Wealth of India 2: 402, t. 17.
1950; Burtt in Notes R. Bot. Gard. Edinb. 35:
212. 1977. [Manjella kua Rheede, Hort. Malab.
11: 21, t. 11. 1692]. C. domestica Valeton in
Bull. Jard. Bot. Btzg. II, 27: 31. 1918; Ridl.
FI. Mai. Pen. 4: 254. 1924; Holtt. in Gard.
Bull. Singapore 13: 68. 1950; Backer 8c Bakh.
f. FI. Java 3: 72. 1968.

Detailed descriptions are available in litera-
ture.

511

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Flowering: July-September.

Distribution : Cultivated throughout tropical
Asia.

Notes : For detailed discussion on typifica-
tion and nomenclature see Burtt (l.c. 1977).
No reference to this species is seen in any of
the earlier literature on these islands and seems
to be a recent introduction to these islands.
This species is often cultivated in Andaman
islands and Little Andaman island and some-
times in Nicobar Islands and is not seen in
wild anywhere. Rhizomes called ‘Turmeric’ is
used as spice in food preparations and also
medicinally in various Ayurvedic preparations.
A paste from the rhizomes is applied externally
for sprains and wounds.

2. Curcuma mangga Val. & van Zijp. in
Bull. Jard. Bot. Btzg. II, 27: 50, t. 6, f. 1.
1918. Ridl. FI. Mai. Pen. 4: 254. 1924; Holtt.
in Gard. Bull. Singapore 13: 70. 1950; Backer
& Bakh. f. FI. Java 3: 72. 1968.

Primary tubers ovoid, ± 5 cm long, — 4 cm
thick; rhizomes db 3 cm thick with many close
— 1.5 cm thick branches projecting in all
directions, pale dull yellow outside, pale citron
yellow inside, tasting bitter; scale leaves sub-
persistent; roots many, descending and bearing
ellipsoid tubers at ends. Leaf -shoots 80-100 cm
high, bearing 3-5 leaves; sheaths 30-40 cm long;
petioles ± 2 cm long; ligules rounded, ± 5 mm
long; leaf-blade oblong-elliptic, acute at base,
acute or ocuminate at apex, 30-50 cm long,
15-23 cm wide, uniformly glossy green above,
pale and pubescent beneath. Peduncle 18-25
cm long, ± 1 cm thick {in vivo), covered with
3-5 rounded mucronate sheaths; spikes oblong,
± 15 cm long, ± 7 cm thick; floral bracts
broadly oblong, blunt at apex, ± 4 cm long,
connate for less than half-way, green with
purple tinge at apex; coma bracts elliptic,
acute, ± 7 cm long, almost free, pinkish pur-
ple.

Flowers 3-4 in each cincinnus inside each
floral bract-pouch, 3-4 cm long; bracteoles
elliptic, boat-shaped, prominently keeled and
acute at apex, ± 3 cm long, — 2 cm wide,
white.

Calyx obtusely 3 -dentate, ± 1 cm long,
densely hairy at base.

Corolla-tube ± 2 cm long, cup-shaped to-
wards upper half, tinged with yellow inside;
lobes 3, oblong, acute, posterior lobe promi-
nently boat-shaped, mucronate at apex, ±1.5
cm long, ± 1 cm wide, white. Staminodes
oblong, with concave median fold as seen
from back; inner edges folded under the hood
of the dorsal petal, obtuse at apex, ± 1 . 5 cm
long, ± 0.8 cm broad, very pale yellow at
upper half, white at lower half. Lip obscurely
3-lobed, ± 2.5 cm long, ± 1.8 cm wide, light
yellow; midlobe emarginate at apex, yellow
with a bright yellow median band. Filament
constricted at top, ± 6 mm long, ± 3 mm
broad, pale yellow; anther ± 4 mm long,
white; spurs 2, narrow, slightly curved, ± 2
mm long, white. Ovary hairy; stylodes 3-6 mm
long; style slender, ± 1.6 cm long; stigma
bilobed. Fruit oblong, ± 2 cm long, hairy.

Flowering : J une- August.

Specimens : s. andamans : Ferrargunj,

collected in vegetative condition and flowered
under cultivation on 5 June 1978, Balakrishnan
6747 (PBL).

Distribution : Java, Malaya and Andaman
Islands.

Notes : An addition to Flora of India. Com-
mon in all waste grounds in open sunny
places, roadsides, ditches, streamsides, etc. in
South Andamans. This is not seen in other
islands and is probably a recent introduction.

3. Curcuma petiolata Roxb. FI. Ind. ed.
1, 1: 37. 1820; Hook. f. in Bot. Mag t. 5821.
1870; Baker in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 216.
1890; K. Schum. in Engler, Pflanzenr. 20: 102.

512

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81

Balakrishnan & Bhargava: Curcuma petiolata

Plate 1

Curcuma petiolata Roxb

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1904. C. cordata Wall. PI. As. Rar. 1: 8, t.
10. 1829; Hook. f. in Bot. Mag. t. 4435. 1849.
C. kurzii King ex Baker, l.c. 216. 1890, syn.
nov.

Primary tuber small with a few sessile
rhizomes, pale yellow inside; roots many, often
with tubers at ends. Leaf shoots 50-80 cm long,
bearing 4-6 leaves; sheaths narrow, 20-30 cm
long; petiole 8-15 cm long, slender; ligules
rounded, 3-4 mm long; leaf -blade elliptic to
oblong-elliptic, subequally rounded or subcor-
date at base, cuspidate-acuminate at apex, 25-
35 cm long, 8-12 cm broad, glossy green above,
pale green beneath. Peduncle slender, 15-28
cm long; spikes cylindric, cuneate at base, 8-12
cm long, 4-5 cm thick, floral bracts in 3-5
vertical rows, oblong-ovate, suborbicular and
spreading at apex, connate for more than half
way, 3. 5 -4.0 cm long, yellowish at base, pin-
kish orange at upper half; coma bracts few,
ovate, subacute to obtuse, spreading, 3. 5-4.0
cm long, brightly purplish orange. Flowers 2-5
in each cincinnus inside each bract-pouch, 3 . 0-
3.5 cm long, creamy white; bracteole oblong,
acuminate, boat-shaped, ± 3 cm long, — 2 cm
wide, white, glabrous. Calyx ± 8 mm long,
acutely tridentate, minutely puberulous.
Corolla-tube ± 2.5 cm long; lobes oblong-
lanceolate, acute, subequal, 1.5 -2.0 cm long,
0.8-1. 3 cm wide, upper lobe concave, cuspi-
date. Staminodes oblong-lanceolate, ± 1.5 cm
long, ± 1 cm wide. Lip deflexed, suborbicular,
± 1.3 cm long; obscurely trilobed, cream
yellow with deep yellow median band; midlobe
emarginate; lateral lobes erect, ± 6 mm long.
Filament inserted at about ^th above base of
the anther, ± 3.5 mm long; anthers oblong,
obliquely truncate at base, not spurred, — 5 mm
long, minutely puberulous; connective shortly
produced with a crest. Ovary pubescent; stylo-
des erect, 4-5 mm long; style filiform, ± 2 cm
long; stigma bilobed. Fruit obovoid, hairy, zb

1.5 cm long; seeds glossy brown, ± 4 mm
long; aril white, partially enveloping seed.
(Plate 1).

Flowering : J uly-October.

Specimens', n. andamans: Lakhmipur,

common in inland forests, 23 Nov. 1976, N. G.
Nair 4881 (PBL). M. andamans. Bakultala,
dense shaded places amidst thick under-
growth in inland forests, 6 Nov, 1977, Bhar-
gava 6406 (PBL); Mayabunder, edges of
forests, 31 July 1974, Bhargava 1941 (PBL).
s. andamans. Balooghat hill jungle, 7 July
1894, Kings Collector s. n. Acc. no. 467215
(CAL); Baratang Island, 25 Oct. 1979, P.
Basu 7351 (PBL); Coatering Cove, Kurz s. n.
Acc. no. 467217 (CAL); Middle Point, Port
Blair, Kurz s. n. Acc. no. 467218 (CAL).

Distribution : Burma and Andaman Islands.

Notse : The specimens from Andamans

identified as C. kurzii at Calcutta herbarium
were studied and found to be identical to C.
petiolata. This species included by Baker under
doubtful species in Flora of British India with
a short diagnosis is treated here as a synonym
of C. petiolata. This species grows in gregari-
ous groups in primary inland forests and never
seen in waste ground and is the only truly
indigenous species of Curcuma in these islands.
It is not seen in Nicobar group of islands so
far. This is an addition to Flora of India,
extending its distribution towards south of
Burma.

4. Curcuma zedoaria (Christm.) Roscoe in
Trans. Linn. Soc. 8: 354. 1807 et Monandr.
PI. Scitam. t. 109. 1825; Baker in Hook. f.
FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 210. 1890; K. Schum. in
Engler, Pflanzenr. 20: 110. 1904; Ridl. FI.
Mai. Pen. 4: 254. 1924; Holtt. in Gard. Bull.
Singapore 13: 71, f. 5. 1950; Wealth of India
2: 405. 1950; Backer & Bakh. f. FI. Java 3:
71. 1968; Burtt in Gard. Bull. Singapore 30:
59. 1977. [Kua Rheede, Hort. Malab. 11: 13,

513

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

t . 7. 1692]. Amomurn zedociria Christm. & Pan-
zer, Linn. Pflanzensyst. 5: 12. 1779; Plenck,
Ic. PI. Med. 2: 12, t. 11. 1789.

Detailed descriptions are available in litera-
ture.

Flowering : June- August.

Speciments : s. andamans. Ferrargunj — -
Jirkatang, collected in vegetative condition and
flowered under cultivation on 3 June 1978,

Botanical Survey of India,
Andaman-Nicobar Circle,

Port Blair 744 103,

October 6, 1982.

Balakrishnan 6146 (PBL).

Distribution : India, Malaya and Java.

Notes ; Commonly seen in waste grounds in
Andaman and Great Nicobar Islands. A new
record for these islands. See Burtt (l.c. 1977)
for typification and nomenclature of this
species. This species can be cultivated as an
ornamental garden plant, as it grows profuse-
ly and very quickly.

N. P. BALAKRISHNAN1
N. BHARGAVA2

1 Present Address : Botanical Survey of India,

Central Circle, Allahabad-211 002.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Northern Circle, 3
Laxmi Road, Dehra Dun.

35. AQUATIC KNOT WEEDS OF THE KASHMIR HIMALAYAS

( With three plates )

Aquatic knot weeds (320 species) repre-
sented by about 50 species with some doubtful
varieties in the local flora, are of great interest
to many people because they are aggressive
invaders of lakes, reservoirs and other wet
habitats and are capable of altering the ecolo-
gical balance of large areas. In addition, they
are taxonomically much complicated. Linnaeus
(1753) included 26 species in the genus Poly-
gonum L. Boisser (1879) divided the genus
into 7 sections. Bentham and Hooker (1886)
added 150 species and divided the genus into
ten sections Jackson (1885) included 254
species and Hooker (1886) divided them into
11 sections. Tutin et ah (1964) and Cood and
Cullen (1968) reduced the genus into 4-5 sec-
tions only. Small (1903) and Gross (1913)
accepted the subdivisions of the genus Poly-

Persicaria lapathifolia Gray
Persicaria amphibia Gray
Persicaria nepalensis Gross
Persicaria nodosa Opiz.

gonum L. and treated its species as repre-
senting several genera. But due to the ambigu-
ous nature of characters most of the authors in
the last half century preferred to keep the
genus undivided. (Bonner 1913, Danser 1927).
However, during the last few decades the pro-
blem was reviewed and Hedberg (1946) and
Hara (1966) clearly demonstrated more than
one pollen morphotypes in the genus and
divided it into few genera. In the present study
the pollen morphotypes and the taxonomy of
the existing species were studied which
showed that the aquatic members of the pre-
sent area fall in the genus Persicaria Mill. The
pollen types differ from that of Polygonum
s. str. in being tri — polyporate with murate
reticulations. The aquatic species of the genus

are:

( - Polygonum lapathifolium L.)
( = Polygonum amphibium L.)

( = Polygonum nepalense Meis).
( = Polygonum nodosum Pers.)

514

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81

Kak: Weeds of the Kashmir Himalayas

Plate I

Fig. 1. Persicaria amphibia (L.) G.F. Gray: A. Habit; B. Flower showing the insertion of stamens; C. Ovary;

D. Stamens; E. Mature nut.

Fig. 2. Persicaria nodosa (Pers.) Opiz.: A. Habit (upper portion); B. Ochrea; C. Flower; D. Petal dissected showing the

arrangement of the stamens; E. Flower; F. Mature nut.

Fig. 3. Persicaria punctata (Elliot) Small.: A. Habit (Upper portion); B. Node showing the Ochrea; C. Portion of spike
showing the arrangement of the flowers; D. Petals dissected showing the insertion of the stamens; E. Ovary;

F-G. Mature nut showing variations.

Fig. 4. Persicaria lapathifolia (L.) S.F. Gray: A. Habit (showing upper portion); B. Leaf; C. Flower, l.s. showing the

arrangement of the stamens; D. Mature nut enclosed in a perianth.

J . Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Plate II

Kak: Weeds of the Kashmir Himalayas

Fig. 1. Persicaria hydropiper var. mite (Schrank.) Majeed.: A. Habit; B-C. Leaf showing variation in size and shape;
D. node with an ochrea; E. Ochrea showing long cilia; F. Flower; G-H. Petals showing the arrangement of the stamens
and ovary; L Mature nut; J. Portion of spike showing the arrangement of the flowers.

Fig. 2. Persicaria nepalense (Meissn) H. Gross.: A. Habit; B. Leaf. C. Corolla tube dissected; D. Flower; E. Involucral
bract; F. Stamen; G. Ovary; H. Immature nut enclosed in perianth; I. Mature nut; J. Ochrea with cilia.

Fig. 3. Persicaria hydropiper (L.) Spach.: A. Lower portion of plant; B. Upper portion; C. Portion of spike showing
the arrangement of the flowers; D. Flower arranged on the node; E. Corolla tube dissected; F. Immature nut; G.

Mature nut; H. Node showing the ochrea and cilia. -

Fig. 4. Persicaria kawagoeana (Makino) Nakai.: A. Habit showing decumbent nature and profuse roots; B. Node
showing ochrea with cilia, floral spike and the leaves; C. Flower; D. Inner and E. Outer perianth; F. Stamens;

G. Immature nut; H. Mature nut.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Persicaria hydropiper Spach
Persicaria kawagonena Makai,
Persicaria punctata Small,

Persicaria hydropiper ssp. mite Majeed

( = Polygonum hydropiper L.)

( = Polygonum minus Huds.)

( = Polygonum punctatum Elliot) .
( = Polygonum mite Schrank)

KEY TO THE SPECIES

1. Perianth segments 4-5 lobed; stamens not alternating with the glands. Pollen grains 3 colpate, colpi

tapering both ends; exine with duplibacculate rods P. nepalensis

1. Perianth segments 4-5 partite; stamens alternating with glands. Pollen grains 3 — polyporate; pores
brochal, ellipsoidal — oval; exine sometimes with multibacculate rods.

2. Perennial, rhizomatous herbs; ochrea without cilia.

3. Marshy; erect, internodes solid, red dotted. Leaves linear-lanceolate; spikes white or
light pink, long, lax, branched, pendulous. Pollen grains 5 porate, lumina mostly granulate

P. lapathifolia

3. Aquatic; prostrate, decumbent, internodes fistular, smooth. Leaves dimorphic, mostly ovate,
lanceolate; spikes reddish short, compact, never branched, erect. Pollen grains polyrugate;

lumina with small bacculate rods P. amphibia

2. Annual: rarely perenating by stolens; ochrea fringed with cilia or bristles

4. Spikes dense, stout with crowded or overlapping flowers P. nodosa

4. Spikes lax, slender, flowers never crowded

5. Steps sulcate; ochrea with 7-9 bristles; perianth segments eglandular. Seeds smooth

P. hydropiper

5. Stems smooth, ochrea without bristles; perianth segments glandular. Seeds lenticular

6. Stems glandular, leaves sessile or subsessile punctate ventrally; perianth ovate

P. punctata

6. Stems glandular, leaves petiolate; never punctate perianth lanceolate

7. Ochrea with long cilia, leaves linear lanceolate stigma 3 fid. Lumina with baccu-
late rods P. kawagoeana

7 . Ochrea with short or equal cilia, leaves broadly lanceolate, stigma 2-fid. Lumina
mostly granulose P. hydropiper ssp. mite

persicaria Mill. Gard. Diect. Abr. Ed. 4 (1754).

A cosmopolitan genus, represented by the
following 8 aquatic or semi-aquatic species in
this area. Some of the terrestrial species are
endemic to the Kashmir Himalayas. Pollen
grains colpate or porate (tritetracolpate or tri-
pentaporate), mostly spherical, prolate, rarely
subprolate in equatorial view, circular in polar
view; colpi long reaching near the poles, more
or less open without marginal thickenings;
sexine thick may or may not be well differen-
tiated into sexine and nexine; lumina mostly
granulose or with small bacculate rods.

P. lapathifolia (L.) S. F. Gray. Nat. Arr.
Br. PI. 2: 270 (1821).

Polygonum lapathifolium L. Sp. PI. 360
(1753); Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 5: 35 (1885).

Stout, prostrate perennial herbs, can be easily
distinguished in the field: being bushy, steps
red dotted, pubescent. Leaves narrowly lanceo-
late; upper ones sessile lower petiolate. Ochrea
auricled, truncate, membranous; spikes lax axi-
llary also terminal, branched or unbranched
perianth fused at the base, broadly lanceolate,
entire; styles 2. Seeds orbicular, with an apical
beak 2.5x2 mm, with a central furrows, light

515

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 81

brown. Pollen grains 5 porate 21.9 x 21.6 /a,
spherical in equatorial view circular in polar
view; pores brochal, ellipsoidal, 1.8-2. 7 x
1.7 /x; exine with multibacculate rods; rods
1.7-1. 8 [x high; reticulations murate; muri
3.6-4 x 2-2.8 /a; lumina mostly granulate,
sometimes with small bacculate rods.

Common in marshes near the sides of lakes
and streams, also near wet meadows. Nagin
lake amk 660; Dal lake amk 3811; Harwan
amk 3865.

Distribution. Himalayas, South west Asia,
N. W. Africa, Europe.

P. amphibia (L.) S. F. Gray, Nat. Arr. Br. PI.

2: 268 (1821).

Polygonum amphibium L. Sp. PI. 361 (1753);
Hook. f. l.c. 34.

Prostrate, decumbent perennial herbs, can be
easily distinguished in the field by having
fistular internodes, trimorphic leaves; submerg-
ed ones ovate-ovate lanceolate, short petioled
with cordate base; floating ones ovate, petiolate;
upper ones oblong lanceolate; sessile. Ochrea
tubular, truncate, parellel veined; spikes
oblong, rosy red; perianth lanceolate, stigma
capitate. Seeds orbicular, biconvex with an
apical pointed end. Pollen grains polyrugate,
39 x 37.5 /a; spherical in equatorial view, cir-
cular in polar view; pores usually not visible;
exine thick with multibacculate rods; rods 2-3
m high, reticulate, murate; muri 1.8-3. 7 x
1.3-2 /a lumina mostly granulate.

Abundant in the lakes, irrigation canals,
ditches, ponds and rivers. Also in marshes,
swamps and in muddy wetlands, meadows.
Common near the margins of floating islands.
Anchar lake amk 2024; Nowgam rakh amk
663; Nagin lake amk 3794.

Distribution. Cosmopolitan.

P. nepalensis (Meisn.) H. Gross in Engl., Bot.

Jahrb. 49 : 277 (1913).

Polygonum nepalense Meissner. Monogr.

Poly. 84. PI. 7. f. 2. (1826); Hook. f. l.c. 41.

Prostrate annual, erect herbs, can be easily
distinguished in the field by the hairy
nodes. Leaves broadly ovate, acute, base trun-
cate, hairy near the veins below. Ochrea mem-
branous, hairy near the base. Perianth ovate,
obtuse; stigma capitate. Seeds circular, bicon-
vex, granular, dark brown. Pollen grains 3
colpate, 29.9-2.9 /a dia., spherical in equitorial
view, circular in polar view; colpi medium —
long, 12-14 /a high, tapering both ends; acute,
exine with duplibacculate rods; reticulations
murate; lumina with baculoid rods. Polar field
index : 1:5.

Common in mud, at the edges of streams
and ponds in the artificial reservoirs. Gulmerg
amk 3724 : Tangmerg (Ferozpur Nallah)
AMK 2021.

Distribution : Afghanistan, Himalayas from
Kashmir to Sikkim, India, China, Japan,
Malaya.

P. kawagoeana (Makino) Nakai in Rigakkai

24: 300 (1926): Ito in Jour. Jap. Bot. 31;

173, 177 (1956).

Polygonum minus Huds. FI. Angle, ed. 1:
148 (1762); Hook. f. l.c. 36.

Dwarf, gregarious annual herbs, can be
readily distinguished from other species of the
genus in having straggling roots with bunch
of secondary rootlets near the nodes; stems
mostly decumbent, Ochrea tubular, truncate
with long cilia. Perianth lanceolate; stigma 3
lobed. Seeds trigonous, smooth, 2x1.5 mm,
shining, dark red with a short apical beak.
Pollen grains 5 porate, 26.5-27,4 x 25-26.9
/a dia. spherical in equatorial view, circular in
polar view; pores brochal, ellipsoidal — oval,
5.49 x 3.68 /a; exine with dupli or multibaccu-
late rods; reticulations murate; lumina with
bacculate rods.

Abundant in marshes, bogs in shallow water
on the edges of ponds, lakes and streams.

516

Polynograph of the genus Persicaria Mill.: a. Persicaria hydropiper (L.) Spach.; b. Persicaria nodosa (Pers.) Opiz
c. Persicaria lapathifolia (L.) Gray; d. Persicaria kawagoeana (Makino) Nakai; e. Persicaria amphibia (L.) Gray

f. Persicaria nepalense (Meissn.) Gross.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Plate III

Kak: Weeds of the Kashmir Himalayas

J-- ■ ,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Shalimar amk 2071, Harwan amk 3793; Suder-
bal amk 3681.

Distribution. Europe, Tropical and Tempe-
rate Asia, India, Sri Lanka and Kashmir.

P. punctata (Elliot) Small. FI. S.E.U.S., 379

(1903).

Polygonum punctatum Elliot. Bot. S. C. and

Ca. 1: 445 (1817). P. acre H.B.K. Nov. Gen.
and Sp. 2: 177 (1817).

Erect or decumbent herbs, superficially close
to P. hydropiper but the racemes are often
erect and not nodding. Stems often glandular
punctate. Leaves lanceolate or ovate lanceolate,
cunate. Ochrea cylindrical, expanding with the
node, glandular dotted, truncate, ciliate.
Perianth ovate, conspicuously glandular; styles
2-3 fid. Seeds lenticular, trigonous 1.8-2. 5 mm
long, shining, dark brown or black. Pollen
grains poly-pentaporate, 24-25.6 x 23-24 /x
dia. spheroidal in equatorial view, circular in
polar view; pores ellipsoidal 4-4.5 x 2-3 /x dia.,
exine with multibaculate rods; reticulations
murate; lumina with small baculoid rods.

Near wet and muddy places in shallow
waters, ponds and ditches, in the paddy fields.
Hokhar sar amk 3211, Gulmarg amk 3682;
Ferozpur Nallah amk 3796.

Distribution. Himalayas, Tropical Africa.

P. nodosa (Pers.) Opiz. Seznan. 72 (1852).

Polygonum nodosum Pers. Meissner, in DC.
Prodr. 14: 118 (1856).

Simple or branched herbs, rarely forming
mats like P. kawagoeneana. Nodes thick,
leaves lanceolate gradually narrowed towards
the base, wavy, somewhat hairy and glandular
at the base. Ochrea loose, sharply fringed,
hairy. Perianth broadly ovate, styles 2 deeply
incised. Seeds roundly ovoid, compressed 2x3
mm, 2 angled, smooth, shining, black. Pollen
grains 3-5 porate, 60 x 45 /i , subprolate in
equatorial view, circular in polar view; pores
brochal; ellipsoidal — oval, 5.49-3.68 ^ ; exine

with dupli- or multibaculate rods; reticulations
murate; muri 10.8-12 x 7.32 x 15 /x; Lumina
coarsely granulose.

Near wet and muddy places, and bogs.
Panikar (Zanaskar, Ladakh) amk 3125; Drass
(Ladakh) amk, 3810, 3864.

Distribution : S. W. Asia, Africa and Europe.
P. hydropiper (L.) Spach, Hist. Veg. 10; 538

(1841).

Polygonum hydropiper L. Sp. PI. 361 (1753) :
Hook. f. l.c. 39.

Common weed of paddy fields, stems ribbed.
Leaves linear lanceolate, sessile or subsessile.
Ochrea truncate with 7-9 bristles. Spikes in-
terrupted, loose. Perianth fused at the base,
ovate lanceolate brown dotted ventrally; styles
3. Seeds ovate, trigonous 3x2 mm, with an
apical pointed end, dark brown, smooth. Pollen
grains 5-polyporate, 55.5 x 52.5 jx dia., sphe-
roidal in equatorial view, circular in polar view;
pores brochal, ellipsoidal — oval, 5-5.5 x 1.8-
2 ix\ exine with multibaculate rods, rarely
crenate, reticulations murate; lumina mostly
granulose and rarely with small baculoid rods.

Abundant in rice fields, sides of streams,
near wet meadows, and in pasture lands,
Nishat, amk 3303; Hokhar sar amk 3795;
Bemna amk 3809.

Distribution : Temperate Asia, North Ame-
rica and Europe.

P. hydropiper ssp. mite (Shrank) Majeed.

Comb. nov.

Polygonum mite Schrank, Bayr. (Bair) 1:
668 (1789).

Erect or decumbent, rooting at the base and
on upper few nodes. Leaves broadly lanceo-
late. Ochrea truncate, cilia equal or much
longer than ochrea; spike lax, rarely leafy;
style bifid. Seeds broadly ovate, trigonous or
2 angled, shining smooth, brown. Pollen grains
similar to that of P. hydropiper, except in the
size of the exine.

517

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Common in the marshes, swamps and in
muddy wet meadows. Harwan amic 4015;
Ganderbal amk 3745.

Distribution . Europe, Asia minor, Himalayas.

Department of Botany,

Islamia College of Science
and Commerce,

Srinagar 190 002, Kashmir,

December 27, 1981.

Ack nowledgements

I thank to Mir. Hussain Ahmad, Head of
the Department for his help and the Univer-
sity Grants Commission for the financial help.

A. MAJEED KAK

References

Boissier, E. (1867-1883) : FI. Orientalis. Enume-
ratio Plantarum Orientalis Vol. IV. Geneva.

Bonner, J. (1913): Chemical Socialogy among the
plant life. A Scientific Book. Simon & Schuster Inc.,
New York, N. Y.

Danser, B. H. (1927) : Contribution a la syste-
matique de P. lapathefolium, Rec. Trav. Bot. Neerl.
Vol. 18; pp. 125-210.

Gray, P. (1921) : The encyclopedia of the Biolo-
gical Science ed. (1970), Chapman and Hall.

Gross, H. (1913) : Bietrage zur Kenntnis der Poly-
gonaceen. Botan. Jahrb. 49: 234-359.

Hara, H. (1966) : FI. of Eastern Plimalayas. Tokyo.

Jackson, B. H. (1885): Index Kewensis, Oxford
Plantarum Phanerogamarum. Oxford.

Hedrerg, O. (1946): Pollen morphology in the
genus Polygonum and its Taxonomical significance,
Sr. Bot. Tidskr. 40: 371-404.

Hooker, J. D. (1886) : The Flora of British
India, Vol. V; London.

Linnaeus, C. (1953) : Species Plantarum. Stock-
holm.

Mitra, G. S. (1945) : The Origin, Development
and morphology of Ochran in Polygonum orientalis
L. J. Ind. Bot. 18; 749-764.

Nair, P. K. K. (1965) : Pollen grains of W. Hima-
laya. Lucknow.

Nair, P. K. K. (1970): Pollen morphology of
Angiosperms. India.

Roxburg, W. (1832) : Flora Indica-Description of
Indian Plants. Delhi.

Small, J. K. (1903): Flora of the S. E. United
States. New York. p. 492.

Subramanyam, (1962) : Aquatic Angiosperms of
India. CSIR. New Delhi.

Tutin, T. G. et at. (1964) : Flora Europea. Vol.
I. Cambridge.

Wodehouse, R. P. (1931): Pollen grains in the
identification and classification of Plants. VI. Poly-
gonaceae. Am. Jour. Bot.; Vol. 18; pp. 749-764.

(1931) : Pollen grains in the

structure, identification and significance in science.
New York. London.

36. A NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF A FEW UNCOMMON

PLANTS IN W. BENGAL

Introduction

While collections of economic plants and
plant-products were made from western Duars
of Jalpaiguri district (W. Bengal) during the
month of April-May and November, 1981,
we could collect a few uncommon rare
plant species from the plains of North Bengal.
A perusal of available literature and herba-

rium specimens in the herbaria (CAL & BSIS)
revealed that these taxa sporadically grow in
W. Bengal and in the recent past their occur-
rence in the locality has not been reported.
So, we are trying to draw the attention of
Botanists for their immediate conservation
before the concerned taxa are eliminated from
the flora of W. Bengal. The plants are des-
cribed here with correct nomenclature, diagno-

518

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

stic characters and field data. The herbarium
specimens are deposited in the economic plants
herbarium of Industrial Section (BSIS),
Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.

ENUMERATION

CUCURBITACEAE

Hodgsonla macrocarpa (Bl.) Cogn. in DC.
Monogr. Phan. 3 (1881) 349; Hara, H. FI. E.
Himal. (1966) 323. H. heteroclita Hook. f.
and Thom., Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. India
2 (1879) 606; Chakravarty, Ind. Journ. Agric.
Sc. 16 (1946) 15, Monogr. on Indian Cucurbi-
taceae (1959) 27. Trichosanthes macrocarpa
Bl. Bijdr. (1826) 935.

Large climber; stem robust, angular, gla-
brous. Leaves broad, 3-5 lobed, upper surface
bright green and lower light green, both sur-
faces glabrous, base truncate or emarginate,
petiole robust, striate, glabrous or puberulous,
5-8 cm. long. Tendril robust, glabrous, usually
bifid. Male peduncle generally short, thick,
striate, glabrous or puberulous, 15-30 cm. long;
pedicels short and thick; bracts fleshy oblong-
lanceolate, 0.5-1 cm. long. Calyx tube yel-
lowish, glabrous, 8-10 cm. long, 7-9 mm. broad.
Corolla yellow outside, white inside; lobes 3-
nerved, 5 cm. long, fimbriate; fringes upto 15
cm. long.

Distribution. E. himalaya (Sikkim), Assam,
Burma, Malaysia and S. W. China.

Chakravarty (1959) has mentioned its occur-
rence in Darjeeling citing only one herbarium
specimen of Anderson 555 (CAL) whereas
Hara (1966 has only reported its occurrence
from two places (Sikkim) of E. himalaya.
Chakravarty (1959) also has cited other two
herbarium specimens of Lister S. N. (CAL)
and Gamble 7786 (Kew) collected from Ranga-
mati and Kamalasene of Chittagong hill tract

but the area is now in Bangladesh. So, it may
be concluded that the taxon is very rare in
W. Bengal so that it could not be collected
by other Botanists until the recent collections
by us from the plains of West Bengal.

Specimens examined — H. B. C. 473, March
1932 (CAL); K. Biswas 4928, Latherai
(Tippera) 1941 (CAL); V. Narayanaswami
and party 2325, 21 miles from Rajabhatkhawa
(Jalpaiguri) (CAL); S. N. D. and S. C. Roy
3610, Titi-f orest (Jalpaiguri), 23.4.1981
(BSIS).

Gomphogyne cissiformis Griff. PI. Cantor.
(1837) 26 in adnot. t. 4; Cogn. in DC. Monogr.
Phan. 3 (1881) 924, in Engler’s Das Pflanzenr.
4. 275. 1 (1916) 38; Clarke in Hook. f. FI.
Brit. India 2(1879) 632; Chakravarty, Monogr.
Indian Cucur. (1959) 184-186; Hara, H. FI. E.
Himal. (1966) 322-323.

Small slender and scandent herb, glabrous
or slightly puberulous especially at the nodes.
Leaves petiole slender, glabrous, 3-6 cm. long;
lamina finely membranous, upper surface
bright green, lower dull green, both surfaces
glabrous and smooth; base narrow, margin
crenate-dentate; teeth subround, mucronate;
middle leaflet 4-6 cm. long, 1-2 cm. broad;
lateral leaflets shorter. Tendril filiform, elon-
gate, glabrous. Male racemes simple or branch-
ed; main rachis slender, flexuose, glabrous, 10-
30 cm. long or longer, pedicels capillary, often
fasciculate, flexuose, glabrous, 1-3 mm. long;
base minutely bracteolate. Sepals narrow, acute,
1-1.5 mm. long. Petals glabrous, trinerved;
margin entire or obscurely denticulate, 2.5-3
mm. long, about 1 mm. broad.

Distribution. Himalaya (Garhwal to Sikkim),
Malaya, Indochina, S. W. China and Philippines.

Cowan and Cowan (1929) have not men-
tioned its occurrence in North Bengal. Chakra-
borty (1959) has referred only one herbarium
specimen of Gamble 8522 (CAL) collected

519

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

from Darjeeling (7000 ft.) in the range of E.
himalaya, whereas Kara (1966) has collected
, the plant from Nepal only. The authors have
also noted with great interest that the occur-
rence of this plant in West Bengal is very rare
and after several decades they have collected
the plant from the plains of W. Bengal for the
first time. Specimen examined — B. B.
Osmastre (S. N.), Lepchajagat (7000 ft.),
Darjeeling, 1903 (CAL); S.N.D. & S.C.R.
3558 (cf), on way to Gaidham (Seurani
forest), Jalpaiguri, 20.4.1981 (BSIS).

Verbenaceae

Oerodeadron wallichii Merrill in Journ. Arn.
Arb. 33 (1952) 220; Hara, H. FI. E. Himal.
(1966) 269. C. nutans (non Jack) Wall, ex
D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nepal (1825) 103; Prain,
D.B.P. 2 (1903) 623; Hook. f. FI. Brit. India
4 (1885) 591.

A tall shrub, glabrous. Leaves 20-16 cm.
long, 3 ~5 cm. broad, narrowly obovate or lan-
ceolate, subentire, much acuminate; base atte-
nuate; petiole short. Inflorescence panicle, very
lax, few flowered, bracteate; bracts filiform.
Calyx green, becomes red in fruit. Corolla
white or light violet; tube 1.28 cm.; lobes
1.25 cm., obovate. Drupe succulent, dark
purple.

Distribution. Himalaya (Sikkim), Assam to
Chittagong, Burma and Indochina.

Prain (1903) has reported this plant from
Chittagong which is now under Bangladesh.

Cowan and Cowan (1929) has recorded its
occurrence in North Bengal without citing its
actual place of collection and referring any
specific herbarium specimens. Hara (1966) has
collected the plant only from Nepal. We
also have not found any herbarium specimens
of W. Bengal inspite of thorough search in the
herbaria (CAL and BSIS). But we have

collected this plant from Jalpaiguri district.
So, the plant is treated as very rare and its
occurrence in the plains of W. Bengal recorded
for the first time.

Svecimen examined — S. N. D. & S.C.R.

3784, Titi forest, Jalpaiguri, 6.11.81 (BSIS).

Euphorbiaceae

Gfiochidion sphaerogymim Kurz, For. FI.
Burma 2 (1877) 346; Deb. D. B. Bull. Bot.
Surv. India 3 (1961) 290; Prain, D. Beng. PI.
2 (1903) 697; Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 5 (1890)
317.

A medium-sized or small tree. Leaves 5-15
cm long, 1.4-3. 5 cm. broad, lanceolate, acu-
minate; base oblique. Flowers clustered; male
flowers small, pedicelled; female flowers sub-
sessile. Capsules subsessile, 8-12 lobed with
large globose style in the depressed apex in
conjested fascicles.

Distribution. Eastern tropical himalaya
(Sikkim & Bhutan), Chittagong, Burma and
from Peru to Tenasserin.

Prain (1903) has reported this plant from
Chittagong which is now in Bangladesh.
Cowan and Cowan (1929) and Hara (1966,
1971 & 1974) have not reported this plant from
any part of W. Bengal. So, the occurrence of
this plant in W. Bengal is treated as very
rare and the present report of its occurrence
is the first record.

Specimens examined — S. K. Mukherjee
5604, Apalchand, Kathambari, Jalpaiguri, 1962
(CAL); H.B.C. (CAL), S.N.D. & S.C.R.
3534, Gayatring, Totopara, Jalpaiguri, 18.4.81
(BSIS).

Ack nowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. G. G. Maity, Botanist
and Mrs. K. Roy of Central National Herba-
rium, Howrah for their valuable help.

520

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Industrial Section, S. N. DAS

Botanical Survey of India, S. C. ROY

Calcutta-700 013,

July 3, 1982.

References

Chakravarty, H. L. (1959) : Monograph on In-
dian Cncurbitaceae.

Cowan, A. M. et al. (1929) : The Trees of North
Bengal including shrubs, woody climbers, Bamboos,
Palms and Tree Ferns. Calcutta.

Culshaw, J. C. (1950) : Some W. Bengal plants.

/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49: 188-196.

Hara, H. (1966, 1971, 1974): The flora of E.
Himalaya, Tokyo.

Matthew, K. M. (1966) : A preliminary list of
plants from Kurseong. Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 8: 158-
168.

37. NOTES ON VIOLA BET ONICIFOLIA J. SM. SENSU LATO

IN INDIA

(With a text -figure)

V. betonicifolia sensu lato (Sect. Nominium
Ging., sub-sect. Adnatae W. Beck.) includes
three sub-species — ssp. betonicifolia, ssp. jaun-
sarensis and ssp. nova-guineensis. W. Becker
(1917) included under V. betonicifolia s.l. a
series of populations ranging from the north-
west Himalayas to eastern Siberia and south-
west to southeast Australia. Within this he
recognised V. betonicifolia ssp. australensis
W. Beck., ( nomen illegit, ssp. betonicifolia ),
V. betonicifolia ssp. nepaulensis (Ging.) W.
Beck, and V. patrinii DC. The whole complex
is united in the possession of short, undifferen-
tiated calycine appendage, short spur on
lower petaJ, clearly bearded lateral petals and
short, dark coloured stipules.

The commonest of the Violas occurring in
hilly regions throughout India which has gene-
rally been identified as V. patrinii is V. betoni-
cifolia ssp. betonicifolia. V. betonicifolia ssp.
nepalensis (DC.) W. Beck, is now being in-
cluded in ssp. betonicifolia which appears from
the study of a photograph of the holotype of
ssp. nepalensis in the British Museum (BM).
The holotype of V. patrinii DC. from Siberia

(G-DC) has been examined V. patrinii, which
is considered here restricted to Siberia, Man-
churia and N. Japan, as also by W. Becker
(1917) and Hara (1975) is distinguished from
V. betonicifolia by the following characters:
Rhizome light brown. Flowers 1-2 cm across. Spur

2-6 mm V. betonicifolia

Rhizome dark brown to deep violet. Flowers upto
1 cm across. Spur up to 2 mm V. patrinii

The plant occurring in the Western Hima-
layas with larger flowers, larger spurs and
ovate-oblong to lanceolate leaves is V. betoni-
cifolia ssp. jaunsarensis (W. Beck.) Hara. V.
patrinii var. suaveolens Watt, and V. kashmi-
riana W. Beck, belong to the same race, being
connected by a series of intermediate forms.

V, betonicifolia ssp. nova-guineensis D. M.
Moore (1963) is restricted to Timor and New-
Guinea (Type from Asaro Valley, Goroka,
New Guinea, 15.6.1956, Hoogland and Pullen
5337 in CANB, photo !).

It differs from ssp. betonicifolia and ssp.
jaunsarensis in bearing triangular — hastate
leaves with basal lobes laterally prominent and
long decurrent on petiole, which is normally

521

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 81

more than twice as long as lamina.

V. betonicifolia J. Sm. in Rees., Cyclop. 37 :
Viola n. 7. 1819.

Perennial. Root stock ± articulated. Stems
or stolons O. Leaves in rosette, variable; lamina
1.5-8 x 0.5-3 cm, ovate-oblong, deltoid-ovate
to lanceolate, cuneate, truncate or widely to
shallowly cordate with basal lobes hastate to =t
sagitate, roundish-obtuse to — sub-acuminate,
crenate with rounded or blunt teeth or rarely
± serrate; petioles 2-10.5 cm; — winged above.
Stipules 0.5 -1.5 cm, ovate-lanceolate, acumi-
nate, sparsely dentate, adnate up to above the
middle point. Peduncles equalling or exceeding
leaves. Flowers 1-2 cm across, white to purple.
Sepals 4-8 mm, ovate to ovate-lanceolate, acute
or acuminate, appendage up to 2 . 5 mm, round-
ed. Petals up to 1.5 cm, obovate-oblong, late-
rals usually bearded at the base; spur 2-6 mm,
cylindrical, straight or slightly upcurved. Style
3 mm ± geniculate at base, clavate above;
stigma triangular-marginate, shortly beaked.
Capsule up to 1 cm, ellipsoid to oblong,
glabrous.

la. Lamina linear lanceolate to triangular ovate;

flowers up to 1.5 cm across, spur 2-4 mm ....
ssp. betonicifolia

lb. Lamina ovate oblong to broadly lanceolate;

flowers 2 cm across, spur 5-6 mm

ssp. jaunsarensis

la. ssp. betonicifolia — V. befonicifolia J.

Sm. in Rees., Cyclop. 37: Viola no. 7. 1819;
Jacobs et D. M. Moore in F3. Males. 7: 202.
1971; Hara in Bull. Univ. Mus. Univ. Tokyo
8: 82. 1975. V. betonicifolia J. Sm. ssp. austra-
lensis W. Beck, in Engl. Bot. Jahrb. Beibl.
120, 54: 166. 1917, nom. illegit. V. betonici-
folia J. Sm. ssp. nepalensis (Ging.) W. Beck,
in Engl. Bot. Jahrb. Beibl. 120, 54 : 167. 1917.
V. patrinii DC. var. nepalensis Ging. in DC.
Prodr. 1: 293. 1824. V. patrinii sensu Hook. f.
& Thoms. FI. Brit. Ind. 1: 183. 1872. pr.

max p.

Lamina 2-8 x 1-3 cm, deltoid-ovate to linear
lanceolate, deeply to shallowly crenate, sub-
cordate or truncate at the base, glabrous to
more or less pubescent; petioles 4-10 cm, usually
winged above. Peduncles 5-15 cm, bi-bracteo-
late at the middle. Flowers up to 1 . 5 cm across,
lilac. Sepals 4-6 mm, lanceolate. Petals up to
1 cm, obovate-oblong, laterals bearded at the
base; spur 2-4 mm.

Flowering. January to April. Fr . : March to
June — often extending throughout the year.

Type. Botany Bay, Port Jackson, N. S.
Wales, Australia, Dr. White ? n.v.

Specimens examined. INDIA: ARUNA-

CHAL PRADESH: Forest around Parasuram
kund, Lohit Dist, J. Joseph 48868 (CAL); Jana-
kmukh, Abor Expedition, I. H. Bur kill 37144
(CAL); Rami dam bank, Abor Expedition,
I. H. Burkill 36403 (CAL); Yambung camp.
Bank of Dihong, Abor Expedition, I. H. Burkill
36022 (CAL); Renging, Abor Expedition,
1. H. Burkill 37323 (CAL); Daphla Hills, J. L.
Lister 114 (CAL); Chenhang, Tiap F. D.,
D. B. Deb 26193 (CAL); Kalaktang, Kameng
F. D., G. Panigrahi 15571 (CAL); Tuting,
Siang F.D., R. S. Rao 17319 (CAL); Sissini
camp, Kameng F.D., G. Panigrahi 5956 (part)
(CAL); Petepool, Subansiri F.D., G. Panigrahi
19705 (CAL); Rupa I. B., Kameng F.D., G.
Panigrahi 6625 (CAL); Jabrang, Kameng F.
D., G. Panigrahi 6524 (CAL); Sadiya, Lohit
F.D., G. A. Gammie 243 (BSI); ASSAM:
Dibrugarh, Assam, King's collector s.n. (CAL,
Acc. 30940); Couhatty, Assam, Simon s.n.
(CAL, Acc. 30746), part; Sibsagar, Without
collector's name s.n. (CAL, Acc. 30950);
Mahurtula, Assam, N. Gill 128 (CAL); Lu ni-
di rin village, \\ miles from Moirang, G. Pani-
grahi 16281 (CAL). BIHAR: Behar, S. Kurz
s.n. (CAL, Acc. 30928). HIMACHAL PRA-
DESH: Chini, (Kinnaur), N. C. Nair 22407

522

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

V * <Df£> <5

8o°

40,

Fig. 1

523

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

(CAL); Shahpur, near Kangra, A.R.E.P.
15253 (CAL); Kangra, A.R.E.P . 15458

(CAL) ; Simla, A. C. s. n. (Acc. 30752)
(DD); Kulu, K. D. Bagchee s.n. (Acc. 53847)
(DD); JAMMU & KASHMIR: Kalunta

Dharggr, K. S. Ahluwala 1744 (CAL); Gilgit,
J. F. Dnthei s.n. (CAL); Didderwart, Kashmir,
B. M. Wadhwa & J. N. Vohra 294 (CAL);
Kashmir, Thaphyal, H. D. 26540 (DD). KAR-
NATAKA: Kulhutty, Bababood, A. Meebold
9547 (CAL); Bababuden hills, Mysore, W. A.
Talbot 2348 (CAL); Bababooden Hills,
Mysore, W. A. Talbot 2348 (BSI); Kemang-
gandishimoga, B. S. Ahuja 65603 (BSI);
KERALA : Rajamallay, Deviecolam, Kot-

tayam Dist., B. V. Shettey 33430 (CAL);
Way to top station, Kottayam Dist., D.
B. Deb 30812 (MH). MADHYA PRA-
DESH : Pachmari, J. F. Duthei 10. 308

(CAL); Jabbalpore, Without Collector s name
31969 (CAL); MANIPUR: Myong Khong,
Manipur, G. Watt 6031 (CAL); Kanglatonghi,
A. Meebold 5422 (CAL); Ukhrul, S. K.
Maker jee 2424 (CAL); Keithemabi, Manipur,

G. Watt 5837 (BSIS). MEGHALAYA: Shil-
long, Khasia Hills, C. B. Clarke 6072 (CAL);
Dumpep, Khasi Hills, I. H. Burkill and S. C.
Banerjee 34254 (CAL); Between Shillong &
Dumpep, Khasi Hills, I. H. Burkill and S. C.
Banerjee 338 (CAL); Myrang. Near Nunglung,
Without Collector s name 817 (CAL). MIZO-
RAM: Lushai Hills, Mrs. N. F. Parry s.n.
(CAL). NAGALAND: Piphema, Naga Hills,

H. Collett 162 (CAL); Jaboca, Naga Hills,
M. A. Hock (Praia's Collector) 107 (CAL).
ORISSA: Mahendragiri, Ganjum, Fischer &
Gage 1 (CAL); Mahendragiri, Ganjum, V.
Narayanaswami 5740 (MH); Kuthadya Hills,
Ganjum, V. Narayanaswami 5900 (MH); Sur-
guija state, Orissa, Mooney H. F. 2848 (DD),
RAJASTHAN: Sunset Hill, Mount Abu, K.
S. Ahluwala 243 (BSI). TAMIL NADU:

Saryatimalai forest, Salem, V. Narayanaswami
& Party 1390 (CAL); Upper Palnis, C. E. C.
Fischer 2895 (CAL); Madras, Rev. Aug.
Sauliers 93 (CAL); Shambaganur, Rev. Aug.
Sauliers 28 (CAL); Conur, G. King 1046
(CAL); Pulney Hills, Without Collector's
name s.n. (MH, Acc. 1214); Yercaud, Salem,
A. V. N. Rao 26944 (MH); UTTAR PRA-
DESH: Moralle, E. R. Johnson s.n. (CAL,
Acc. 30669); Kumaon, Anderson s.n. (CAL,
Acc. 30672); Harbanswala Tea Estate, Dehra
Dun, N. P. Singh 25464 (BSD); Niranjanpur,
Dehra Dun, N. P. Singh 25459 (BSD); Thai,
Kumaon, C. M. Arrora 36414 (BSD); Deol-
sari, Tehri-Garhwal, U. C. Bhattacharyya
33792 (BSD); Dehra Dun, H. B. Naithani 8
(DD); Mussorie, H. O. Saxena s.n. (DD, Acc.
140015). WEST BENGAL: Terai Ribu &
Rhomoo s.n. (CAL); Sookna, Ribu s.n.
(CAL); Shummui Danga, Darjeeling, /. S.
Gamble 1055 (CAL); Torsa (Terai), Ribu &
Rhomoo 3839 (CAL).

General Distribution. Afghanistan, Pakistan,
Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, China
to South Japan, Burma, Malaysia to Australia
(Fig. 1}< . .

Plants medicinal — bruised and applied to
ulcers and foul sores. Flowers in China, Indo-
China and Malaya said to purify blood
(Chopra et al. in Gloss. Med. PI. 255. 1956 —
as V. patrinii).

Chromosome reports : 2n = 48, 72 (Moore
in Fedde, Rep. 68: 84. 1963); 2n = 24 (Miyaji
in Cytologia 1: 28-58. 1929).

lb. Y. feetonicifolla J. Sm. ssp. jaunsarensis
(W. Beck.) Hara in J. Jap. Bot. 49(5): 133.
1974. V. prionantha Bunge, Enum. PI. China
82. 1831 ssp. jaunsarensis W. Beck, in Engl.
Bot. Jahrb. Beibl. 120, 54: 181. 1917. V.
patrinii DC. var. suaveolens Watt in J. Linn.
Soc. 18: 379. 1881. V. kashmiriana W. Beck,
in Engl. Bot. Jahrb. Beibl. 120, 54: 182. 1917.

524

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Lamina 2-5.5 x 1-3 cm, ovate oblong to
broadly lanceolate, ± hirsute, truncate, sub-
cordate or cordate at base, crenate-serrate,
obtuse to sub-acuminate, petioles 2-8 (-12)
cm. stipules 1-1.5 cm, oblong-acuminate,
shortly dentate. Peduncles up to 8 (-12) cm,
bi-bracteolate at or slightly below the middle.
Flowers 2 cm across. Sepals 8 mm, oblong,
acute. Petals 1 . 5 cm, obovate oblong, laterals
bearded at base, spur 5-6 mm, cylindric, re-
curved. Capsule 8 mm, ellipsoid.

FI. & Fr. : April- July.

Type ssp. jaunsarensis — Konain, Jaunsar,
/. F. Duthei 12963 (CAL — holo ! BM —
iso !).

Specimens examined. INDIA: HIMACHAL
PRADESH : Theong, Simla hill state, I. H. Bur-
kill 28635 (CAL); Chamba state J. H. Lace 111
(CAL); Bashahr, J. H. Lace 688 (CAL); Mar-
tiana, Simla Hill state, I. H. Burkill 28682
(CAL); Rotang Pass, Stoliczka s.n. (CAL,
Acc. 31027); on the ascent to the Sach Pass,
Chamba state, G. Watt 970 (CAL); Nagkanda
forest, Chamba. G. Watt 686. 970 & 2097
(BSIS); Begi. Simla, G. Watt 93 (BSIS);
Phagu, Simla, H. G. Carter E. B. 577 (BSIS);
Dainkund, Chamba state, /. H. Lace 1529
(BSIS). JAMMU & KASHMIR : Karakoram
Glaciers, W. M. Conway 309 (CAL); Purti,
Chenab Valley, Robert Ellis 1126 (CAL);
Mulluk and Lout of Bhabehpass, Stoliczka s.n.
(CAL, Acc. 34033). UTTAR PRADESH:

Botanical Survey of India,

Howrah 711 103,

September 20, 1982.

Kaltuan, Jaunsar, J. S. Gamble 25412 (CAL);
Bodyar, Jaunsar, C. A. Webb. 13 (BSIS);
Jaunsar, J. F. Duthie 12963 (DD).

General Distribution. Afghanistan, Pakistan.
(Fig. 1).

The type sheet of V. patrinii var. suaveolens
in Herb. BSIS with G. Watt’s annotations con-
sists of specimens under the different field nos.
686, 970 & 2097 with a common herbarium
label, collected at different times from Nag-
Konda forests, Chamba, N. W. Himalaya, of
these G. Watt 2097 with field notes has been
chosen here as lectotype of var. susveolens.
This same plant was described as V. kashmi-
riana by W. Becker.

Acknowledgements

We wish to express our deep gratitude to
the Director, Botanical Survey of India for
providing all facilities and to Dr. G. Pani-
grahi, joint Director, and Dr. M. P. Nayar,
Deputy Director, Botanical Survey of India for
scrutiny of the manuscript and helpful sugges-
tions, to Dr. D. M. Moore, Plant Science
Laboratories, University of Reading and Dr. H.
Hara, University Museum, University of Tokyo
for their valuable comments given in personal
communications to us, to the authorities
of various Indian and Foreign Herbaria for
sending materials including valuable types on
loan in connection with this work.

S. P. BANERJEE
B. B. PRAMANIK

References

Backer, W. (1917) : Violae Asiaticae et Austra-
lensis II. in Beih. Bot. Centrelbl. Abt. 2, 34: 373-433.

(1917): Zur Klarung der Viola

patrinii DC. and ahnlicher Arten in Engl. Bot. Jahrb.

Bcibl. 120, 54: 156-189.

Bunge. Al. (1831): Enumeratio plantarum in
China 82.

Chopra, R. N., Nayar, S. L. & Chopra, I. C.

525

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

(1956) : Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants, New
Delhi. 255.

Hara, H. (1974) : New or noteworthy flowering
plants from Eastern Himalaya (14). /. Jap. Bot.
49(5) : 132-133.

(1975) : Flora of Eastern Himalaya,

(Third report). Bull. Univ. Mus. Univ. Tokyo 8 :
82.

Hooker, J. D. & Thomson, T. (1872) : “Viola-
ceae'’ in J. D. Hooker’s The Flora of British India.
London 1 : 183.

Jacobs, M. & Moore, D. M. (1971) : “Violaceae”
in Flora Malesiana 7: 202.

Miyaji, Y. (1929) : Studien uber die Verheltnisse
der Chromosomen bei der Gattung Viola. Cytologia
1: 28-58.

Moore, D. M. (1963): The status of Viola beto-
nicifolia Sm. in New Guinea. Fedde. Rep. 68(2) :
84.

(1963) : The Violets of New

Guine n.s. 70(11) : 177-187.

Smith, J. E. (1819): in Rees. Cyclop. 37: Viola
n. 7.

Watt, G. (1881) : Notes on the Vegetation of
Chumba state and British Lohoul with descriptions
of New Species J. Linn. Soc. 8: 368-382.

38. DISTRIBUTIONAL NOTES ON MARGAR1TARIA L.F.
(EUPHORBIACEAE) IN SOUTHERN INDIA AND SRI LANKA

Margaritaria Li. is a relatively homogene-
ous genus of 14 closely related species (Web-
ster 1979), spread all over the tropical
world. It is characterized by dioecious habit,
unspecialised branching pattern, tetramerous
calyx, annular floral disc, papery endocarp and
unique seeds (fleshy exotesta and thick, bony
endotesta). It is allied to Flueggea (Dalzell
1852, Webster 1979) rather than to Phyllan-
thus. It differs from Flueggea in the lack of
pistillode in the male flower and from Phyllan-
thus in having an annular disc substending the
tetramerous androecium. Only two species of
Margaritaria occur in India and Sri Lanka,
namely M. indica (Dalz.) Airy-Shaw and M.
cyanosperma (Gaertner) Airy-Shaw.

In earlier Indian Taxonomic Literature,
Margaritaria indica has been included either
under Prosorus Dalz. (1852) or Phyllanthus
L. s.I. The genus Margaritaria L.f. (Suppl. PI.
66. 1781) was revived by Webster (1957) who
also revised it later in 1979. An attempt has
been made here to review the present situation
and the status of this genus in Southern India
and Sri Lanka.

As a result, the species which occurs in
India (i.e. M. indica ) was found to have a

wider distribution than what has been stated
earlier (cf. Map 5 of Webster 1979). Some
important collections of Thwaites (CP num-
bers) from Sri Lanka, including the isotype
of M. cyanosperma, were located in MH, and
what has been cited as M. cyanosperma
( Thwaites CP 2155) by Webster (1979 : 427)
has been identified M. indica.

The two species of Margaritaria, which are
found in Southern India and Sri Lanka, re-
semble each other in the glabrous nature of
plant parts, leaf morphology, tricarpellary
condition and in the rugose nature of endotesta
(sclerotesta). However, they differ in the size
of male flowers and in the number of female
flowers per axil. Compared to M. indica , in
fact in the whole genus (Webster 1979), the
staminate flowers of M. cyanosperma are lar-
ger. Moreover, while 1-3 pistillate flowers occur
in the axils of M. indica, they are solitary in
M. cyanosperma.

1. Margaritaria indica (Dalz.) Airy-Shaw
in Kew Bull. 20: 387. 1966, 25: 492. 1971,
26: 308. 1972 & 36: 330. 1981; Ramamoorthy
in Saldanha & Nicolson, FI. Hassan Dist. 345.
1976; Webster in J. Arnold Arb. 60: 425. 1979.
Prosorus indicus Dalz. in Hooker’s J. Bot. &

526

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Kcw Gard. Misc. 4: 346. 1852; Trimen, Hand.
FI. Ceylon 4: 27. 1898; Hook, f., FI. Brit.
India 5: 305. 1887; Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras
2: 905. 1957 (rcpr. ed.). T}'pe: India, Deccan,
Dalzell s. n. (K, n. v.). Phyllanthus indicus
(Dalz.) Muell.-Arg. in Linnaea 32: 52. 1863
et in DC. Prodr. 15(2): 417. 1866; Brandis,
Ind. Trees 571. 1906; Airy-Shaw in Kew Bull.
16: 342. 1963. P. stocksii Muell.-Arg. in Lin-
naea 32: 151. 1863. Type: India, Stocks &
Law s. n. (G, n. v.).

Specimens examined : India. ANDHRA

PRADESH: Chittoor Dist.: Mamandur (900
m): G. V. Subbar ao 31953, 26-6-1969, 9. A
new record for the State. KARNATAKA:
Coorg Dist. : Sampajee Ghat: R. H. Beddome
s.n. MH. Acc. No. 46977, cf. For additional
citations see Ramamoorthy in Saldanha &
Nicolson, FI. Hassan Dist. 345. 1976 and Web-
ster in J. Arnold Arb. 60: 426. 1979. KERALA:
Idukki Dist: Mullakudy (850 m) : B. D.
Sharma 43862 14-3-1973, (3; Malabar: Stocks ,
Law L. C. s.n., (3. 9 ; Malabar (Wynaad): R.
H. Beddome s.n. MH. Acc. No. 46976, . 9 .

TAMIL NADU : Coimbatore Dist.: Anama-
lais: R. H. Beddome s.n. Year 1866. (3, 9;
Anamalais. Karianshola (762 m): V. Narayana-
swamy 5365, 16-3-1931, <3. Tirunelveli Dist. :
Vasudevanallur R. F. (350 m) : E. Vajravelu
38853, 3-10-1971, $ . sri lanka. No precise
locality : Thwaites CP 2155, c? & 9 .

Distribution: India. Western Ghats: Coorg,
Kanara, Hassan, Wynaad, Anamalais, Thek-
kady and Tirunelveli. Eastern Ghats: Maman-
dur (Andhra Pradesh) in the south (present
study) and Mahendragiri hills (Orissa) in the
north (ex Haines, 1961). sri lanka.

2. M. cyanosperma (Gaertner) Airy-Shaw
in Kew Bull. 20: 387. 1966; Webster in J.
Arnold Arb. 60: 427. 1979. Croton ? cyano-
spermus Gaertner, Fruct. Semin. PI. 2: 120.

pi. 107. 1791. Prosorus gaertneri Thwaites in
Hooker’s J. Bot. & Kew Gard. Misc. 8: 272.
1856. P. cyanospermus (Gaertner) Thwaites,
Enum. PI. Zeyl. 281. 1861; Hook f., FI. Brit.
India 5: 305. 1887; Trimen, Hand. FI. Ceylon
4: 27. 1898. Phyllanthus cyanospermus (Gaert-
ner) Muell.-Arg. in Linnaea 32: 51. 1863 et
in DC. Prodr. 15(2): 416. 1866. Neotype:
Ceylon, Thwaites CP 2601 (PDA, holotype,
n. v. ; designated by Webster, l.c. since Gaertner’s
type was considered to be missing). Cicca
gaertneriana Baillon, Etud. Gen. Euphorb. 619.
1858. Zygospermum zeylanicum Thwaites ex
Baillon, Etud. Gen. Euphorb. 620. pi. 27. fig.
11. 1858. Type: Ceylon.

Thwaites s.n. (P, n.v.).

Specimens examined : sri lanka. Without
any precise locality: Thwaites CP 2601, 9,
(Isotype); No. Collector’s name or locality:
MH. Acc. No. 61815, 3, 9.

Distribution: Endemic to Sri Lanka.

Note: Webster (1979: 427) cited Thwaites
CP 2155 (A) under M. cyanosperma. But the
specimen available in MH (also Thwaites CP
2155) was found to be M. indica. It is interest-
ing to note here that CP 2155 (PDA) was
quoted under Prosorus indica by Thwaites
(1856: 272) himself.

All the specimen cited in this paper are
available in MH unless stated otherwise.

AcK NO WLEDGE M E NTS

I am grateful to Dr. Piratla N. Rao, Dept,
of Botany, Nagarjuna University, Nagarjuna-
nagar, and to Dr. A. N. Henry and Sri K.
Vivekananthan of Botanical Survey of India,
Coimbatore, for encouragement and sugges-
tions; to the authorities of Botanical Survey
of India, Coimbatore, for allowing me to
work in the Madras Herbarium; and to the
CSIR, New Delhi, for financial assistance.

527

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Department of Botany,

Nagarjuna University,

Nagarju nan agar- 522 510, A.P.,

February 5, 1983.

Refer

Dalzell, N. A. (1852): Contribution to the

botany of Western India. Hooker’s J. Bot. & Kew
Gard. Misc. 4 : 341-347.

Haines, H. H. (1961): The Botany of Bihar and
Orissa. 1 : 132.

Thwaites, G. H. K. (1856): Notes on the genus
Prosorus Dalzell. Hooker’s J. Bot. & Kew Gard.

VATSAVAYA S. RAJU1

E N C E S

Misc. 8: 271, 272.

Webster, G. L. (1957) : A monographic study of
the West Indian species of Phyllanthus. J. Arnold
Arb. 38: 51-80.

(1979) : A Revision of Mar gar i-

taria (Euphorbiaceae) . ibid. 60: 403-444.

1 Present Address: Scientist-B, Tropical Botanic
Garden and Research Institute, P. B. No. 2415,
Trivandrum-695-01 1 , India.

39. MELOCH1A PYRAMIDATA LINN. ( ST ERCULI ACE AE) —
A NEW RECORD FOR MAHARASHTRA

(With six text-figures)

Melochia pyramidata Linn. Sp. PL 674,
1753: Baker et al. in Flora of Java 1 : 406
1963 :M. T. Masters in FI. Brit. India 1 : 374,
1874. S. S. Veppulari, Indian Forester, 95(5):
311-3, 1969.

An erect, profusely branched herb, 0.5- 1.0
meter tall. Stem terete, woody at base. Leaves
petiolate, stipulate, simple, alternate, ovate-
lanceolate, 5. 2-5. 5 cm. long and 2. 4-3. 3 cm.
broad, acute at the apex, obtuse at the base,
crenate along margins, glabrous on both the
surfaces. Veins 6-8, prominent on dorsal side,
five veins given out from the base of the mid-
rib. Petiole 2-2.5 cm. long grooved on dorsal
side, with curved hairs on all over the groove,
rusty. Stipules free lateral, deltoid, 0.5- 1.0 cm.
long and 0.2-0. 3 cm. broad at the base, hairy
on both margins, deciduous. Inflorescence leaf-
opposed, umbel-like cymes, 4-6 flowered,
peduncle 1.2- 1.5 cm. long, pubescent, with
glandular hairs all over; glands brown in colour.

Flowers regular, bisexual, bracteate, purple in
colour. Calyx 5-lobed, united at base, divided
up to the middle, long-acuminate, green, glan-
dular hairy. Corolla with 5 petals; purple, with
yellow base. Stamens 5, opposite to the petals,
adnate at the base; filaments 4-6 mm. long;
anthers dorsifixed; pollen-grains spherical,
smooth. Ovary superior, shortly stalked, oblong,
hairy all over, 5 -celled, syncarpous, with one
ovule in each cell on axile placenta; style deep-
ly 5-lobed, stout, hairy; stigma papillose. Fruit
a capsule, broadly pyramidal, obtuse at base,
longitudinally 5-winged; wings dilated towards
base, 6-8 mm long, thin-walled, greenish-
yellow, with red patches, stellately hairy, de-
hiscing longitudinally. Seeds dark-brown,
roughly triangular.

Flowers : October-May.

This is an introduced Tropical American
weed found in India, and recently located in
Bombay in waste lands near Bandra and

528

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Figs. 1-6. Melochia pyramidata Linn.

1. Flowering twig; 2. Single flower; 3. Petal with a stamen; 4. Pistil; 5. Fruit; 6. Seed.

529

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 81

Chembur. S. S. Veppulari reported it from
Sibpur, Howrah. Masters (l.c.) records it as
an introduced weed in India. However, he has
not given any description or distribution.
Since the first collection of this species from
Bombay, it was kept under observation and

Blatter Herbarium,

St. Xavier’s College,

Bombay-400 001.

Institute, of Science,

Bombay-400 032,

January 14, 1983.

repeated collections were made for its complete
study. The identity of this species is confirmed
by Mr. R. L. Mitra, Botanical Survey of India,
Howrah, for which we are grateful to him.

Exsiceata : C. S. Lattoo — 6175 (Inst.),
6194 (BLAT).

S. M. ALMEIDA

C. S. LATTOO

40. ACRORUMOHRA DIFFRACT A (BAKER) H. ITO
(ASPIDIACEAE) : A LITTLE KNOWN FERN FROM ARUNACHAL
PRADESH AND SHAN STATE OF UPPER BURMA

In course of studying the Pteridophytic flora
of Manipur and adjacent states I have
come across a peculiar fern specimen (3
gatherings) with zig-zag rachis collected by
Col Baigui in 1874 from Duphla hills of
Arunachal Pradesh, India and another by H.
Collett from Luchin, Shan State of Upper
Burma. Sheets of Col. Baigui were identified
as Lastrea undulata Thw. and then determin-
ed as Dryopteris obtussima (Mett.) Christ. But
on examination it has been determined as
Acrorumohra diffracta (Baker) H. Ito based
on the peculiarities stated by Ching (1934)
as “This is a strikingly unique fern one should
never forget once seen, on account of its
lateral pinnae, particularly the lower ones, be-
ing peculiarly deflexed on the lower part of
rachilets”. Finally these specimens were also
matched with the photograph of the Type
specimen.

This plant is so far known from mainland,
China, Indo-China and Taiwan but hitherto not

reported from India. The plant was first des-
cribed as Nephrodium diffracta Baker in 1898
based on the collection of A. Henry 1928 from
Yunnan in 1898. Later there was confusion
among several workers regarding its proper
generic identity. Christ and C. Christinson trans-
ferred this under Aspidium and Dryopteris res-
pectively. Later Ching placed it under Rumohra
and it was treated by Hayata as a new species
under Dryopteris as D. reflexipinna Hayata.
Finally this plant has been correctly placed
under the genus Acrorumohra H. Ito based
on the characters (i) Zig-zag rachis with re-
flexed pinna, (ii) anadromaus veins, (iii) sori
terminal on the veins and (iv) reniform to
suborbicular indusium.

Moreover, Ching has mentioned that another
species Acrorumohra hasselttii (Bl.) Ching
also occurs in Assam which is based on G.
Mann’s collection.

However, not a single specimen of these
two plants have been collected either

530

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

from Arunachal Pradesh or from Assam
after Col. Baigui and G. Mann respectively.

The collection of H. Collett from Luchin,
Shan states housed at Central National
Herbarium (CAL) is also identified as
Acrorumohra diffract a (Baker) H. Ito. It was
not earlier reported from Burma. It is interest-
ing to note that both Indian and Burma col-
lections were made much earlier than A. Henry
(1898) from China in 1874 and 1888 respec-
tively. Thus it shows its distributional ranges
from Taiwan, China mainland, Indo-China,
Burma and North East India (Arunachal
Pradesh).

For easy identification, the species is des-
cribed below.

Acrorumohra diffracta (Baker) H. Ito in
Nakai et Honda, Nov. FI. Jap. 4. 104. 1939;
Deval C. W. E. & Kuo, C. M. in FI. Taiwan
1: 360. PI. 127. 1975. Nephrodium diffracta
Baker in Kew Bull. 1898: 230. 1898. Aspidium
diffractum Christ in Bull. Herb. Bioss. 7: 17.
1899. Dryopteris diffracta C. Chr. in Ind.
Fil. 262. 1905. Dryopteris reflexipinna

Hayata in Ic. PI. Form. 4: 174. PL 113. 1914;
C. Chr. Ind. Fil. Suppl. 16. 1913-17; Rumohra
diffracta (Baker) Ching in Sinensia. 5: 1. 69.
PI. 18. 1934.

Cryptogamic Unit,

Botanical Survey of India,

Howrah-711 103,

December 21, 1982.

Type: Yunnan, Mentze. A. Henry 9028,
Description (Photo !)

Rhizome short erect to ascending densely
clothed with dark brown, paleaceous scales,
stipes brown, glabrous, 20-40 cm long; Lamina
25-40 cm long, 15-30 cm broad, quadripinnate,
deltoid to broadly ovate; pinnae from rachis
deflexed, more in first pair of the lower pinna,
this gives the rachis a zig-zag form; rachis
straminous, shiny, glabrous; pinnae 6-8 pairs,
petiole reflexed, segments fiabellate, undulate
to crenate; pinnules chartaceous in texture,
green even when dried; veins free 2-4 furked,
nor racking to the margin; sori on the vein
end; indusium persistent, reniformed with un-
dulate margin.

Specimen Examined :

India: Arunachal Pradesh, Duphla Hills,
2100 m. 1874, Col. Baigui s. n. (Acc. Nos.
16801, 16802, 16904 — CAL).

burma: Shan States, Luchin, 900 m, Feb.
1888, H. Collett s. n. (CAL).

Ack nowledge m e n ts

I thank Dr. G. G. Maiti for his valuable
suggestions in preparing the manuscript.

B. GHOSH

41. AN INTERPRETATION OF BAUHINIA L. ( SENSU LATO)
SPECIES ILLUSTRATED IN VAN RHEEDE’S HORTUS
MALABARICUS (1678-1703)

The plates Chovanna-mandaru (Hort. Malab.
1: 58. t. 32. 1678), Chovanna-mandaru (Hort.
Malab. 1 : 59. t. 33. 1678), V duttamandaru
(Hort. Malab. 1: 61. t. 34. 1678), Canschena-

pou (Hort. Malab. 1: 63. t. 35. 1678), Man-
daru-valli (Hort. Malab. 8: 55. t. 29. 1688),
Naga-mu-valli (Hort. Malab. 8: 57. t. 30. 1688)
and Naga-mu-valli (Hort. Malab. 8: 57. t. 31.

531

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

1688) in van Rheede’s Hortus Malabaricus
(1678-1703) are illustrations of plants belong-
ing to the genus Bauhinia L. ( sensu lato). In
his bibliography to Rheede’s Hortus Malaba-
ricus (1678-1703), Dennstedt (1818) identified
Chovanna-mandaru Rheede as Bauhinia varie-
gata L., Chovanna-mandaru Rheede as B.
purpurea L., V elutta-mandaru Rheede as B.
acuminata L., Canschena-pou Rheede as B.
tomentosa L., Mandaru-valli Rheede as ( Naga -
valli on plate) as B. divaricata L. and the
plates Naga-mu-valli Rheede (as Serpata-valli
on plate) as B. scandens L. The correct identity
and up-to-date nomenclature of all the seven
plates mentioned above are discussed here.

The word ‘Mandaru’ in Hortus Malabaricus
(1678-1703) is derived from the local name
‘Mandaram’ in Malayalam, commonly used for
the flowers of B. purpurea.

1. Chovanna-mandaru Rheede, Hort.
Malab. 1:57. t. 32. 1678.

Linnaeus (1753) referred Rheede’s plate
Chovanna-mandaru to B. variegata L. and also
gave the locality of the species as Malabar.
Hence there is little doubt as to the identity
of this plate and Dennstedt (1818), Hamilton
(1822) and Dylwin (1839) further confirmed
this.

The name Chovanna-mandaru in the native
language Malayalam refers to the red flowers
of the plant. The flowers in this case are pur-
plish-pink with the upper most petal darker
and variegated with yellow stripes. Hamilton
(1822), Roxburgh (1832) and de Wit (1956)
considered B. Candida Ait., a plant with white
flowers, as a variety of B. variegata , namely
B. variegata L. var. alboflava de Wit. The up-
to-date nomenclature of the species is as
follows.

Bauhinia variegata L. Sp. PI. 375. 1753;
Dennst. Schul. 10. 1818; Ham. in Trans. Linn.
Soc. London 13: 497. 1822; DC. Prodr. 2: 514.

1825; Roxb. FI. Ind. (ed. Carey) 2: 319. 1832;
Wt. et Arn. Prodr. 296. 1834; Dylwin, Review
Ref. Hort. Malab. 2. 1839; Baker in Hook. f.
FI. Brit. Ind. 2: 284. 1878; Prain in J. Asiat.
Soc. Beng. 66(2): 505. 1897; de Wit in Re-
inwardtia 3: 411. 1956. — B. variegata (L.)
Willd. sec. Roxb. FI. Ind. (ed. Carey) 2: 319.
1832. — Phanera variegata (L.) Benth. in
Miq. PI. Jungh. 2: 262. 1852. — Bauhinia
Candida Ait. Hort. Kew. 2: 49. 1789. — B.
variegata var. condida (Ait.) Corner, Ways.
Trees Mai. 383. 1940.

Type: L. 908. 112-142 (Neotype, duplicate
of it i.e. Modhupore, Bogra, Bengal R. E. P.
12187 in BSIS !).

Distribution: Possibly a native of China
cultivated in other countries including India
and Malaysia.

2. Chovanna-mandaru Rheede, Hort.
Malab. 1 : 61. t. 34. 1678.

Rheede’s plate Chovanna-mandaru is the
only reference which Linnaeus (1753) gave
under B. purpurea L. in Species Plantarum.
Hamilton (1822) also interpreted the plate as
B. purpurea and diagnosed the plant as differ-
ing from B. variegata. Because of the purple
petals of this plant, Rheede (1678) named it
Chovanna-mandaru, an appellation which he
had already used for B. variegata. Authors like
Dennstedt (1818), Roxburgh (1832) and
Dylwin (1839) rightly identified Chovanna-
mandaru as B. purpurea with the following
nomenclature.

Bauhinia purpurea L. Sp. PI. 375. 1753;
Dennst. Schul. 10. 1818; Ham. in Trans. Linn.
Soc. London 18: 497. 1822; Roxb. FI. Ind.
(ed. Carey) 2: 320. 1832; Wt. et Am. Prodr.
296. 1834; Dylwin, Review Ref. Hort. Malab.
2. 1839; Baker in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 2:
284. 1878; Prain in J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 66(2):
180. 1897; de Wit in Reinwardtia 3: 406.
1956 — B. coromandelina DC. Prodr. 2: 515.

532

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1825. — B. triandra Roxb. FI. Ind. (ed. Carey)
2: 320. 1832. Phanera purpurea (L.) Benth.
in Miq. PL Jungh. 1 : 262. 1852.

Type: Merrill, Sp. Blancoanae no. 1050 (L.
920. 278-111, Neotype).

Distribution : South-east Asia.

3. Vellutta-mandaru Rheede, Hort. Malab.
1: 61. t. 34. 1678.

Linnaeus (1753) in describing B. acuminata
L. referred to Rheede’s plate V elutta-mandaru.
Subsequently Dennstedt (1818), Hamilton
(1822) and Dylwin (1839) also identified the
plate as B. acuminata. However De Candolle
(1825) referred Vellutta-mandaru to B. varie-
gata erroneously as the flowers of the former
are white as against the red flowers in B.
variegata. Similarly B. Candida Ait. which is
often treated as a synonym of B. acuminata
also has purple-blotched or striped flowers.
Eventhough Aitchinson’s (1789) description is
insufficient to distinguish B. Candida from B.
acuminata, the meaning of the name Vellutta-
mandaru in Hortus Malabaricus is quite diag-
nostic, referring to its white flowers.

BauSiinia acuminata L. Sp. PL 375. 1753;
Dennst. Schul. 17. 1818; Ham. in Trans. Linn.
Soc. London 13: 497. 1822; DC. Prodr. 2: 513.
1825; Wt. et Arn. Prodr. 295. 1834; Dylwin,
Review Ref. Hort. Malab. 3. 1839; Baker in
Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 2: 276. 1878; Prain in
J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 59 (2): 244. 1890; ibid.
66 (2): 179. 1897; de Wit in Reinwardtia 3:
393. 1956. — B. Candida Ait. sensu DC. Prodr.
2: 513. 1825. — B. tomentosa Naves in Blanco.
FI. Filip. J. Sci. (Bot.) 2: 433. 1907.

Type Herman, Ceylon Herb. 148 (BM).
Distribution. South-east Asia.

4. Canschena-pou Rheede, Hort. Malab.
1: 63, t. 35. 1678.

The plate shows a twig with flowers and
fruits. Linnaeus (1753), Dennstdt (1818) and
Dylwin (1839) identified it as B. tomentosa

L. Hamilton (1822) eventhough considered B.
tomentosa as ‘the most improper appellation’
for this species as the fully grown leaves are
devoid of tomentum, also agreed to Linnaeus
(1753) on the identity of the plate.

BauSiinia tomentosa L. Sp. PL 375. 1753;
Dennst. Schul. 10. 1818; Ham. in Trans. Linn.
Soc. London 13: 498. 1822; DC. Prodr. 2:
514. 1825; Roxb. FI. Ind. 2: 323. 1832; Wt.
et Am. Prodr. 295. 1834; Dylwin, Review Ref.
Hort. Malab. 3. 1839; Baker in Hook. f. FI.
Brit. Ind. 2: 275. 1878; Prain in J. Asiat. Soc.
Beng. 66(2): 178. 1899; de Wit in Rein-
wardtia 3: 409. 1956 — B. pubescens DC.
Mem. XIII Leg. 483. 1825.

Type : Cult. Bogor Botanic garden, I. B.
9a (Neotype : L. 950. 287-613).

Distribution. Indigenous to South-east Asia.

5. Mandaru-valli Rheede, Hort. Malab.
8: 55. t. 29. 1688 ( Nagavalli vel Mandaru-
valli on plate).

6. Naga-mu-valli Rheede, Hort. Malab. 8:
57. t. 30, 31. 1689 (Serpata-valli on plate).

Rheede’s plates Mandaru-valli and Naga-mu-
valli are the figures of one and the same plant
in two different stages of growth. Dennstedt
(1818) identified both Mandaru-valli and
Naga-mu-valli as B. divaricata L. which is
now known as a monandrous South American
species (de Wit 1956) not recorded from Old
World. Prior to Dennstedt (1818), Linnaeus
(1753) quoted Mandaru-valli when he describ-
ed B. scandens L. and from the note he had
given under B. scandens in Species Plantarum,
it is clear that Naga-mu-valli was the plant
which he intended as typical of the species.
Further, Linnaeus (1754) in Stickman’s Her-
barium Amboinense also identified Folium
linguae Rumph. (Herb. Amb. 5: 1. PL 1.
1747) with B. scandens L. Pointing out this as
a mistake, Merrill (1917) identified Folium
linguae Rumph. with B. lingua DC. ( Phanera

533

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

lingua (DC.) Miq.). Because of this confu-
sion, the name B. anguina Roxb. was often
used for the plant under discussion eventhough
it was a later synonym of B. scandens L.

In giving the nomenclature of the species
under Bauhinia, the concept of Taubert (1894)
and Hutchinson (1964) is accepted here as
against that of de Wit (1956) who recognised
Lasiobema (Korth.) Miq. as a distinct genus
with L. scandens (L.) de Wit (B. scandens
L.) as the type species.

Bauhinia scandens L. Sp. PI. 374. 1753;
Demist. Schul. 13. 1818; Roxb. FI. Ind. (ed.
Carey) 2: 326. 1832; Dylwin, Review Ref.,
Hort. Malab. 39. 1839; Prain in J. Asiat. Soc.
Beng. 66(2): 94. 1897 — Phanera scandens
(L.) Rafin Sylv. tell. 122. 1838 — Bauhinia
anguina Roxb. Hort. Beng. 31. 1814 (nom.
nud. ) ; PI. Corom. 3: 82. pi. 285. 1819 & FI.

Botanical Survey of India,

Calcutta - 700 016,

October 28, 1982.

Ind. (ed. Carey) 2 : 328. 1832; DC. Prodr. 2:
516. 1825; Wt. et Arn. Prodr. 298. 1834; Baker
in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 2. 284. 1878. —
Lasiobema anguinum (Roxb.) Korth. ex Miq.
FI. Ind. Bat. 1(1): 71. 1855 — L. horsfieldii
Miq. FI. Ind. Bat. 1(1): 71. 1855. — B. hors-
fieldii (Miq.) Macbride, Contr. Gray Herb.
II no. 59: 23. 1919. — Lasiobema scandens
(L.) de Wit, Reinwardtia 3: 427. 1956.

Type : Hors field s.n. (L. 169). Java (Holo-
type, K).

Distribution : India, Indo-China and possibly
Sri Lanka.

Acknowledgement

I am grateful to Dr. K. Thothathri, Deputy
Director, Central National Herbarium, Botani-
cal Survey of India, Howrah for critically
reading the manuscript.

K. K. N. NAIR1

References

Baker, J. G. (1876-78) : Leguminosae in J. D.
Hooker’s Flora of British India. Vol. 2 (Pt. IV &
V). London.

Burk ill, I. H. (1965) : Chapters in the History
of Botany in India. Delhi.

Candolle, A. P. de (1825): Prodromus Systema-
tis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis. etc. Vol. 2. Paris.

Dennstedt, A. W. (1818) : Schlussel Zum Hortus
Indicus Malabaricus oder dreifaches Register zu die-
ssem, Werke. Weimar.

de Wit, H. C. D. (1956): A revision of Malay-
sian Bauhinieae. Reinwardtia 5(4) : 381-541.

Dyllwyn, L. N. (1839) : A review of the refe-
rences to Hortus Malabaricus of H. van Rheede van
Draakenstein. Swansea.

Hamilton, B. (1822): A commentary on Hortus
Malabaricus Pt. 1. J. Linn. Soc. London 13: 474-560.

Johnston, M. C. (1970) : Still no herbarium re-
cords for Hortus Malabaricus. TAXON 19(4) : 655.

Lamarck, J. B. A. P. M. de (1788) : Encyclopediae
Methodique Botanique Vol. 2. (Pt. 2). Paris.

Linnaeus, C. (1753) : Species Plantarum, Vol. 2.
Holminae.

Manitz, H. (1968) : August Wilhelm Dennstedt’s
Schussel zum Hortus Indicus Malabaricus. TAXON
17(5): 496-59.

Merrill, E. D. (1917) : An Interpretation of Rurr*
philus Amboienense. Paris.

Raizada, M. B. (1954) : Hortus Malabaricu

Madras State Herbarium Centenary Souvenir (1954)
64-69.

Rheede, H. van Draakenstein, et at. (1678-1703):
Hortus Indicus Malabaricus. 12 Vols. Amsterdam.

Ricket, H. W. & Stafleu, F. A. (1961) : Nomina

1 Present address: Kerala Forest Research Insti-
tute, Peechi-680 653, Kerala.

534

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Generica Conservenda et Rejecienda Spermatophy-
torum VII. Bibliography. TAXON 70(3) : 70-91.

Roxburgh, W. (1832): Flora Indica. Vol. 3.

Serampore.

Rumphius, G. E. (1692): Herbarium Amboi-
nense. Baarn.

Stafleu, F. A. (1975) : Roxburgh William, Flora
Indica . . . TAXON 24 (5&6) : 685-686.

Stickman, (1754) : Herbarium Amboinense. Vpsa-
liae.

Taubert P. (1874) : Leguminosae in Engler &
Prantl. Die naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien 3(3): 70-
385. Berlin.

Tiiothathri, K. & Nair, K. K. N. (1981): Dal-
bergias in Hortus Malabaricus, TAXON 50(1) : 43-
47.

Thwaites, G. H. K. (1858-64) : Enumeratio Plan-
tarium Zeylaniae. An enemeration of Ceylon Plants
(Assisted by J. D. Hooker). London.

Warner, M. F. (1920) : The dates of Rheede’s
Hortus Malabaricus. /. Bot. 58: 291-92.

Willdenow, C. L. (1802) : Species Plantarum
Vol. 3 (pt. II). Berlin.

Wight, R. & Walker, G. A. (1834) : Prodromus
Florae Peninsulae Indiae Orientalis. London.

NOTES AND NEWS

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On the taxonomy of the Indian Ocean lizards of the Phelsuma madagascari-
ensis species group (Reptilia, Geckonidae). By Achim — Rudiger Borner and
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Agastyamalai and its environs: A potential area for a Biosphere Reserve.

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Reproductive biology of the mugger ( Crocodylus palustris). By Romulus Whitaker

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Morphological studies on the syconia of Ficus bengalensis Linn. By R. Indra
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Distribution of Drosophila species and their diversities in the tropical rain
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A SKETCH ON THE SEDGE AND GRASS FLORA OF JALPAIGURI DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL.
By J. K. Sikdar

Rhesus monkey distribution in the lower Himalayas and secondary forest
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Breeding habits and associated phenomena in some Indian bats. Part TX —
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Activity patterns in a colony of Peafowls ( Pavo cristatus ) in nature. By K.
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Population structure of the Indian House Rat, Rattus rattus rufescens in the

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and Ramesh Bakde

New Descriptions

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VOLUME 81(3) : DECEMBER 1984

Date of Publication : 28-1-1985.

CONTENTS

Page

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE BIOLOGY OF HOUBARA: 1982-83 WINTERING POPULATION IN

Baluchistan. By Afsar Mian. ( With a text-figure ) . . 537

Oriental Lycaenidae, Riodinidae, and Hesperiidae from the Central Nepal

Himalayas. By Oakley Shields • • 546

A REPORT ON A COLLECTION OF AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM THE PONMUDI,

Kerala, south India. By Robert F. Inger, H. Bradley Shaffer, Mammen Koshy
and Ramesh Bakde. ( With five plates ) • • 551

Pollination ecology of Euphorbia geniculata (Euphorbiaceae) . By E. U. B. Reddi

and C. Subba Reddi. (With a plate and three text-figures) .. 571

Adaptive modifications of the Reduviidae of the scrub jungles and semi-arid
zones of the Palghat Gap, India — an evolutionary approach. By D.
Livingstone and D. P. Ambrose. (With sixty text figures in five plates) . . 583

A NOTE ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOME PLANTS IN GANGANAGAR DISTRICT, RAJAS-
THAN. By B. P. Singh and N. S. Brar . . 596

Breeding biology of the Indian Fruit Bat, Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl) in

Central India. By Satwant Sandhu. ( With a text-figure) . . 600

Birds of a polluted river. By Prakash Gole. (With four text-figures & three maps) 613

Orchids of Great Nicobar Island and their conservation. By D. K. Hore and

N. P. Balakrishnan . . 626

Is habitat destruction in India and Pakistan beginning to affect the status

of endemic passerine birds ? By A. J. Gaston . . 636

Food and feeding habits of fingerlings and juveniles of Mahseer (Tor
putitora Ham.) in Nayar river. By Prakash Nautiyal and M. S. Lai. (With
three text-figures) . . 642

The environmental limitations and future of the Asiatic Lion. By Paul

Joslin. (With six text-figures) .... 648

New Descriptions:

A new species of the genus Oxyiirella Dybowski and Grochowski, 1894,
(Cladocera: Chydoridae) from India. By Pramod D. Rane. (With six text-
figures) . . 665

A new species of the genus Bosminopsis Richard, 1895 (Crustacea: Cladocera:

Bosminidae) from India. By Pramod Rane. (With three text- figures) . . 668

A new species of the genus Mixocera Warren (Subfamily: Geometrinae) . By

V. K. Walia and H. R. Pajni. (With seven text-figures) . . 670

Freshwater algae of Karnataka State (India) : Cosmarium kaycedense sp. nov.
and Euglena lunaris sp. nov. from Dharwad. By G. R. Hegde and S. G.

Bharati. (With two text-figures) . . 673

A new species of Impatiens L. (Balsaminaceae) from south India. By M.

Chandrabose, V. Chandrasekaran and N. C. Nair. (With eleven text-figures) 676

A new species of Parasyrpophagus Giraijlt (FIymenoptera : Encyrtidae) from

Aligarh, India. By Anis Fatma and S. Adam Shafee. (With a text-figure) 678
A NEW cobitid FISH of the genus Aborichthys Chaudhuri (Pisces: Cobitidae)

from India. By R. P. Barman. (With a text-figure) .. 680

Review :

Flowers of the Himalaya. (M. R. Almeida) . , 684

Miscellaneous Notes:

Mammals: 1. Strange behaviour of a tiger. By Divyabhanusinh (p. 685); 2. On the presence
of the Pangolin Manis crassicaudata Gray and a Fox Vulpes sp. in Kutch. (With a photo-

graph). By Himmatsinhji (p. 686); 3. Observations on unusual sexual behaviour in elephants.
By K. K. Ramachandran (p. 687); 4. Additional range inhabited by Bharal ( Pseudois
nayaur) and Snow Leopard ( Panthera uncia) in Nepal. By Philip M. Hall and Jack H.
Cox, Jr. (p. 688); 5. A note on antler casting of barking deer ( Muntiacus muntjak) in
captivity. By L. N. Acharjyo and S. K. Patnaik (p. 690).

Birds: 6. On the occurrence of Great Crested Grebe Podiceps cristatus cristatus (Linn.) in
coastal Andhra Pradesh. By K. S. R. Krishna Raju, B. L. Prabhu and P. R. Gopala Raju (p.
691); 7. A note on the catching of migratory birds which visit Alipore Zoo, Calcutta in winter.
(With a photograph ). By Adhir Kumar Das (p. 691); 8. The juvenile plumage of the
Little Egret compared with that of the White-phase Indian Reef Heron. (With a text-
figure). By B. M. Parasharya and R. M. Naik (p. 693); 9. Unusual feeding behaviour in
the Paddybird or Indian Pond Heron Ardeola gray'd. By I. R. Grimwood & M. J. C.
Brocklehurst (p. 696); 10. On the sighting of a flock of Crab Plovers at Kolhapur. By
Erach K. Bharucha and Jay S. Samant (p. 698); 11. Cranes wintering in Saurashtra. By
Prakash Gole (p. 699); 12. A note on the status of Brachypteryx cryptica. By S. Dillon
Ripley (p. 700); 13. Some notes on the breeding of the common Baya (Ploceus philippinus) .
By Humayun Abdulali and V. C. Ambedkar (p. 701); 14. First Indian record of Chaffinch
(Fringilla coelebs). By S. C. Madge (p. 702); 15. Additions to the bird species recorded
from Nepal. By C. & T. P. Inskipp (p. 703).

Reptiles: 16. Observations on Geochelone elegans (Schoepff) in captivity, Orissa, India.
By S. Biswas and L. N. Acharjyo (p. 707); 17. Eublepharis hardwickii (Reptilia, Gekko-
nidae), the Kalakuta, observed at Tikerpada, Orissa. (With a photograph). By L. A. K.
Singh (p. 708); 18. Occurrence of Flying Lizard (Draco dussumieri) in the Nilgiris. By
R. Sugathan (p. 710); 19. A note on the Asiatic Rock Python (Python molurus) feeding
on the Spotbill Duck (Anas poecilorhyncha) . By U. Sridharan and B. Ram Manohar
(p. 710); 20. A coucal-python incident. By Om Prakash Dubey (p. 711); 21. Protective
methods for snakes from external infection of mites. By Madhu Vyas and Tej Prakash
Vyas (p. 712).

Other Invertebrates: 22. Occurrence of Pleuroxus similis Vavra (Cladocera: Crustacea)
in India. By Pramod Rane (p. 713); 23. New records of Grimaldina brazzai Richard and
Bosminopsis deitersi Richard (Crustacea: Cladocera) from India. By Pramod Rane (p. 713);
24. Hydrology of a lentic water body and its significance in Plankton production. (With a
text-figure). By R. K. Singh (p. 715).

Insects: 25. A new record of Py emotes sp. (Pediculoides) of mite parasitizing the common
Indian house fly — Musca domestica nebulo Fabr. (With a text-figure) . By S. C. Dhiman

and J. P. Mittal (p. 720); 26. Predatory ants of the mound building termite, Odontotermes

wallonensis (Wasmann) with special reference to the predatory behaviour of Leptogenys
processionads (Jerdon). By D. Rajagopal and T. M. Musthak Ali (p. 721); 27. Amaranthus
viridis (Desf.) a new host plant of Hadda beetle, Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata (Fab.)
( Coleoptera : Coccinellidae) . By D. Narang and M. Ramzan (p. 726); 28. New record of
Eylais sp. and Arrenurus sp. of mites parasitizing the damsel fly. (With a text-figure). By S.

C. Dhiman (p. 726).

Botany: 29. A new combination in Aspidopterys Juss. (Malpighiaceae). By R. C. Sriva-
stava. (p. 728); 30. A new variety of Humboldtia unijuga Bedd. (Caesalpiniaceae) from

South India. (With ten text-figures). By J. Joseph and V. Chandrasekaran (p. 729); 31.

Swertia sikkimensis Burkill (Gentianaceae) : A little known plant from Uttar Pradesh, India.
(With seven text-figures). By Gaurgopal Maiti (p. 731); 32. Euphorbia tortids Rottl. ex
Wight — A new record for Karnataka. By K. Gopalakrishna Bhat, M. S. Dinesh and R. A.
Nagendran (p. 733); 33. Genus Typha in the North-Western Himalayas. By A. Majeed
Kak and Sulochana Durani (p. 734); 34. Distributional note on some Indian grasses. By

D. C. Pal and B. P. Uniyal (p. 735); 36. Arthromeris lungtauensis Ching: A new record
for India. (With four text-figures). By Surjit Kaur and N. Punetha (p. 737); 36. A note
on Phytogeographical distribution of ferns and fern-allies of Almora (W. H.). By D. K.
Awasthi and P. C. Pande (p. 739); 37. Nomenclatural notes on some plants from Maha-
rashtra. By S. M. Almeida and M. R. Almeida (p. 741).

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

1984 DECEMBER

Vol. 81

No. 3

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE BIOLOGY OF HOUBARA:
1982-83 WINTERING POPULATION IN BALUCHISTAN1

Afsar Mian2
{With a text-figure)

The Houbara Bustard {Chlamydotis undulata macqueeni ) is very widely distributed
in the valleys and semi-desert plains of Baluchistan, depending upon the distribution
of the plants. They are winter visitors and stay in the area from October to February,
each year, though some of the northern areas may harbour a reasonable population
till early April. The bird is under severe hunting stress from the local hunters (appro-
ximately 1500 birds) and the visiting Arab falconers (claiming at least 2860 birds)
in all the areas bearing a sizeable wintering population. A tentative population
distribution map has been attempted to show the relative frequencies of the bird
in different areas of the province. There are indications that some 50 — 100 pairs
do breed in Western Baluchistan, but this activity does not seem to be a regular
feature of the area.

Introduction

Our preliminary research on the biology and
conservation of the Houbara Bustard {Chla-
mydotis undulata macqueeni) with special re-
ference to its wintering population of Western
Baluchistan, during 1981-1982, prompted us to
continue our research activities on this elegant
bird with the aim of providing sufficient re-
search data upon which a scientific conserva-

1 Accepted November 1983.

2 Department of Zoology, University of Baluchi-
stan, Quetta, Pakistan.

tion strategy could be based, before it is com-
pletely lost from this part of the globe (Mian
& Surahio 1983, Mian & Shaheena in press ;
Mian 1983). This paper therefore presents some
further data regarding the distribution, popu-
lation levels, and hunting stress regarding the
population of the bird wintering in Baluchi-
stan and adjoining areas during 1982-83.

Methods and Materials

Regrettably, severe budgetary limitations
prevented us from conducting an extensive
tour of the area, as we had hoped, to

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

collect first hand information, on this
bird. However, to overcome this serious
handicap a carefully drafted questionnaire
was circulated to some of our past students
residing in Panjgur (29.98° N and 64.10°
E) and Sibi (29.56°N and 67.89°E), to the
Sub-divisional Officer, Wildlife, of the Balu-
chistan Forest Department, who accompanied
the visiting Arab falconers in Chagai (26.98°N
and 64.70°E) and Kharan (28.58°N and
65.42°E) areas and to a well-reputed old
hunter of Taunsa (30.30°N and 70.65°E).
The questionnaire contained the appropriate
questions regarding the preferred habitat, ap-
proximate density of the bird in favourable
areas, preferred food, migration patterns and
dates, hunting pressures in that locality and the
chances of breeding in the area. The facsi-
mile of the questionnaire is shown in appendix
I. All were instructed to collect information
through their own observations and through
contacts with other reputed hunters and local
people of the area. These informers were then
further cross questioned by us personally in
March 1983, so as to extract as much informa-
tion as possible and to be able to evaluate the
possibility of a bias, which might have crept
into their observations.

Some 16 students, who had just returned
from their long winter break (December 17,
1982 to February 28, 1983) from different
areas of Baluchistan, were also interviewed
the different questions of our basic
questionnaire or anything they might have
noticed concerning the biology and ecology of
the Houbara in their respective areas. Sur-
prisingly, the information collected through
various independent sources bore a remarkable
identity with one another. A few observa-
tions, which were contrary to the general
consensus of views were eliminated from the
final analysis, after giving due consideration to

the status of the source.

Sokal & Rohlf (1969) were followed for the
statistical analysis of the data.

Results and Discussion

Houbara Behaviour and Habitat Preference.
The majority of the information collected by
different sources regarding the behaviour and
habitat preference of the Houbara Bustard
are in conformity with what we reported in
our earlier study (Mian & Surahio 1983). The
Houbara, in general is a very wary bird in-
tolerant of human disturbance and hence
prefers flat desolate desert plains having
sandy or loose stony substratum with sparsely
distributed bushes, so that its vision is not
restricted. The bird inhabits the open, vast
steppic desert plains avoiding the narrow
valleys and mountain slopes. It is said to
avoid the very extreme desert conditions in
this region, where it shows a very sparse dis-
tribution, especially during certain years of
better precipitation, though it is found in al-
most similar inhospitable conditions in other
parts, i.e. Cholistan (Mirza 1971). The hou-
bara also avoids the large human settlements,
though the small scattered villages and no-
madic shepherd camps as well as the grazing
livestock, i.e. sheep, goat, cattle and camel
have little influence over its distribution.

The Houbara is mainly diurnal in habit,
though it is also active during moon-
lit nights. It rests during the hot part
of the day in ditches or shallow dry
courses of the hill torrents and on certain flat
beds during dark night. The Houbara is gene-
rally regarded as omnivorous and hence may
feed on almost everything available to it. in-
cluding dried grasses, associated insects and
even reptiles, but predominantly it is a herbi-
vore and largely depends upon vegetable

538

HOUBARA IN BALUCHISTAN

matter such as leaves, shoots and seeds of the
preferred plants. Some observers believe that
it prefers moonlit nights for feeding activities,
but it mainly feeds during the day in accor-
dance with the available conditions. The
presence of very large eyes in the bird lends
some support to the contention that it is partly
nocturnal in feeding activity.

Migration. The majority of the observations
collected through our questionnaire regarding
the migration of bustards confirm our pre-
vious report (Mian & Surahio 1983) that the
wintering population of the Houbara migrates
into Baluchistan through very diffused routes
all along the north-western border of the pro-
vince, and it disperses southwards and east-
wards gradually in the various parts of Balu-
chistan. The size of the incoming groups is
larger in the northern areas like Chagai plains,
Dasht plains near Nushki, and the plains of
Yakmuch (10-12 birds per group) as compared
with the number observed further south in
Panjgur and in Sibi (2-4 birds per group). The
larger groups can also be observed in southern
and eastern regions during the later part of
the immigration season. The population pass-
ing through Taunsa also have a smaller size
of the group compared with that observed in
Chagai and Nushki. This may be because
the population reaching Taunsa has travelled
a longer route, and has consequently under-
gone considerable dispersion prior to reach-
ing the area. The population of Taunsa,
however, further migrates into deserts of Thai
and Cholistan, of the Punjab. The observa-
tions collected by us also indicate that the
wintering population of Sibi and deeper parts
of Sind, mainly come through Baluchistan
and hence confirm the findings of Surahio
(1981, 1982).

The precise dates, when the bustards were
first seen in the different areas could not be

recorded. However, the information conveyed
to us from the different parts of the province
and adjoining areas suggests that the birds are
first noted in Baluchistan in late September
or in the first week of October in the deeper
parts, and they start migrating back to their
summering grounds during late February and
early March. However, a sizeable population
of the bird is present in plains of Yakmuch,
Chagai and Kharan till late March or early
April. The duration of stay along their migra-
tory routes and their various wintering grounds
depends upon the relative abundance of food
and suitable vegetation. It has also been fre-
quently observed that the birds returning
through an area on spring migration use the
same routes as were adopted while entering
an area in autumn.

Our questionnaire revealed consistent obser-
vations that the Houbara migrates on moonlit
nights. It could not be ascertained as to whether
this was a preferred habit or if this was an
occasional preference. This also does not com-
pletely rule out the possibility that there is
no migration during dark nights, because there
can be few casual observations at that time
and also the activities of the hunters (who
might observe the bird) are generally limited
during dark nights. This would suggest that
a further detailed study is needed regarding
this aspect of the Houbara biology. If these
observations prove to be true, then the time
of migration will also need to be adjusted
to the lunar cycle and a variation is to be
expected between years.

It was also interesting to note that an indi-
vidual bird with a partially damaged tarsus
was regularly observed visiting the same area
of Sibi for four consecutive years. This infor-
mation seems to be in conformity with similar
reports on other non-related migratory birds
including small passerines, which suggest a

539

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

faithful adherence to certain predefined routes
and localities, during migration. Further colour
banding studies on the Houbara would be parti-
cularly interesting to corroborate such obser-
vations.

Hunting. The observations conveyed to us
by different informants revealed that the
Houbara is hunted in the different areas by the
local populace (using shot guns) for pleasure
and also to obtain meat. The hunting is some-
times facilitated by the use of a jeep or by
approaching the bird at a reasonable shooting
distance through a herd of grazing sheep /goat/
cattle /camel or by riding camel back or on
a bullock cart. Netting of the live bird is also
practised, on a limited scale, in all areas having
a sizeable population of the Houbara. A trian-
gular enclosure of nets is used in western
Baluchistan, whereas in Taunsa and Sibi areas
straight nets are used in which apparently the
foot of the bird gets caught. The bustards
are driven into the net with the help of a herd
of camels or other livestock, bullock carts and
jeeps.

A comprehensive report regarding the hunt-
ing activities of local hunters is not available.
The reports from Taunsa suggest that some
300 birds were killed during the last winter.
This is despite the fact that the Houbara is
a partially protected species under the Punjab
Wildlife Protection Ordinance under Schedule
III. Various reports regarding the bags of the
local hunters, when collected together lead us
to calculate that a total of some 1500 bird were
killed in western Baluchistan, Sibi and adjoin-
ing areas of Taunsa by such local shikaris.
It is said that the hunting toll by the local
hunters is on the increase due to a gradual
sophistication of the hunting methods and
hunting aids including motorised communica-
tion and the development of link roads. Fur-
ther, the number of birds killed was relatively

higher during this winter (1982-83) due to a
greater population of the Houbara present in
all the areas, as a result of favourable rains
the previous winter.

The major hunting stress undoubtedly is
from the visiting falconers, coming from the
Middle East and the Persian Gulf States. The
available data suggest that a minimum of 1742
birds were killed by such visiting hunters over
a period of 28 days, in Chagai District alone.
In Kharan, two independent parties hunted at
least 768 birds in 41 days. The report from
Sibi and Taunsa indicated that between 250-
350 birds were killed by the visiting Arab
falconers. Thus, the cumulative bag data for
all the visiting hunters throughout Baluchistan
and adjoining areas suggest that some 2860
birds have been hunted during this winter. It
seems relevant to mention that because of the
secrecy being maintained by these visiting
foreign dignitaries and the -security measures
being adopted in such areas very exact bag
data are difficult to collect. In fact, informers
consistently expressed the opinion that the
actual numbers hunted were much more than
reported.

There is unfortunately ample evidence of a
progressive increase in the hunting activities
of the visiting falconers. The western areas of
Baluchistan were visited by only one party
during 1981-82, whereas at least three parties
visited the area during 1982-83. The available
reports regarding the hunting success of these
foreign hunters are also alarming. Whereas a
total of 418 birds were hunted during 1981-82
in Chagai and Kharan districts, some 2510
birds have been hunted during 1982-83, in the
same area. It is true that the size of the hunt-
ing bag has increased during the last winter
due to a comparatively higher population of
the bustards wintering in this region, but the
higher number of hunting bags of the Houbara

540

HOUBARA IN BALUCHISTAN

has also been possible due to the gradual
acclimatization of the visiting Arab falconers
and their increased local knowledge of the
area. There is an urgent necessity to evaluate
the long term effect of such a large scale hunt-
ing stress on the population of the Houbara
in the area.

The available hunting bag data of the visit-
ing falconers reveals that there were more
females hunted than males (in Chagai 820
males: 922 females, L2 = 5.972, significant
at 0.02 level; in Kharan 131 males: 177
females, I2 — 6.870, significant at 0.01 level;
and 138 males: 322 females, JL2 = 73.6, very
significant). This is despite the fact that the
female Houbara gives a much tougher fight
to the falcon than the males (personal com-
munication from an experienced local hunter
of Yakmuch, District Chagai). It is believed
that though there are very slender chances
of survival of the male bustard from the
falcon attack, the female stands certain chances
of surviving such an attack. Further, the males
are almost 25% larger than the females and
hence have more chances of being spotted by
a falconer. These facts when seen together
suggest that the number of females are more
in population than males. If further studies
prove this hypothesis to be true the causes
for such a population imbalance would be
very interesting to study. The alternative hypo-
thesis would be that the population has an
equal number of males and females; but certain
sexual differences and behavioural adaptations
render the males less vulnerable to falcon
hunting. This would mean that a larger pro-
portion of the females are being hunted, which
would certainly have a very detrimental effect
upon the population of the Houbara.

The analysis of the daily bag of the parties
hunting in the same area for many consecu-
tive days reveal that hunting for 9 consecutive

days by 104 falcons with the help of 15
vehicles in Harmagai (Kharan) and by 108
falcons with the help of 37 vehicles in Pul-
Chotao (Chagai) did not cause of significant
decrease in the number of the hunted birds
(Regression coefficient = 1.5833, t(7) = 0.2491,
P = 0.90 — 0.80, highly non significant; and,
Regression coefficient = 2.1833, t(7) = 1.9188,
P = 0.10 — 0.05, not significant, for Chul-
Chotao and Harmagai, respectively). However,
hunting for 10 consecutive days by 108
falcons and 37 vehicles in Yakmuch (Chagai)
and for 17 consecutive days by 98 falcons
with the help of 15 vehicles in Charkohan
(Kharan) did cause a decline in the size of
the hunting bag (Regression coefficient =
— 0.326, t(s) = 15.3234, P = 0.001, very highly
significant; and. Regression coefficient = 0.326,
t(i5) = 4.6317, P = 0.001, highly significant).
However, on the last day of the hunt in
Yakmuch only 15 Houbara could be captured
as compared to some 90 captured on the first
day; but when the same party visited the
same area after an interval of 16 days, the
original high hunting bag was once again
maintained indicating that the population dur-
ing the later hunting period comprised of
newly arrived migrant birds. These facts
would suggest that the population is either
very mobile and is constantly shifting or that
there is a continuous replacement of the
population in the area by that present in the
surrounding areas. The second alternative
seems to be more true as the Houbara is said
to travel long distances in search of food or
unexploited habitat (Surahio 1981). Under
such conditions it seems that in the future
years the population of the Houbara will be
subjected to a greater hunting stress, as the
visiting hunters become more familiar with
the area and the hunting aids get more sophi-
sticated.

541

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Population Distribution : The Houbara seems
to have a wide distribution in Baluchistan and
its adjacent areas. The high densities of the
bird are thus present in vast, open and desert
steppes of Yakmuch, Nushki and surrounding
areas of Chagai, the plains of Kharan and
Punjgur, the coastal areas of Mekran, Dasht
area of Mustung, plains of Sibi and adjoining
parts of Sind, and in Taunsa. The population
of Taunsa, however, moves to the riverian
area during dry season. The Houbara, gene-
rally avoids high mountain ranges and narrow
valleys even when passing to their wintering
or breeding grounds. Thus the Houbara is
almost non-existent in the northern hilly tract
of Baluchistan such as the Sulaiman Range,
the Toba Kakar Range and the northern
extremities of the Central Brahui Range,
occupying most of the Loralai, Zhob, Pishin
and Quetta districts. They are found in very

limited numbers in Khuzdar and Kalat. The
extreme desert conditions existing in areas
beyond Nok Kundi and Hamun-i-Mashkhel
also pose limitations to the dispersal of the
Houbara population, though they are present
in small numbers in a very dispersed way
during certain seasons having better rainfall.

The hunting success of the Arab falconers
may prove to be a valuable index of the popu-
lation density of the Houbara in the area. Be-
cause of their very ample monetary resources
hunting is concentrated wherever the quarry
is most abundant irrespective of the accessi-
bility or logistic problems in reaching remote
areas. Their only consideration being to reach
the area that has a high population of the
bird, which could fetch them greater hunting
pleasure. In order to achieve this objective,
these falconers have advance survey parties,
and employ local guides and hunters, to aid

1. Zhob.

18. issa Tahir.

2. Taunsa.

19. Azod.

3. Lorolai.

20. Nokkundi.

4. Sibi.

21 Koh-i-Sultan.

5. Kalat.

22. Yakmuch.

6. Tomulk.

23. jallawon.

7 . Charkohon.

24 Pul-Chatao

8. Kharan,

9. Woshuk.
to. Bisimah

25. Gharuk.

26. Leghob.

II . Gichick.

27 . Chogoi.

12. Turbot.

28 . Shaliipat .

13 . Dasht.

29 . Londi No 76.

14. Ponjgur.

30. Nushki.

15. Harmogai .

31. Ouetto.

16.Chokar rud.

32. Reg Umar.

17. SiohReg.

-33. Khojik Soorok.

Fig. 1. A line sketch of the Baluchistan showing the tentative distribution of the

wintering population of Houbara Bustard.

542

HOUBARA IN BALUCHISTAN

them in selecting better camping areas. The
survey is conducted by these advance survey
parties, so as to find the areas of high bustard
population density. The recent evidences sug-
gest that higher bustard population existed in
Yakmuch and Pul-Chotao areas of Chagai, and
Hurmugai and Charkuhan areas of Kharan.
High densities of the bird are present in
Laghab, Rag Umar, Azad, Issa Tahir, Siah
Reg and Landi No. 76 in Chagai District;
Shelli Pat, Barkoh, Shamshi, Washuk and
Besimah in Kharan, Gikch, Taroom and Dast
in Panjgur; Mach Chakar Khan, Safie, Kalay
Wala Kirar, Washin in Sibi. Adequate popu-
lation is present in Dasht area of Mustung,
Khuzdar, Kalat and Taunsa. A proper scienti-
fic study and survey of the areas is still very
urgently needed to evaluate the actual popu-
lation levels in different areas, however, a
tentative map showing the population density
according to the hunting successes can be
derived from these observations and is pre-
sented in Figure 1.

There is a general consensus of opinion that
there was a much larger population of the Hou-
bara in all its wintering grounds, in Baluchistan
during both 1981-82 and even greater popu-
lation during 1982-83 winter season. This may
be attributed to the fact that the winter rains
were high during 1981-82, resulting in a more
luxuriant vegetation in the area. Further data
are needed to study such annual fluctuation
in the population of the visiting bird. These
casual observations of the hunters and local
people may not be the indicator of the fact
that the visiting population was significantly
higher than the previous year’s, but the local
presence of rich vegetation cover in those
areas which received the excessive rainfall
might have prevented the normal dispersion
of the population of the bird. However, such
conditions definietly aid the activities of the

hunters, leading them to jump to the erroneous
conclusion regarding the population level. If
this alternate hypothesis is true then the better
rainfall and vegetation may have a deleterious
effects upon the population rather than bolster-
ing it up. In fact the winter rains in the area
show a cyclic variation of 4-5 years (Roberts
1973). Future data regarding such population
fluctuations and hunting successes would be
interesting.

Breeding : It has been frequently speculated
that the vast desolate areas of Baluchistan
may harbour some breeding activities of the
Houbara (Ali and Ripley 1969, Siddique 1972,
Anonymous 1972), however, concrete evi-
dence is lacking. Anonymous (1972) did re-
port collecting some Houbara eggs from
Muslakh Forest Reserve (District Pishin) and
these eggs were hatched in the Government
Poultry Farm, Quetta; but the chicks did not
survive. During our previous survey of poten-
tial breeding areas in Chagai and Kharan in
April, 1982, local hunters and Forest Guards
did report about the occurence of the breed-
ing activity of the bird in the area and pro-
mised to show some nests with eggs. However,
because we failed to find any direct evidence
about the presence of eggs, young chicks or
even adult birds in that season, we considered
the probability of any Houbara breeding in
that area to be very slight (Mian & Surahio
1983). However, we continued our efforts to
collect further data regarding this important
aspect of the biology of Houbara Bustard. It
was brought to our notice that Sheikh Moha-
mmad Bin Rashid Al-Maktoum of Dubai had
hatched a Houbara chick from a clutch of
three eggs most probably collected in Balu-
chistan (W. A. Kermani 1982).

The information collected by us so far in-
dicates that there has never been any signs of
the breeding activity in the eastern flank of

543

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Baluchistan, i.e., Sibi and Dera Ghazi Khan,
and that eggs or young chicks have never
been reported from that region till now. How-
ever, reports regarding Chagai, Yakmuch,
Kharan and Punjgur seem to indicate that
occasional breeding in these areas does occur.
The description of the eggs, and the nest des-
cribed by various sources from these areas
agree perfectly with those reported in the lite-
rature (Collar 1979). Though the exact data
regarding the number of the breeding pairs
present in the area is not available, it is be-
lieved that some 50-100 pairs lay eggs in
Yakmuch, Kharan and the valley of Chagai
Hills. There are reports of some very limited
breeding activity of the bird in the vicinity
of Punjgur. Further research is needed to
confirm how far these reports are reliable,
but it is suspected that this breeding activity
is not a regular but only sporadic feature of the
area by straggling birds. Furthermore, these
birds are reported to fly off to their normal
summering grounds, when the chicks are still

Refe

Ali, S. and Ripley, S. D. (1969): Handbook of
the birds of India and Pakistan. Oxford Univer-
sity Press, Bombay, London, New York.

Anonymous (1972) : Houbara in Baluchistan.
Outdoorman 2: 15.

Collar, N. (1979) : The birds of the Western
Palaearctic, Vol. II (Eds: S. Cramp and S. Kel),
Oxford University Press, London, New York, pp.
649-655.

Kermani, W. A. (1982) : Breeding of Houbara
in Baluchistan. (Personal Communication).

Mian, A. (1983): Conservation of Houbara

in Pakistan. Bull. IUCN. (accepted).

Mian, A. & Surahio, M. I. (1983) : Biology of
Houbara Bustard ( Chlamydotis undutata macqueeni )
with reference to Western Baluchistan. /. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 80(1): 111-118.

Mian, A. & Shaheena, R. (In press) : Conservation
perspective of Houbara Bustard (Chlamydotis un-

very young. If such is the case further research
would still be needed to ascertain the factors
which induce occasional pairs to lay eggs in
the area and then continue with their north-
ward migration leaving the very young chicks
behind.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to M/s Hayat Mohammad,
Hamidullah, Arbab Inayat Ullah (S.D.O., Wild-
life, Baluchistan Forest Department), and
Abdul Manan Khan and to the students
who collected the data and subjected them-
selves to a personal interview and thus made
this study possible. Thanks are also due to
Mr. K. M. Shams, Chief Conservator, Balu-
chistan Forest Department for allowing us to
use the data collected by his department. I
am specially indebted to Mr. T. J.
Roberts, for taking pains in reading through
a very rough manuscript and for offering help-
ful criticisms in redrafting the paper, which
has greatly helped in improving it.

EN CES

dulata macqueeni) with reference to Baluchistan.
Ambio.

Mirza, Z. B. (1971) : Houbara faces trial. Out-
doorman 1 : 40-45.

Roberts, T. J. (1973) : Conservation problems in
Baluchistan with particular reference to wildlife pre-
servation. Pakistan J. For., 23: 117-127.

Siddiqui, M. S. U. (1972): Identifying the bus-
tards. Outdoorman, 2: 29-39.

Sokal, R. R. & Rohlf, F. J. (1969): Biometry:
The principles and practice of statistics in biological
research. San Francisco, W. H. Freeman and Co.

Surahio, M. I. (1981): Houbara Bustard in

Pakistan — Research and conservation, and research
WWF/IUCN Project No. 855, Annual Report. (Un-
published document).

Surahio, M. I. (1982): Houbara Bustard in

Pakistan, Conservation and research. WWF/IUCN
Project No. 855, Annual Report. (Unpublished docu-
ment) .

544

HOUBARA IN BALUCHISTAN

Appendix I

Facsimile of the questionnaire regarding biology and

breeding research on the Houbara Bustard in

Baluchistan.

N.B. Please collect the information by your own
observations and through contact with the
reputed local hunters of the area.

1 . At what approximate time the first incoming
bird was seen in the area.

2. What hour of the day is prefered for migration.

3. What are the approximate number of the birds
in an incoming group.

4. From which direction these birds enter the area.

5. What is the approximate period of stay of the
bird in the area.

6. What is the preferred habitat of the bird in the
area.

7. Describe the topography and general vegetation
of the area.

8. What is the preferred food and how abundant
is it in the area.

9. What are the areas having high /medium /low
densities of the bird.

10. What is the approximate number of the birds
in the area.

1 1 . What is the general mode of hunting of the
local and foreign hunters in the area.

12. What is the customary practice of live trapping

of Houbara in the area.

13. Give a reasonable estimate regarding the num-
ber of the birds hunted by local hunters in the
area. Please indicate sex and age, if possible.

14. What is your information regarding the number
of the foreign hunting parties, number of hun-
ters in each party, number of falcons and
vehicle. Can you give the number of the birds
hunted by the said party with dates and sex
of the hunted bird.

15. Have you seen any eggs/young chicks/brooding
birds in the area. If yes, what was the shape,
size and number of the eggs per nest.

16. What are the approximate breeding pairs pre-
sent in the area.

17. Have you seen the bird during summer, i.e.,
April to September.

18. What is the approximate season of the egg laying.'

19. What is the approximate time, when the birds
leave the area.

20. What is the number of birds in a group leav-
ing the area.

21 . Any other information.

If possible please collect the stomach of the hunted
birds, preserve it in formalin/alcohol, bag these
separately in plastic (cellophene) bag with a wing
primary feather and tarsus. Please record the time
and date of the capture of the bird.

545

ORIENTAL LYCAENIDAE, RIODINIDAE, AND
HESPERIIDAE FROM THE CENTRAL NEPAL

HIMALAYAS1

Oakley Shields2

A total of 8 lycaenid, 2 riodinid, and 6 hesperiid species are reported from the
Oriental realm of the Kali Gandaki of Nepal, along with information about their
known ranges, elevations, and food-plants. The food-plant of Lycaena pavana is
Polygonum recumbens (Polygonaceae). The lack of any hesperiid above about 2300
m in this region is noted.

Introduction

The following is an account of the Lycae-
nidae, Riodinidae, and Hesperiidae I collected
mostly in August in the Oriental realm of the
Kali Gandaki region of the Central Nepal
Himalayas. These were taken incidentally to
the International Nepal Himalayan Expedition
for Lepidoptera Palaearctica (INHELP) 1977
expedition’s main objective of high elevation
Palaearctic butterflies, reported elsewhere
(Epstein 1979a, b; Shields 1981).

Lycaenidae

1. Celastrina huegelii oreana Swinhoe

Ca. 24-32 km SW Marpha, Kali Gandaki
Valley, est. 2530-2560 m, VIII-8-77,
17 c? c? 1$ fresh to worn, mostly at
mud.

Kalopani, 32 km SW Marpha, 2530 m,
VIII-9-77, 1 c? 13 $ 9 fair to worn.

Between Kalopani and Lethe, 2530 m,
VIII-9-77, 13 dV 5 9 9.

Between Kalopani (2440 m) and Ghasa
2010 m), VIII-10-77, 4.

1 Accepted Jane 1981.

2 4890 Old Highway, Mariposa, California 95338,
U. S.A.

2560 m was the height in elevation. The
subspecies occurs in Sikkim, Bhutan, Assam,
and Nepal (Cantlie 1963).

2. Celastrina dilectus dilectus Moore

6^ km W Khangsar, upper end (N side)
Khangsar Valley, 4500 m, VII-9-77,
1 S fair.

This was undoubtedly a stray from lower,
subtropical elevations. It ranges in Simla-
Karens, and Nepal (Cantlie 1963). The species
is distributed from NW Himalaya through
Burma to W China and Formosa, and also
occurs in Malaya (Shirozu & Saigussa 1962).

3. Celastrina carna marata Corbet
Vicinity of Lumle, 1615 m, VIII- 15-77,

1 c? 1 9 fresh.

C. carna occurs in India to Malaya, Java,
and Sumatra (Corbet & Pendlebury 1956).

4. Zizeeria maha maha Kollar

Between Kalopani (2440 m) and Ghasa
2010 m), VIII-10-77, 6.

Ghasa (2010 m) to Tatopani (1220 m),
VIII- 11 -77, 5.

According to Shirozu & Saigusa (1962,
1963), this common species is distributed from
Baluchistan and Kashmir to India, Assam,
Siam, S. China, S. Korea, Japan, Formosa, and
the Ryukyus. Z. maha maha itself occurs in
Baluchistan, Kurram, Pakistan-Central, N

546

LYCAEN1DAE, RIODINIDAE & HESPERIIDAE FROM NEPAL HIMALAYAS

India-Nepal, Sikkim, Assam, and Burma
(Cantlie 1963). An unspecified subspecies of
Z. maha flies from 1220-2440 m in SE Tibet
(Evans 1915). Shirozu (1955) and Fujioka
(1970) list many Nepal records. Its food plant
is Oxalis comiculata (Oxalidaceae) (Sevasto-
pulo 1973).

5. Jamides celeno celeno Cramer, warm-
season form.

Between Naudanda (1458 m) and Pokhara
(914 m), VIII- 16-77, ltf.

This species is common in India, Sri Lanka
and Burma, up to 1980 m in S India (Wynter-
Blyth 1957). Shirozu (1955), Forster (1961),
and Fujioka (1970) list some Nepal records.
/. celeno is distributed from Ceylon and India
to Formosa and South China, and through
the Archipelago to New Guinea and the Bis-
marcks (Corbet & Pendlebury 1956). Heynea
(Meliaceae) and Butea (Leguminosae) are the
food plants (Sevastopulo 1973).

6. Lycaena pavana Horsfield & Moore
Between Kalopani and Lethe (2530 m),

VIII-9-77, 2 S c? 2 $ $ fresh, generally
on yellow Aster , yellow Potentilla, etc.,
flying in same area as several L. phlaeas.
Between Kalopani (2440 m) and Ghasa
(2010 m), VIII- 10-77, 37 d1 cd 13 $ $
mostly fresh, sometimes worn, primarily
at flowers along streams. Just NE of
Ghasa (est. 2100 m), one female ovipo-
sited at mid morning on the vegetative
sprig of the moist-area plant Poly-
gonum recumbens Royle ex Bab. (det.
by A. O. Chater, BMNH).

2530 m was the highest elevation at which
we found this species. L. pavana occurs from
Kashmir to Kumaon and Nepal (Cantlie
1963), and is fairly common to local. In
Kumaon it is known from 1370-3960 m (Nice-
ville 1890). It flies from June to August.

7. Heliophorus androcles coruscans Moore
Between Kalopani and Lethe (2530 m),

VIII-9-77, 1 $ worn.

Between Kalopani (2440 m) and Ghasa
(2010 m), VIII- 10-77, 16.

Between Tatopani (1220 m) and Chitre
(2150 m), VIII- 12-77, 3.

H. a. coruscans occurs from Kashmir to
Kumaon and Nepal. The species is found
from Kashmir to Assam, SE Tibet, and N
Burma, with four subspecies; not rare
(Wynter-Blyth 1957). Shirozu (1955) records
coruscans from west, north, and east Nepal.
Champion & Riley (1926) report coruscans
at 3660 m in the Gori Gorge. Fujioka (1970)
gives a number of records for coruscans from
the NE corner of Nepal, for July and August.

8. Heliophorus epicles indicus Fruhstorfer
Vicinity of Birethanti, 1005 m, VIII- 14-

77, 2.

There are seven named subspecies of
epicles, extending from Kumaon to Assam,
Burma, the Oriental region, Formosa, and
Java and Sumatra (Shirozu & Saigusa 1962).

H. e. indicus occurs in Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan,
Assam, and Annam (Shirozu 1955). There
are records from Katmandu and East Nepal
(Shirozu 1955, Fujioka 1970).

Riodinidae

I. Zemeros fiegyas indicus Fruhstorfer, wet-
season form. Tatopani (1220 m) to Chitre
2150 m), VIII-12-77, Id'. Lumle, 1615
m, VIII- 15-77, led-

This species ranges from Mussoorie to
Assam, Sumatra, Nias, Java, Bali, Borneo,
Lombok, Sumbawa, Sumba, Hainan, Siam,
Tenasserim, Shan-States, Mergui, Burma,
South China, Philippines, Malaya, and Celebes,
where it is common. See Shirozu (1955),
Forster (1961), and Fujioka (1970) for Nepal
records. It is separated into 12 subspecies.

547

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81

2. Dodona ouida ouida Moore

Tatopani (1220 m) to Chitre (2150 m),
VIII- 12-77, Id-

The species occurs in the Himalayas as
far west as Mussoorie; hills of NE India,
Burma, from 1220-2440 m, to West China
(Wynter-Blyth 1957). It is also known from
Lower Tsang Po, 2135 m, SE Tibet (Evans
1915). See Shirozu (1955) and Fujioka
(1970) for Nepal records. Typical D. ouida
ouida occurs from Nepal to Burma. Both
these riodinid species use Maesa (Myrsinaceae)
as a food plant (Sevastopulo 1973).

Hesperiidae

1. Coladenia dan fatih Kollar

Tatopani (1220 m) to Chitre (2150 m),
VIII- 12-77, 1 d fresh. Lumle, 1615 m,
VIII-15-77, Id fresh.

It is found in the NW Himalayas (Kangra
to Nepal), Sikkim to Burma, NW Siam, Indo-
china, and Hainan (Evans 1949, Shirozu &
Saigusa 1962). Ssp. faith continues in a
slightly modified form into the E Himalayas.
C. dans foodplant is Achyranthes aspera
(Amaranthaceae) (Sevastopulo 1973). This
species has 11 subspecies, distributed from NW
Himalayas to Yunnan, Indo-China, Malay
Peninsula, Borneo, Celebes, and Greater and
Lesser Sunda Islands (Shirozu & Saigusa
1962).

2. Splalia galba Fabricius

Lumle, 1615 m, VIII-15-77, Id' fresh.

It ranges from Sri Lanka, S India, Cutch,
Sind, Ganjam, central India, NW Himalayas
(Kashmir-Kumaon), Bengal, Sikkim, Assam,
Burma to S. Shan States, to South China and
Hainan (Evans 1949, Shirozu 1955). This
is the only representative of this Palaearctic
genus in the Oriental region. The foodplant
is Sida rhombifolia (Malvaceae) (Sevastopulo
1973).

3. Bibasls vasutana Moore

Birethanti, 1005 m, VIII-14-77, Id fresh.
Found in Nepal, Sikkim, Assam, and
Burma (Karens, Dawnas) (Evans 1949).

4. Aeromachus stigmata stigmata Moore,
dry season form. Kalopani to Ghasa,
2440-2010 m, VIII-10-77, 3d-

This subspecies ranges from NW Himalayas
(Murree-Kumaon), Sikkim and Bhutan. The
species is found in Manipur and Naga Hills,
Assam, N Burma to Bhamo, S. Shan States,
Karens, Yunnan; there are two other sub-
species (Evans 1949).

5. Parnara guttatus mangala Moore
Lumle, 1615 m, VIII-15-77, 2d d fresh.
This subspecies is found in S & W China

(Kiang Si, Kwang Tung, Szechwan, Yunnan),
Bokhara, Chitral, NW Frontier (Khyber,
Hangu), NW Himalayas (Kashmir-Kumaon),
Sikkim, Assam, N Burma, S. Shan States,
Hainan (Evans 1949). Sevastopulo (1973)
reports grasses, Oryza, Saccharum, bamboo,
and Zea mays (all Gramineae) as foodplants
of P. guttatus.

6. Pelopldas sinensis Mabille

Kalopani to Ghasa, 2440-2010 m, VIII-
10-77, Id 1 $ fresh.

Vicinity of Tatopani, 1220 m, VIII- 1 1 -
77, 1 d fresh.

It occurs from Shanghai to S & W China,
NW Himalayas (Kulu-Kumaon), Sikkim,
Assam, S. Shan States (Evans, 1949).

We found no skippers above c. 2285 m,
and a total lack of skippers in the alpine zone.
Shirozu (1955) reports no skippers above
c. 2285 m in the Thakkhola and Manang regions
of central Nepal too. Mani (1962, 1968) and
Mani & Singh (1962) make no mention of any
high elevation skipper records in their Lepi-
doptera Himalayan summaries. Hesperia alpina
was taken at Batura (3100-3600 m), western
Karakorum (Evans 1927). In Tibet, by con-

548

LYCAENIDAE, RIODIN1DAE & HESPER11DAE FROM NEPAL HIMALAYAS

trast, skippers are reported up to 2440-3200 m
(Evans 1915), 3359-3660 m (Riley 1927, 2
sp.), and in SE Tibet, 2745-4570 m (South
1913, 11 sp.). The reason for this difference
is unresolved. An abundance of grasses
appear available to them in the alpine zone,
so their absence is puzzling.

Acknowledgements

I wish to thank the following specialists for
making some determinations : Mr. Julian P.

Donahue of the Los Angeles County Museum
of Natural History (a few lycaenids, most
hesperiids), and Mr. R. I. Vane-Wright of the
British Museum of Natural History (the hespe-
riid A. stigmata). The food plant identification
was arranged through Mr. Oleg Polunin
(BMNH) and Mr. Hans J. Epstein. Dr. R. H.
T. Mattoni kindly provided financial assistance
(most of the specimens now reside in his
collection). Epstein donated his catch of
Hesperiidae to the study series.

References

Cantlie, K. (1963) : The Lyaenidae Portion

(Except the Arphopala Group) of Brigadier Evans’
The Identification of Indian Butterflies 1932 (India,
Pakistan, Ceylon, Burma). Bombay.

Champion, H. G. & Riley, N. D., (1926): Ento-
mological notes on a tour of the Kumaon-Tibet
border in 1924. Entomol. Mo. Mag. 62 : 271-279,
2 pis.

Corbet, A. S.,"& Pendlebury, H. M. (1956) :
The Butterflies of the Malay Peninsula, 2nd ed.
London.

Epstein, H. J. (1979a) : Interesting, rare and new
pierids (Lepidoptera : Pieridae) from the Central
Nepal Himalayas. Report no. 2. Entomologist’s
Gaz. 30 : 77-104.

(1979b) : Interesting, rare and

new papilionids (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) from
the Central Nepal Himalayas. Report no. 3. Ento-
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Evans, W. H. (1915) : A list of butterflies caught
by Capt. F.M. Bailey in S. E. Tibet during 1913.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 23: 532-546.

(1927) : Lepidoptera-Rhopalocera

obtained by Mme J. Visser-Hooft of the Hague
(Holland) during an exploration of previously un-
known country in the Western Karakorum, N. W.
India. Tijdsch. Ent. 70: 158-162.

(1949): A Catalogue of the Hespe-
riidae from Europe, Asia and Australia in the British
Museum (Natural History). London.

Forster, W. (1961): Rhopalocera, pp. 138-150.
In: F. Lobbichler, ed., Lepidoptera der Deutschen
Nepal-Expedition 1955. Veroff. Zool. Staatssamml.

Miinchen 6: 101-188.

Fujioka, T. (1970) : Butterflies collected by the
Lepidopterological Research Expedition to Nepal
Himalaya, 1963. Part I. Papilionoidea. Spec. Bull.
Lepid. Soc. Japan no. 4, 125 p.

Man i, M. S. (1962) : Introduction to High Alti-
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in the North-West Himalaya. London.

(1968) : Ecology and biogeography

of high altitude insects. Series Eniomologica 4, 527 p.

& Singh, S. (1961-1962): Entomo-
logical survey of Himalaya. Part 26. A contribution
to our knowledge of the geography of the high
altitude insects of the nival zones from the North-
West Himalaya. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58: 387-
406; 59: 77-99.

de Niceville, L. (1890): The Butterflies of India,
Burmah and Ceylon, vol. III. Calcutta.

Riley, N. D. (1927): The Rhopalocera of the
Third Mount Everest Expedition (1924). Trans. Ent.
Soc. London 75: 119-129.

Sevastopulo, D. G. (1973): The food-plants of
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Shirgzu, T. (1955): Butterflies, pp. 317-381, 4 pis.
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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

& Saigusa, T. (1962) : Butterflies col-
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pedition to Southeast Asia 1957-58 (Part I). Nature
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(1963): Some butter-
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Exped. to the Karakorum & Hindukush, 1955, vol.

4, 166 p.

South, R. (1913): List of butterflies collected by
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Wynter-Blyth, M. A. (1957): Butterflies of the
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Bombay.

550

A REPORT ON A COLLECTION OF AMPHIBIANS AND
REPTILES FROM THE PONMUDI, KERALA,

SOUTH INDIA

Robert F. Inger, H. Bradley Shaffer, Mammen Koshy and Ramesh Bakde

( With five plates)

[Continued from Vol. 81(2): p. 427]

Rana temporalis (Gunther) (Plate IV)

Hylorana temporalis Gunther, 1864, Rept. Brit.
India, p. 427, pi. 26, fig. G — Ceylon.

Rana temporalis Boulenger, 1882, Cat. Batr. Sal.
Brit. Mus. p. 63.

Material. 7 adult females 71.0-79.3 mm
SV, mean 76.8; 17 adult males 42.9-54.6 mm,
mean 50.6; 102 juveniles 13.4-47.0 mm.
Tibia 0.56-0.60 of SV in females, mean 0.580,
0.53-0.60 in males, mean 0.558.

The dorsal color pattern of juveniles con-
sists of a light tan band between the dorso-
lateral folds and sharply contrasting dark
brown sides. As the animals mature, this
color pattern gradually gives way to a more
generally brown dorsal color, so that in some
large females, the dorsal and lateral color is
uniform dark tan.

Males have greatly enlarged nuptial pads
on the medial side of the first finger, and a
large, flat, oval gland on the inner surface of
the upper arm. Of our 7 mature females
only 2 contained large, pigmented ova.

Larvae. A complete developmental series
from Stage 29 through metamorphosing in-
dividuals, and all size stages to adults confirms
the assignment of seven samples of tadpoles
to Rana temporalis. These larvae have patches
of glands similar to those found in larvae of
other species of the Rana ( Hylorana ) group.

Head-body oval, narrower near snout than

in rear, maximum width midway between eye
and end of body, 0.52-0.68 of head-body
length; body slightly flattened, depth 0.67-0.73
of width; eyes dorsolateral, not visible from
below, eyeball 0.10-0.13 of head-body length
(Stages 29-39), interorbital 0.31-0.34 of head-
body width, less than eye-snout distance; nos-
trils dorso-lateral, open, with minute mid-
dorsal projection, internarial subequal to inter-
orbital. Oral disk ventral, subterminal, width
0.41-0.52 of head-body width; lower lip with
uninterrupted double row of short papillae and
3-6 much longer papillae in each lateral third;
upper lip with short papillae in corners; denti-
cles I: l + l/l + l: II, the lower rows subequal;
divided upper row with wide median gap;
beaks black near margins, finely serrated, up-
per without median convexity. Spiracle sinis-
tral, midway up side, tube fused to body wall,
snout-spiracle distance 0.63-0.73 of head-body
length. Anal tube dextral, opening level with
margin of fin. Tail 1.60-1.83 of head-body
length; dorsal margin weakly convex, ventral
straight, maximum depth near end of proximal
third, depth 0.20-0.26 of tail length, tapering
gradually to narrow tip; caudal muscle deeper
than fins at basal half; origin of dorsal fin at
end of body, dorsal deeper than ventral most
of caudal length. An oval patch of whitish
glands ventrally on each side at base of hind

551

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

limb; an elongate, narrow band of glands dor-
solaterally beginning a short distance behind
eye and extending almost to end of body.
Lateral line pores obscure.

Head-body dark without distinct pattern
dorsally, laterally, and anteriorly under the
head; tail also dark, with small scattered
black spots.

Head-body lengths (mm) : 10.0 (Stage 29),
9.2-11.6 (Stages 30-32), 11.67 (Stage 34),
11.75-12.9 (Stage 39). Maximum total length
33.75 mm (Stage 39). Two individuals in
Stage 44 measure 12.2 and 13.2 mm snout-
vent.

Ecological Notes. This species was taken
from 100 to 800 m elevation. Most (92) indi-
viduals were collected in evergreen forest, with
a few specimens taken in moist-deciduous (5),
gallery (4), moist semi-evergreen (1), and
secondary growth (3) forest. The species is
common both around streams (56) and away
from streams in the forest (47). Most in-
dividuals were caught either on dead leaves
(44) or small rocks (37); the remainder were
collected in such divergent habitats as under
leaves, on bare soil, and on the leaves and
trunks of small herbs, shrubs, and large trees.
Seven samples of larvae were taken along
forest streams, 6 of them from sheltered side
pools and one from a pothole in a rocky bank.

Philautus charies Rao

Philautus charius Rao, 1937, Proc. Indian Acad.
Sci., 6B : 405, fig. 9 — Kottigehar, Kadur, Karnataka.

Material. 8 adult females 19.6-22.1 mm
SV, mean 20.6; 6 adult males 16.5-18.8 mm,
mean 17.2. Tibia 0.48-0.59 of SV in females,
mean 0.534; 0.48-0.56 in males mean 0.527.

A small, relatively slender frog with a
sharply pointed snout. Fingers are completely
free of webbing with large, well-developed
disks, from one and one-half to two times
width of the subterminal phalanx. Feet are

barely one-third webbed, with webbing not
reaching to the second subarticular tubercle
on fourth toe; a vestige of webbing between
toes 2 and 3, and none between toes 1 and 2.
Disks on toes about one and one-half times
width of subterminal phalanx. In our sample,
there appears to be sexual dimorphism in the
amount of webbing, with males having some-
what less webbing than the female described
above. Above skin smooth, with small tuber-
cles on eyelid and snout; often extending onto
the lateral and dorsal surfaces. Belly granular;
throat smooth in females, granular in males.
Males with well-developed nuptial pads.

Dorsal color pattern a dark brown back-
ground with various amounts of light brown
or tan and deep brown on back. Often a pair
of dark lines between eyes and groin enclosing
an hourglass-shaped area sometimes filled with
light brown. Forearms, thighs, calves, and
feet heavily barred with dark brown. A dark
spot on sides of body always present, forming
a continuation of largest leg bar when limbs
flexed into normal sitting posture. Ventral
surface white with variable amounts of dark
brown flecking, forming a vermiculated pattern
across belly in darkest individuals.

Taxonomic Notes. These frogs do not pre-
cisely fit Rao’s description (1937), which pro-
vides no indication of the amount of intra-
specific variation. Our material differs from
the type in having less webbing (one- third to
one-half webbed in the type) and in size (the
type is 23 mm SV, while our largest individual
is only 22.1). Rao’s description of the in-
terorbital space relative to the eyelid and di-
stance between the eye and nostril does not
coincide with his figure of the type; our ani-
mals are similar to his figure. However, since
our locality is nearly 600 km south of the type
locality, such differences between the type and
our specimens is not surprising.

552

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA

Ecological Notes. All but 2 of our 14
specimens came from evergreen forest between
290 and 650 m; the remaining 2 were collected
in moist-deciduous forest at 300 m. All speci-
mens were found far from water on the forest
floor, either on the surface of dead leaves (9
specimens) or beneath leaves or logs (4).
Philautus femoralis (Gunther)

Ixalus femoralis Gunther, 1864, Rept. Brit. India,
p. 434, pi. 26, fig. D — Ceylon.

Rhacophorus ( Philautus ) femoralis Ahl, 1931,
Das Tier., Lief. 55 : 73.

Material. 3 adult females 23.3-24.0 mm
SV, mean 23.6; 18 adult males 19.4-22.8 mm,
mean 20.9. Tibia 0.48-0.53 of SV in females,
mean 0.509; 0.49-0.55 in males, mean 0.513
(n - 11).

Habitus slender, snout relatively short and
rounded. Canthus rostralis moderate, lores
not or only very slightly concave. Upper eye-
lids relatively small, much narrower than in-
terorbital distance. Tympanum barely visible;
no supratympanic fold. Toes about three-
fourths webbed with webbing extending to
disk on fifth toe, and to disks on lateral sides
of third and fourth toes (occasionally only to
distal subarticular tubercle on fourth toe);
webbing to between middle and distal subarti-
cular tubercle on medial side of fourth toe. A
rudiment of webbing between fingers. Disks of
fingers well developed, about one and one-half
times width of penultimate phalanx; those of
toes less than one and one-half times diameter
of penultimate phalanx. Skin smooth dorsally,
granular beneath, with a granular throat in
males only. Males have a well-developed
nuptial pad on the first finger.

Dorsal color pattern variable, ranging from
uniform deep purple (in preservative) through
a series of patterns of purple-brown spots on
a tan background to uniformly tan, with only
a dark streak along side of head. In the pur-

ple individuals (most of the series), the same
color is found on the upper surfaces of the
forearms and calves, and a thin line of purple
extends the length of the thigh and foot.
Lower arm, most of thigh and foot, and sides
are immaculate yellowish-white, as are the
hands. In those individuals with a spotted or
tan dorsum, the limb coloration is also more
diffuse, with purple areas often represented
as a tan series of crossbars on the forearm
and calf. Ventrally all individuals immaculate
yellow-white. Males have a well developed
nuptial pad on the first finger.

In life, these frogs go through a striking
shift in color pattern which is reflected in
the variation in preserved animals. Freshly
caught specimens are invariably a uniform
leaf-green (purple in preservative), with yel-
low-cream sides (Plate IV). As the animals
are held in captivity, the color shifts to brown
with cream dorsolateral stripes (Plate V); the
spotted individuals presumably represent those
in the process of changing color.

Taxonomic Notes. We have compared our
frogs with the types of Philautus femoralis
(Gunther), P. fergusoni (Gunther), P. pulchel-
lus (Gunther), and P. beddomii (Gunther) :
all but the last species were placed in the
synonymy of P. femoralis by Boulenger
(1882). The types of P. pulchellus and P.
fergusoni are in a poor state of preservation,
and can only be said to agree with our mate-
rial and with the type of P. femoralis in gene-
ral habitus and the overall purple coloration.
Our material agrees with the type (BMNH
1947.2.26.89) of femoralis very closely in
size, color pattern (the type has the common,
uninterrupted purple color), and webbing. As
in P. temporalis (see below), our specimens
have a more pointed snout in profile than the
type, which appears to be an artifact of pre-
servation. Our material is similar in general

553

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

color pattern to the P. beddomi type series,
although these individuals have the purple
broadly covering the lower arms, thighs, and
feet, a condition never found in our sample.
Philautus beddomi also differs significantly
from our specimens in having much less web-
bing on the hind feet.

Ecological Notes. We found this species
exclusively in disturbed, secondary growth or
open grassy situations between 840-900 m.
Virtually all specimens were collected from
the leaves of 1-3 m tall shrubs, usually far
from any stream or pond. The frogs were
all collected at night, generally by following
calling males, which explains the very uneven
sex ratio in our sample.

Philautus signatus (Boulenger)

Ixalus signatus Boulenger, 1882, Cat. Batr. Sal.
Brit. Mus., p. 106, pi. 11, fig. 2 — Malabar.

Rhacophorus ( Philautus ) signatus Ahl, 1931, Das
Tier., Lief. 55 : 77.

Material. 1 adult female 27.0 mm SV, 10
adult males 21.2-23.1 mm, mean 22.0. Tibia
0.54 of SV in female; 0.49-0.53 in males, mean
0.521.

Overall habitus stocky, relatively robust,
with extremely large, protruding eyes, pointed
snout, and a sharp, curved canthus rostralis.
Toes barely half -webbed, with webbing not
quite reaching second subarticular tubercle of
fourth toe, and no webbing present on first
toe. Disks of toes moderate, about one and
one-half times diameter of penultimate
phalanx. Fingers without webbing; subarticu-
lar tubercles prominent. Disks of fingers
about one and one-half times width of finger.
The skin smooth above, coarsely granular be-
low, granulations extending onto underside of
thighs near groin. As in most Philautus, the
throat is smooth in females, granular in males.

Dorsally all individuals brown with a few
irregular dark brown markings in temporal re-

gion. A faint pair of brown spots about one-
half the diameter of the eye often present in
scapular area. “X” pattern on the back is
variably present, consisting of a dark, hour-
glass pattern of light brown starting at eyes
and extending the length of back. Front and
hindlimbs barred with dark brown, barring
generally becoming a brown marbling pattern
on yellow-brown background color along
posterior surface of thighs. Ventral colora-
tion white with tiny black flecks; more densely
concentrated on the throat and underside of
the thighs, producing a dusky coloration.

In life, dorsal surface pale brown, the side
of the head with small, dark flecks. The in-
guinal region and anterior surface of the thigh
vermiculated with black-brown; the rear of
the thigh yellow-green with black reticulations.
The iris is silvery, with turquoise along its
dorsal margin.

The distinctive marbled pattern of the groin
illustrated by Annandale (1919) is not always
present. In our material, the single female
has a strong pattern of dark brown reticula-
tions along the anterior side of the thigh and
on the groin, extending along the lateral sur-
face of the body one-half the distance of the
axilla. This pattern is present in a reduced
form in a single male (RFI-30931); otherwise
the groin is light tan with occasional dark
smudges.

Taxonomic Notes. The designation of these
frogs is questionable, primarily because of the
lack of a lingual papilla in our series. How-
ever, the extent of variation, both geographi-
cally and within populations, in this structure
has never been adequately documented.
Annandale (1919) noted that the papilla
varies from inconspicuous to prominent in the
related P. bombayensis, and Kirtisinghe (1957,
p. 12) does not consider this character to be
of specific value. Otherwise, our material

554

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81

Inger et al. : Amphibians & Reptiles from Ponmudi

Plate IV

Above: Ran a temporalis.

Below: Philautus femoralis. Typical colour phase when calling

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81

Inger et al. : Amphibians & Reptiles from Ponmudi

Plate V

Above: Philautus femora /is. Dark color phase.

Below: Rhacophorus malabaricus. A pair in amplexus.

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA

agrees well with Boulenger’s description, and
with Wall’s (1922) account of the call and
general habits.

Ecological Notes. As with P. femoralis,
this species was collected in open grassy areas
between 920-950 m, far from any stream or
pond. However, unlike P. femoralis, few
individuals were found on small shrubs (3).
Instead, most specimens were collected under
leaves (1), on the soil surface (5), or on
rocks (2). Whether this represents a case of
ecological displacement between these two
species deserves additional attention. Most
specimens collected were calling males.
Philautus temporalis (Gunther)

Ixalus temporalis Gunther, 1864, Rept. Brit. India,
p. 434 pi. 26, fig. E — Ceylon.

Rhacophorus ( Philautus ) temporalis Ahl, 1931,
Das Tier., Lief. 55 : 97.

Material. 5 adult females 25.4-26.2 mm
SV, mean 25.7; 13 adult males 18.7-25.6 mm,
mean 21.1. Tibia 0.50-0.53 of SV in females
mean 0.513; 0.47-0.56 in males, mean 0.498.

A small, slender species with pointed snout,
sharp, slightly curved canthus rostralis, and
weakly concave lores. A distinct, curved
supratympanic fold from eye to shoulder.
Tympanum very distinct, about half diameter
of eye in both males and females. Feet about
one-third webbed, webbing reaching second
subarticular tubercle on fourth toe, barely to
tubercle on first and second toes. Fingers
completely free of webbing. Subarticular
tubercles weakly developed on both fingers
and toes. Skin smooth above, granular be-
low, with a granular throat in males.

Greyish brown to brown dorsally and late-
rally, generally with a distinct pattern of dark-
er brown longitudinal bars and spots. Markings
frequently form an irregular hour-glass pattern
extending from eyes to groin. A very dis-
tinct black stripe along the supratympanic

fold, extending forward onto the loreal region.
Front and hind limbs light tan with brown
bars. Ventrally white with flecks of black on
belly, more dense on the throat, forelimbs,
and thighs. In life, sandy reddish brown
above; lores, tympanum and streak below the
supratympanic fold dark brown.

Taxonomic Notes. Our material agrees very
closely with types of P. temporalis (BMNH
1947.2.6.8, 10-11) in size, coloration, web-
bing, and general habitus. The only point of
difference is in the shape of the snout in late-
ral view, which is pointed in our material and
relatively blunt in the types. However, in two
(BMNH 1947.2.6.10-11) the snout is obvi-
ously distorted, with the tip flattened, and it
is probable that the shape of the snout is an
artifact of preservation.

In retaining the name P. temporalis, we
follow Ahl (1931) as the last reviewer of the
genus. Since we have not examined the types
of P. leucorhinus, we cannot judge the distinct-
ness of these two species.

Ecological Notes. This species uses a wide
range of altitudinal and vegetational habitats;
specimens were collected from 130 to 900 m
in open grassy areas (7), secondary growth
(4), evergreen forest (6), and deciduous
forest (1). About half (8), all calling males,
were found in shrubs or seedlings 0.3 to 2.0 m
above the ground. The remaining half were
found on the ground, either on dead leaves
or bare soil; of these, half were females.

Philautus variabiiis (Gunther)

Ixalus variabiiis Gunther, 1858, Cat. Batr. Sal.
Brit. Mus., p. 74-75, pi 4, fig. A, B — Ceylon.

Philautus variabiiis, Roux, 1928, Rev. Suisse
Zool., 38: 464.

Material. 2 adult females 30.3, 31.0 mm
SV; 2 adult males 27.0, 28.5 mm. Tibia 0.52
of SV in females; 0.52, 0.53 in males.

Hind feet about two-thirds webbed, with

555

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

webbing extending to second tubercle on both
sides of fourth toe, and distal tubercle on
fifth toe. A slight rudiment of webbing bet-
ween fingers. Tips of fingers expanded into
broad disks twice as wide as the penultimate
phalanx. Disks of toes narrower than those
of fingers, about one and one-half times as
wide as penultimate phalanx. One specimen
has a series of small bumps or short ridges on
the snout and eyelids, and sparser ridges on
the back; the others are perfectly smooth
above. Below, the skin is granular on the
belly, around the anus, and on the throat of
males.

Our 4 specimens cover a remarkable range
of color patterns. The dorsal surface ranges
from light tan to dark brown, with or without
a large, dark brown, inverted “V” pattern on
the back, from the front limbs nearly to the
groin. A dark interorbital band may be
present. At least a hint of dark marbling
along sides near groin extending well onto
lateral body surfaces and thighs, or confined
to immediate region of groin and back of
thighs. Ventrally white suffused with black
flecks, very sparse or coalescing into dark
brown-black reticulation over entire surface.
A more or less well defined barring pattern
present on the legs and feet.

Taxonomic Notes. We have compared
these specimens to the holotype of P. adspersus
(Gunther) (BMNH 1947.2.6.23), and find
them to match in all essentials except the color
pattern, which is brown with an irregular pat-
tern of brilliant, enamel white spots in
adspersus (see Boulenger, 1882, pi. 10, fig. 8).
While the color pattern of adspersus is stri-
kingly different from that of P. variahilis, the
latter species is so variable that we feel the
recognition of a related species purely on
color pattern must be considered suspect.
We thus refer our material to P. variabilis.

Ecological Notes. Of our 4 specimens, 3
were collected in evergreen forest (1 at 310
m, 2 at 950), and one was collected in gallery
forest. As in all of the Philautus in our col-
lection, these frogs were found away from
streams or ponds. Two individuals were on
the leaves of trees 2-2.5 m above the ground,
and one was on dead leaves on the ground.
Rhaeophoras malabaricus Jerdon (Plate V)

Rhacophorus malabaricus Jerdon, 1870, Proc.
Asiatic Soc., Bengal, 84 — Malabar.

Material. 1 adult female 95.8 mm SV; 8
adult males 61.9-73.5 mm, mean 68.8. Tibia
0.50 of SV in female; 0.48-0.54 in males,
mean 0.50.

In life, a bright leaf-green above and white
below. Webbing of hand a pale orange-red,
feet a more intense, nearly blood-red. A white
line along outer edge of forearm, tarsus, and
foot; triangular heel appendage white. In pre-
servative, upper surfaces purplish, webbing
fading to white. In several individuals numer-
ous small white spots dorsally.

Males with a well-developed nuptial pad
on the medial side of the first finger. In our
series, the testes are greatly enlarged to 0.18-
0.23 of SV. The single female contained numer-
ous mature, unpigmented eggs.

Larvae. Six samples of larvae, extending
from Stage 25 to premetamorphosis (Stage
42), fit Ferguson’s (1904) description well.
The most advanced larvae have fully webbed
outer fingers.

Head-body lengths (mm) : 9.25 (Stage 26),
12.9-14.2 (Stages 31-32), 14.75 (Stage 36),
15.75-16.8 (Stages 38-39). Maximum tail
length 46.67 mm (Stage 38). Tail length
1.72-1.95 of head-body length (3 individuals).
Denticles of upper lip II : 5+5 (6 tadpoles) or
II : 6+6(1); of lower lip 1+1 : 11(7).

Ecological Notes. We found this frog in
two different circumstances. One pair was

556

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA

collected in evergreen forest, 350 m elevation,
3 m above a side pool in a stream flood plain.
Foam nests were attached to vegetation seve-
ral meters above the pool and tadpoles in
various stages of development were collected
there. Our other 7 specimens were collected
from trees and shrubs (1-4 m above the
ground) surrounding a small pond (approxi-
mately 8 m diameter and 1.5 m deep) formed
by damming aim wide stream in a disturbed
area at 800 m elevation. The frogs were
using this pool for breeding (Plate V), and
numerous foam nests were seen in the leaves
of trees surrounding the pond.

Two samples of tadpoles were reared from
foam nests, one of which was attached to a
palm frond overhanging a stream side pool
and the other plastered against the rock wall
above a pot-hole on a stream bank. The
other free-swimming samples were obtained
in stream side pools (3 samples) and in a
rocky pot-hole on a stream bank.
Hemidactylus frenatus Schlegel

Hemidactylus frenatus Schlegel, in Dumeril & Bibron,

1836, Erp. Gen., 3: 366 — Java; Smith, 1935,

Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 2: 95.

Material. 2 females 61, 67 mm SV, 3 males
58-65 mm, 1 juvenile 28 mm. Tail 0.90-1.12
times SV (n=4). Femoral pores in males
37(2), 41, without a preanal gap. Supralabials
11(3), 12(2). All individuals with conspicuous
rounded dorsal tubercles.

The fact that these geckos were found in
forest rather than in houses obliged us to con-
firm the identification by comparison with fre-
natus from various parts of southern Asia.
The color of one in life— underside of tail
orange, chest yellow, tinged with orange —
agrees well with Smith’s notes (1935).

Ecological Notes. The juvenile was found on
a small tree trunk (12 cm) 2 m above ground
in deciduous forest. All 5 adults were in ever-

green forest at 310-360 m. One was on soil
at the base of a tree buttress, the other 4 on
tree trunks 2-4.5 m above ground. The trees
measured 10, 80, 85, 110 cm DBH.

Cnemaspis omata (Beddome)

Gymnodactylus ornatus Beddome, 1870, Madras Jour.

Med. Sci., 1870, 1: 32 — Tinnevelly, India.
Cnemaspis omata Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit. India,
Rept., 2: 70.

Material. 9 females 46-56 mm SV, mean
52.0; 3 males 50-55 mm, mean 53.0; 2 juve-
niles. Tail 1.04-1.22 times SV in the 3 with
complete, original tails. Enlarged scansors
under fourth toe 3-4, the distal one much
larger than the others but not projecting. Males
with 8-10 preanal pores.

This series agrees well with Smith’s (1935)
description. In life, the light areas of the head,
neck, and shoulders are yellowish green ex-
cept for 2 pairs of white rectangular scapular
spots. The color changes abruptly behind the
shoulders to bluish grey with darker flecks.

Ecological Notes. Twelve of our animals
were collected at 950 m, 1 at 660 m, and 1
at 300 m. All were in moist-evergreen forest,
contrasting with Beddome’s statement that this
species occurs only in “dry jungle’ (Smith
1935). Ten were caught during daylight hours,
5 under rocks, 1 in a rotting log, 1 on a rock,
and 3 low on tree trunks. The 4 captured at
night were on large rocks (3) and on a tree
trunk. The rocks with which these lizards were
associated were large, 6 of them 1-2.5 m
across.

Cnemaspis littoralis (Jerdon)

Gymnodactylus littoralis Jerdon, 1853, Jour. Asiatic
Soc. Bengal, 22: 469 — Malabar.

Cnemaspis littoralis Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit. India,
Rept., 2: 76.

Material. 2 females, one with mature ova,
33, 34 mm SV; 1 male 33 mm. Tail 1.12 times
SV in one having an original tail. Male with
16/17 femoral pores, 12 scales separating the

557

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

series. Scansors 5-7 on fourth toe. As Smith
(1935) noted, the distal scansors of the basal
phalanges are strikingly enlarged.

Ecological Notes. All 3 were caught on tree
trunks 0.25-1.5 m above ground during day-
light hours, 2 in evergreen forest (310-360 m)
and one in moist deciduous forest (260 m).

This is the first record of littoralis from the
southern part of the Western Ghats.

Cnemaspis nairi Inger, Marx and Koshy

Cnemaspis nairi Inger, Marx & Koshy, 1984, Herpe^
tologica, 40: 149 — Ponmudi. Kerala.

Material. 1 females 37-43 mm SV, 3 males
31-41 mm, 7 immature. Means and counts
given in Inger et al. (1984).

Ecological Notes. This species was collected
from 280 to 925 m, most animals coming from
310-360 m. They were caught mainly in ever-
green forest (11), the remainder in moist-
deciduous forest (1), thin secondary growth
(2), gallery forest (1), and at the edge of a
grassy area (1). Seven were found under rocks
or logs and 2 under slabs of bark on a large
log. Three others were caught on large rocks,
3 on floor litter, and 2 low (0.1 m) on tree
trunks.

Cnemaspis tiropidogaster (Boulenger)

Gonatodes kandianus tropidogaster Boulenger, 1885,
Cat. Lizards Brit. Mus., 1 : 70 — Ceylon and Tin-
nevelly, Nilgiris, and Wynad, India.

Cnemaspis kandiana (part) Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit.
India, Rept., 2: 74.

Material. 132 individuals; 40 females 26-35
mm SV, smallest with enlarged ova 29 mm,
mean of those > 28 mm 31.7 (n = 33), 14
were gravid; 53 males 26-33 mm, mean 29.9.
Information on counts and taxonomic rela-
tionships given in Inger et al. (1984).

Ecological Notes. Six geckos were found in
moist-deciduous forest, 1 in a gallery forest,
and the rest in evergreen forest. Altitudinal
range was: 110-145 m — 5, 265-290 m — 3, 300-

370 m— 77, 450-570 m— 11, 660 m— 3, 870-
950 m — 33. Ninety one were caught on tree
trunks, 42 within 1 m of the ground and only
5 above 2 m. Fourteen were caught on large
rocks, 11 on dead leaves or on bare soil, and
13 under rocks or floor litter. Twelve of the
13 found on bare soil or on or under leaves
were within buttress-enclosed areas.

Draco dussumieri Dumeril & Bibron
Draco dussumieri Dumeril & Bibron, 1837, Erp. Gen.,
4: 456 — Malabar; Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit. India,
Rept., 2: 143.

Material. 2 females 85, 87 mm SV, 2 males
72, 74 mm. One male was caught in a tree at
an unknown height in a village (100 m) and
the others in trees about 8 m above ground
in evergreen forest (350-360 m). One male
and a female were caught in the same tree
(45 cm DBH).

Otocryptis beddomi Boulenger

Otocryptis beddomi Boulenger, 1885, Cat. Lizards
Brit. Mus., 1 : 272 — Sivagiri Ghat, India; Smith,
1935, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 2: 147.

Material. 27 females, 4 lacking enlarged or
yolked ova measure 30, 32, 33, 36 mm (first
3 subadult), 24 adult females 36-42 mm SV,
mean 39.4; 28 males, smallest (probably sub-
adult) 31 mm, adults 34-43 mm, mean 37.8.
Difference between means statistically signifi-
cant (t=2.51, P <0.02).

Tail length 1.45-1.71 times SV, mean 1.62
(n=9). Foot length 0.40-0.47 times SV, mean
0.44 (n=12). Pit before shoulder distinct. Males
occasionally with puffed gular sac, but never
with distinct gular appendage. Coloration as
described by Smith (1935) except that males
have a distinct light vertebral band.

Ecological Notes. Twenty-two gravid females
contained 3-5 near term ova each (mean 3.55).
That such a high proportion was gravid and
that we found no hatchlings indicate that the
period of oviposition is restricted and was
about to begin.

558

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA

Seven individuals were caught in moist-
deciduous forest, the rest in evergreen forest.
Forty-one were collected at 300-365 m, 9 below
that level (to 110 m) and 5 above (to 650
m). The bulk (32) were seen scampering over
leaf litter. Only 14 were observed on shrubs
(4) and trees (10), only 2 of these more than
1.5m above ground and 7 below 1 m.

Psammophilus blanfordanus (Stoliczka)

Charasia blanfordana Stoliczka, 1871, Proc. Asiatic
Soc. Bengal, 1871: 194 — Central India.
Psammophilus blanfordanus Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit.
India, Rept., 2: 210.

Material. 2 females 66, 71 mm SV, 1 male
104 mm. The tail of the male, the only indi-
vidual with a complete tail, measured 209
mm. Scale rows 97-103. Scales under fourth
toe 19-21.

Ecological Notes. One lizard was caught in
deciduous forest (115 m), 1 in a rubber plant-
ing (280 m), and 1 in an agricultural clear-
ing (550 m). All were on large rocks (3-5
m) when first seen.

The two females contained developing ova,
the larger individual 4 and the smaller 6.
Calotes calotes (Linnaeus)

Lacerta calotes Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat., ed. 10,
1 : 207 — Ceylon.

Calotes calotes Lonnberg, 1896, Bih. Svensk. Vet.
Akad., 22: 15; Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit. India,
Rept., 2: 201.

Material. 1 female 98 mm SV, 1 juvenile
41 mm. Tail 3.52 times SV in the female, 3.17
in the juvenile. Scale rows 31, 34. Scales under
the fourth toe 29, 31.

Ecological Notes. The juvenile was caught
in a rubber planting on the stem of a tall herb
1 m above ground. The female was caught
at 9.7 m above ground on a branch of a tree
(22 cm) in partly logged evergreen forest.
Elevations were 145 and 265 m respectively.

Calotes nemoricola Jerdon (Plate VI)

Calotes nemoricola Jerdon, 1853. Jour. Asiatic Soc.

Bengal, 22: 471 — Coonoor Ghat, Nilgiri Hills;

Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 2: 199.

Material. 2 males 108, 110 mm SV. Tail
2.34, 2.40 times SV. Scale rows 39, 42. Scales
under fourth toe 23, 28. Both were olive-green
when caught, one quickly turning brown. The
throat was orange-red in one.

Ecological Notes. One lizard was caught in
a sapling (3 cm diameter) 2 m above the
ground in a moist-deciduous forest (280 m).
The second was caught at night asleep cling-
ing to a slender branch of a shrub 1 m above
ground in an evergreen forest (310 m).

These specimens appear to be the first of
this species collected in the southern part of
the Western Ghats, about 300 km south of the
type locality.

Calotes rouxi Dumeril & Bibron (Plate VI)

Calotes rouxi Dumeril & Bibron, 1837, Erp. Gen.,

4: 407 — India; Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit. India,

Rept., 2: 206.

Calotes elliotti Gunther, 1864, Rept. Brit. India, p.

142 — Malabar; Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit. India,

Rept., 2: 207.

Material. 19 females 56-71 mm SV, mean
62.8; 4 males 63-66 mm, mean 64.5, 2 juve-
niles 26 mm. Tail 2.49-2.87 times SV in 16
individuals having complete tails. Scale rows
51-65, mean 58.7 (n=20); difference between
the sexes not significant: males 52-65, females
51-65.

The throat and underside of the head may
be rose or orange-red in both sexes; in several
individuals these areas faded to whitish a short
time after capture. Similarly, the enamel white
spot on the upper lip of some individuals
faded to dirty whitish.

Taxonomic Notes. Specimens collected by us
are variable with respect to the two diagno-
stic characters used by Boulenger (1885) and
Smith (1935) to distinguish C. elliotti from
C. rouxi : a small spine behind the supraciliary
ridge and a white spot below the orbit (see

559

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

tabulation).

Post-orbital spine

Present Present on

one side only

Absent

Subocular
white spot
Present

1 2

Absent

2 5

There is no association among these charac-
ters as would be expected from Smith’s key
and description. No meristic differences bet-
ween the two nominate forms appear in the
descriptions of Boulenger or Smith. In our
sample, the three with postorbital spines on
both sides had 55-64 scale rows and 27-31
scales under the fourth toe; in the 10 lacking
the spine these counts were 51-65 and 24-30;
in the 7 variable lizards the counts were 52-
65 and 27-30. Those with a subocular white
spot had 52-65 scale rows and 24-30 scales
under the fourth toe, those without the spot
51-65 and 27-31. Differences between pairs of
data sets are not statistically significant.

In all other features Boulenger’s and Smith’s
descriptions of the two forms are completely
congruent and our sample permits no dicho-
tomy on the basis of any character. We be-
lieve only a single species is involved.

Ecological Notes. Only 6 of the 25 collect-
ed were in non-arboreal positions: 3 on dead
leaves (2 in buttress-enclosed areas) and 3 on
rocks. The remainder were on small stumps
(2), shrubs 0.5-3 m above ground (8), and on
tree trunks 1-7.5 m high (9). Three were
captured at night while sleeping on the mid-
ribs of shrubby palm fronds. Altitudinal range
was extensive: 110-145 m — 4, 310-350 m — 19,
470 m — 1, 950 m — 1. Those from 110-145 m
were caught in deciduous forests, the rest in
evergreen.

Clutch size varied from 1 to 3, mean 2.3
(n=18).

Calotes versicolor (Daudin)

Agama versicolor Daudin, 1802, Hist. Nat. Rept., 3:
395 — India.

Calotes versicolor Jerdon, 1853, Jour. Asiatic Soc.
Bengal, 22: 470; Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit. India,
Rept., 2: 189.

Material. 3 females 75-83 mm SV, 3 males
74-94 mm. Tail 2.23-2.81 times SV (n=5).
Scale rows 39-43 (n = 5). Scales under fourth
toe 22-26 (n=5).

Ecological Notes. Two lizards were collected
in deciduous forest (130 m), 1 in a semi-open
area around buildings (800 m), and 3 in natu-
ral grassland (900-970 m). Two were caught
on rocks (30-50 cm), 3 on shrubs 1-1.8 m
above ground, and 1 on a tree trunk (40 cm)
1.5m above ground. The largest female con-
tained 5 developing ova.

Mabuya carinata (Schneider)

Scincus carinatus (part) Schneider, 1801, Hist.

Amph., 2: 183 — no type locality.

Mabouia carinata Boulenger, 1887, Cat. Lizards Brit.
Mus., 3: 181.

Mabuya carinata Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit. India,
Rept., 2: 266.

Material. 1 female 115 mm SV, 1 male 118
mm, 2 juveniles 50, 66 mm. Tail length of
male 223 mm, of larger juvenile 120 mm. Scale
rows 32-33. Scales under fourth toe 15. Ven-
trals 57-63.

Ecological Notes. Two were caught in a
natural grassy area at 900 m, 1 in a large
camp clearing at 800 m, and 1 in a rubber
planting at 290 m.

Mabuya clivicola1 sp. nov.

Diagnosis. A medium-sized species of
Mabuya distinguished from all other Indian
species of the genus by the following combi-

1 clivicola from clivus, hill (L.), and cola, dwell-
ing in (L.).

560

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA

nation of characters: lower eyelid scaly, supra-
nasals widely separated, prefrontals narrowly
in contact, dorsals weakly keeled, scales in 28
rows, 17-19 scales under fourth toe, a narrow
dark vertebral stripe.

Holotype. Field number RFI 30095, an adult
female, collected 8 May 1982 at Ponmudi,
Trivandrum District, Kerala at 260 m above
sea level. Deposited in NMNHI.

Paratypes. FMNH 216580-81, from the type
locality, both adult females, the latter with 3
near term ova.

Description of holotype. Body moderately
robust, head and neck of equal diameter; snout
obtusely pointed; preorbital length of head
equal to distance between eye and ear open-
ing. All head scales smooth; rostral as wide
as high, curving up on to dorsal surface of
snout, strongly constricted above the rostro-
labial suture, posterior margin strongly con-
vex; supranasals narrow, width less than half
length, widely separated from each other, end
of supranasal behind nasal opening; fronto-
nasal about as wide as long, narrowly sepa-
rated from frontal by prefrontals; prefrontals
meeting at a point, posterior corner separat-
ing frontal from first supraocular on left side
but not on right, lateral portion curving down
on side of head, broadly in contact with both
loreals and first supraocular; frontal longer
than its distance from snout, broadly in con-
tact with second supraocular on both sides
and narrowly with first on right side; fronto-
parietals as wide as long, touching last 3
supraoculars; interparietal longer than wide,
broadly in contact with nuchals; parietals
widely separated, bordering last supraocular,
3 temporals, and nuchal; 4 supraoculars,
second much the largest, its posterior border
transverse, cutting across anterior border of
frontoparietal; 5 supraciliaries, the first widest,
the third longest; nasal tallest anteriorly, no

evident suture behind nostril; first loreal about
twice as high as wide, much taller than second,
touching first two labials; length of dorsal
portion of second loreal greater than height,
ventral portion less than height, touching
second and third labials; 2 smaller scales bet-
ween second loreal and large subocular labial;
lower eyelid scaly; a row of very small scales
between eyelid and subocular labial; 5 posto-
culars, each about half size of temporals; 6
supralabials, 4 small ones preceding large sub-
ocular scale and one following; mental below
rostral and first supralabials; a large postmen-
tal between mental and first infralabial on
each side; 2 large scales on each side behind
postmental, both pairs separated in midline by
central row of gulars. Ear opening smaller
than second loreal, 3 small scales projecting
into opening from dorsal portion of anterior
border. One pair of rugose nuchals.

Scales in 28 rows; mid-dorsal scales with
5 weak keels; keels without spurs projecting
beyond margins of scales; dorsals and ventrals
subequal; preanals not enlarged; 46 ventrals
between mental and vent; scales on dorsal
surfaces of forelimbs smooth, those of hind
limbs with 2 weak keels; subdigital scales ob-
tusely keeled; scales on palm and sole rounded;
18 scales beneath fourth toe; dorsal and
lateral caudal scales weakly tricarinate; sub-
caudals not enlarged.

Head, back, and tail olive-brown; a dark
vertebral stripe on adjacent halves of mid-
dorsal scale rows beginning at shoulder and
ending shortly behind rear legs; a dark lateral
band beginning at eye as a narrow stripe, con-
tinuing over ear, and widening to cover parts
of 4 scale rows on trunk; band with a faint
light margin dorsally; between eye and
shoulder, band with a distinct light stripe ven-
trally which is in turn bordered by short,
thin dark line; between limbs band bordered

561

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

ventrally by dark gray area that fades into
grayish white of underside; head unmarked
ventrally.

Measurements given below.

MEASUREMENTS AND COUNTS

Holotypes

30095

Paratypes
216580 216581

Snout-vent (mm)

Head to ear opening

(mm)

10.5

Head width (mm)

Axilla-groin (mm)

Scale rows

Ventrals

Scales under fourth

toe 18

Variation. The paratypes are remarkably
similar to the holotype in details of coloration
and scutellation. The similarity is noteworthy
in the dorsal constriction of the rostral, the
narrow contact of the prefrontals, and the
transverse border of the second supraocular,
which prevents the usual wedging of the fron-
toparietal between the frontal and supraocular.
The rear third of the parietals is rugose in the
paratypes. In one (30524) the frontal touches
the first supraocular on the right side but not
on the left; in the other specimen the frontal
is separated from the first supraocular on
both sides. In one (31306) the dorsals are
weakly 7-carinate.

Comparisons. Two other species of Mabuya
were collected in the same general area, macu-
laria and carinata. Mabuya clivicola differs
from both in having weakly keeled dorsal
scales in which, in contrast to the strongly
keeled ones of the other two, the keels do not
project beyond the rear margins of the scales.
It also differs from both in having a single
dark vertebral stripe, though carinata some-
times has a pair of dark dorsal stripes that run

along the outer halves of the middorsal scale
rows. M. clivicola further differs from carinata
in having fewer scale rows (30-32 in carinata ),
fewer ventrals (55-63 in carinata ), and more
scales under the fourth toe (only 15 in cari-
nata). Mabuya clivicola differs from macu-
lar i a in the shape of the rostral, which in
macularia is gradually narrowed dorsally and
not, as in clivicola , sharply constricted above
the level of the labials; in having the prefron-
tals meeting; and in having more scales under
the fourth toe (13-15 in macularia). In macu-
laria the frontoparietals are always wedged
between the rear of the second supraocular
and the frontal; in clivicola that does not
occur.

Mabuya bibroni Gray, which occurs along
the coastal strand of southern India (Smith
1935), has a clear spectacle in the lower eyelid
and further differs from clivicola in having
strongly keeled scales, 2 pairs of nuchals, a
squarish first loreal, and a light vertebral
stripe. The other two South Indian species, M.
beddomi (Jerdon) and vertebralis Boulenger,
differ from clivicola in having the supranasals
in contact and more scales (32-36). The boldly
striped beddomi has more ventrals (55-62)
than clivicola whereas vertebralis has fewer
scales under the fourth toe (13-14) and more
strongly keeled scales than clivicola. Among
the more northerly Indian species, dissimilis
(Hallowell), aurata (Linnaeus), and innotata
(Blanford) differ from clivicola in having a
spectacle in the lower eyelid and more scale
rows (32-38). The supranasals meet in dissi-
milis and aurata, while innotata has a squarish
first loreal; both these character states are
absent in clivicola.

Ecological Notes. Two specimens of M.
clivicola were caught in thin secondary growth,
one of them on a road (310 m) and the other
in a sun spot on bare soil (260 m). The third

562

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Plate V!

Inger et al. : Amphibians & Reptiles from Ponmudi

Above: Calotes nemoricola.
Below: Calotes rouxi.

Plate VII

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81

Inger et a/. : Amphibians & Reptiles from Ponmudi

\bove: Boiga cevlonensis.
Below: Boiga nuchal is.

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA

was caught on a large rock in an open area
of a tea plantation at 350 m.

Mabuya macularia (Blyth)

Euprepes macularius Blyth, 1853, Jour. Asiatic
Soc. Bengal, 22: 652 — Bengal.

Mabuia macularia Boulenger, 1887, Cat. Lizards
Brit. Mus., 3 : 182.

Mabuya macularia Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit. India,
Rept., 2 : 264.

Material. 88 specimens. Three hatchlings
from eggs kept in the laboratory 26-28 mm
SV; 25 young, presumably recently hatched,
25-32 mm, 5 additional young 36-41 mm, 3
subadults 48-52 mm; 30 adult females 58-69
mm, mean 62.9; 20 adult males 58-66 mm,
mean 62.7. Tail in females 1.22-1.43 times
SV (n=3), in males 1.36-1.48 (n=3). Scale
rows 28 (12), 29 (2), 30 (1). Ventrals 41-
46, mean 43.5 (n=15). Scales under fourth
toe 13-15, mean 13.6 (n=17). The coloration
of males in life matches the description of
Lygosoma dawsoni Annandale (1909a), which
Smith (1935) placed in the synonymy of
macularia.

Ecological Notes. Ten of 13 females dis-
sected had developing ova, though only 4 had
shelled eggs. Clutch size was invariably 2.
We found 8 clutches of 2 eggs each and one
of a single egg. The eggs varied in length
from 13 to 15 mm, the diameter from 0.69 to
0.81 of length. Eggs were identified to species
on the basis of the embryos except for three
that hatched in the field laboratory. Smith
(1935) gave clutch size as 3-4. As he re-
ferred to an ovipositing female from Thailand,
it is possible that clutch size varies geogra-
phically.

Most (76) of these skinks came from ever-
green forest; 5 were caught in thin secondary
growth, 4 in moist-deciduous forest, 2 in deci-
duous forest, and 1 in a rubber planting. Three-
fourths (65) were collected between 300 and
370 m, 9 at 110-150 m, 6 at 280-295 m, and

8 at 450-550 m. Except for two individuals
(one on a tree trunk at 2.5 m and one on a
stump at 0.5 m), all were first observed at
the ground level, 6 or rocks, 2 on logs, and
the remainder on or under floor litter. Five
clutches of eggs were found under dead leaves,
2 under a log, 1 in a rotting log, and 1 in a
rotting stump.

RisfeHa beddomi Boulenger

Ristella beddomi Boulenger, 1887, Cat. Lizards
Brit. Mus., 3 : 359, pi. 29, fig. 4 — southwestern
India; Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 2: 332.

Material. 2 females 36-37 mm SV, 5 males
34-39 mm, 1 juvenile 20 mm. Only one male
had a complete tail, 1.35 times SV. Scale
rows 26 (2), 28 (5). Ventrals 47-56, mean
50.4 (n=7). Scales under fourth toe 12-15,
mean 13.7 (n=7).

Color in life dark reddish brown above;
side of body satiny jet black with scattered
turquoise scales forming dots; underside of
head and neck pale yellow tinged with green,
ending at a sharp boundary between fore-
limbs; remainder of chest, belly, and under-
side of limbs salmon; underside of tail darker
salmon; yellowish eye ring. Juvenile (in pre-
servative) with three narrow, light, dark-edged
stripes on back, none on side.

Ecological Notes. Seven lizards were
caught in evergreen forest and one in moist
semi-deciduous forest at elevations from 190
to 510 m. All were found on forest floor, 3
under dead leaves, 1 on bare soil, and 4 on
dead leaves. Three clutches of eggs, assigned
to this species on the basis of head scales of
embryos, were found under large rocks (2
clutches) and under dead leaves (1) in a
buttress-enclosed area. Ova in a clutch of 3
measured 6.0 x 8.8 to 6.0 x 9.0 mm. The
other clutches consisted of 2 ova each, both
6.0 x 9.0 in one and 5.8 x 8.7 and 6.0 x 8.7
in the other.

563

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Ristella travancorica (Beddome)

Ateuchosaurus travancoricus (part) Beddome,
1870, Madras Jour. Med. Sci., 1870, p. 33 — Western
Ghats.

Ristella travancorica Beddome, 1871, Madras Jour.
Med. Sci., 1871, p. 402; Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit.
India, Rept., 2 : 331.

Material. 41 specimens : 20 females 31-37
mm SV, mean 34.4; 9 males 33-37 mm, mean
34.8; 2 hatchlings 16 mm, 10 juveniles 19-28
mm. One adult male had a complete, origi-
nal tail 1.57 times SV and two females 1.29
and 1.43 times SV. Scale rows 22 (1) and
24 (10). Ventrals 48-54, mean 50.6 (n=10).

These have the diagnostic characters that
distinguish travancorica from the similar spe-
cies, R. rurki (Boulenger 1887, Smith 1935);
dorsals with two sharp keels, scale rows 24 or
less, posterior loreal single.

Ecological Notes. Three females were gra-
vid; each contained 2 shelled ova. A pair
of eggs measuring 5.33 x 11.0 and 5.5 x 11.2
mm were found under a rock (25 cm); one was
kept in dead leaves for 23 days before pre-
serving, at which time the embryo was near
term. A second pair of eggs, also found under
a rock, hatched in the field laboratory.

All individuals were found in evergreen
forests, only 5 below 500 m and 31 between
860 and 950 m above sea level. Three-fourths
were caught under dead leaves (21) or rocks
(11), 5 on bare soil, and 1 low (0.3 m) on
a tree trunk. The last may have been dis-
turbed by one of us from its usual floor
habitat before we saw it.

Sphenomorphus dussumieri

(Dumeril & Bibron)

Lygosoma dussumieri Dumeril & Bibron, 1839,
Erp. Gen., 5: 725 — Malabar; Smith, 1935, Fauna
Brit. India, Rept., 2 : 286.

Sphenomorphus dussumieri Taylor, 1950, Univ.
Kansas Sci. Bull., 33 : 497.

Material. 34 specimens: 17 juveniles 22-32

mm SV; 1 subadult 43 mm; 8 females 49-60
mm, mean 55.5; 8 males 52-64 mm, mean
58.3. Tail 1.72-1.81 times SV (n=5, males
only). Scales rows 38 (2), 40 (7), 41 (1),
42 (2). Ventrals 73-85, mean 80.5 (n=10).
Scales under fourth toe 20-24, mean 21.8
(n-10).

Ecological Notes. Females had either 3 (4
individuals) or 4 (3 individuals) developing
ova.

Lizards were caught in evergreen forest
(14), moist-deciduous forest (8), secondary
growth (8), and in a rubber planting (4).
Most (21) were captured at 110-150 m above
sea level and the remainder between 265 and
350 m. Annandale (1909a) found dussumieri
at the base of the hills in Travancore.

Typhlops beddomi Boulenger

Typhlops beddomi Boulenger, 1890, Fauna Brit.
India, Rept. Batr., p. 237 — hills of South India;
Smith, 1943, Fauna Brit. India, Rept., 3 : 54.

Material. 1 specimen total length 90 mm.
Scale rows 18. Transverse rows of scales 203.
All of the head scales, starting two scales
behind the eyes, are almost entirely covered
with small glandules. Above dark brown;
each scale edged anteriorly with a purplish
brown streak. Snout and ventral surface
lighter tan.

Ecological Notes . This snake was found in
a patch of gallery forest at 950 m elevation
beneath a rock (diameter 50 cm).

Typhlops braminus (Daudin)

Eryx braminus Daudin, 1803, Hist. Nat. Rept.,
7 : 279 — Vizagapatam, India.

Typhlops braminus Cuvier, 1829, Reg. Anim., ed.
2, 2: 73; Smith, 1943, Fauna Brit. India, Rept.,
3 : 46.

Material. 1 specimen total length 145 mm.
Scale rows 20. Transverse rows of scales 315.
Glands of head scales as figured by Smith
(1943, fig. 14).

Ecological Notes. This specimen was col-

564

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMVDl, KERALA

lected beneath the bark of a 60 cm log in
evergreen forest at 110 m elevation.

Uropeltis ceylanicus Cuvier

Uropeltis ceylanicus Cuvier, 1829, Reg. Anim.,
ed., 2, 2: 76 — Ceylon; Smith, 1943, Fauna Brit.
India, Rept., 3 : 80.

Material. 1 specimen total length 405 mm.
Scale rows at mid-body 17. Ventrals 128;
caudals 9.

Ecological Notes. This snake was found
dead on a road through a tea plantation at
500 m above sea level.

Amphiesma beddomi (Gunther)

Tropidonotus beddomei Gunther, 1864, Rept. Brit.
India, p. 269, pi. 22, fig. E — Nilgiris.

Amphiesma beddomei Malnate, 1960, Proc. Acad.
Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 112 : 50.

Natrix beddomei Smith, 1943, Fauna Brit. India,
Rept., 3 : 306.

Material. 2 males total length 340, 500 mm,
SV 250, 365 mm; 2 females total length 390,
565 mm, SV 300, 420 mm; 3 juveniles total
length 150-180 mm, SV 115-130 mm. Eight
supralabials. Temporals 1+1 (1), 1+2 (6).
Scale rows at mid-body 19. Ventrals 136-
140 (n=4); caudals male 76, female 61, 2
juveniles 68-73.

This sample exhibits the striking change in
coloration with age described by Smith (1943).

Ecological Notes. All these snakes were
found in evergreen forest well away from
streams. Six were caught between 310 and
360 m above sea level and one at 950 m.
Three individuals were found on or under
dead leaves, 3 on the surface of the soil and
the single high altitude snake under a 12 cm
log. Two juveniles contained one small toad
each (prey SV 10 mm) in their stomachs.
Xenochrophis piscator (Schneider)

Hydrus piscator Schneider, 1799, Hist. Amph., 1 :
247 — East Indies.

Xenochrophis piscator Malnate & Minton, 1965,
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 117 : 19.

Natrix piscator Smith, 1943, Fauna Brit. India,

Rept., 3 : 293.

Material. 1 male total length 475 mm, SV
335; 4 females total length 210-300 mm, SV
155-225 mm. Nine supralabials (4) or 9/10
(1). Temporals 2+2 (3), 2+1/2, 2+2/3. Scale
rows at mid-body 19. Ventrals 129 (male),
142 (1 female); caudals 76 (male), 74 (1
female).

The small specimens are dark brown dor-
sally, grading to light tan laterally, with black
vertical bars each covering 3-4 scale rows in
4 or 5 alternating rows across the entire body.
The adult male is uniform olive brown except
for black bars on the lateral scale rows.

Taxonomic Notes. Smith (1943) described
four races of this common Asian water snake.
However, the juvenile and adult color pat-
terns of these specimens straddle two of his
forms.

Ecological Notes. We collected 3 individuals
from permanent small streams (1-4 m wide)
between 105 and 350 m above sea level in
clearings of moist-deciduous and evergreen
forest, a fourth in a temporary pool in secon-
dary growth at 350 m, and the fifth crossing
a road at 500 m. In addition, several were
seen, but not collected, foraging at night
around a dammed pool (c 6 m diameter)
in secondary growth at 800 m.

ElapSie helena (Daudin)

Coluber helena Daudin, 1803, Hist. Nat. Rept.,
6: 277 — Vizagapatam, India.

Elaphe helena Shaw et al., 1939, Jour. Darjeeling
Nat. Hist. Soc., 14 : 78; Smith, 1943, Fauna Brit.
India, Rept., 3 : 149.

Material. 1 juvenile total length 395 mm,
SV 325 mm. Nine supralabials. Scale rows
at mid-body 25. Ventrals 243, caudals 74.

Color brown with dark crossbands con-
taining white ocelli. Ventrally with semi-cir-
cular black bands extending about one-fourth
width of ventrals, giving a scalloped black
edge to the yellow-tan belly. A white nuchal

565

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

collar, interrupted along the midline and
surrounded by black bands.

According to Smith (1943) this nuchal
pattern is confined to populations from the
Western Ghats.

Ecological Notes. This specimen was col-
lected at 8 a.m. at 800 m on a road.

Oligodon affinis Gunther

Oligodon cf finis Gunther, 1862, Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist., (3), 9 : 58 — Anamallais; Smith, 1943, Fauna
Brit. India, Rept., 3 : 230.

Material. 1 juvenile total length 245 mm,
SV 225 mm. Six supralabials. Scale rows at
mid-body 17. Ventrals 140; caudals 20. No
loreal. Posterior nasal elongate.

Color brown with dark brown crossbars
edged with white. Below white with more or
less alternating black squares. Head with com-
plex dark pattern as in Smith (1943, fig. 79).

This specimen differs from Smith’s (1943)
description in having one less supralabial and
fewer caudals (23 lowest count given by
Smith).

Ecological Notes. Our snake was collected
on a streamside rock at the edge of a village
at 100 m above sea level.

Lycodon travancoricus (Beddome)

Cercaspis travancoricus Beddome, 1870, Madras
Monthly Jour. Med. Sci., 2 : 169 — Travancore

hills, India.

Lycodon travancoricus Boulenger, 1890, Fauna
Brit. India, Rept. Batr., p. 293; Smith, 1943, Fauna
Brit. India, Rept., 3 : 259.

Material. 1 male total length 545 mm, SV
430 mm; 1 female total length 525 mm, SV
420 mm. Nine supralabials. Scale rows at
mid-body 17. Ventrals 166 (male), 180
(female); caudals 68 (male), 63 (female).
All caudals in the male single, the first 40
single in the female. Dorsal coloration purple-
black with white crossbars.

Ecological Notes. Both snakes were caught
the same night along on a trail in evergreen

forest at 310 m within a 30-minute interval.
A steady rain was falling that evening.
Xylophis stenorhynchus (Gunther)

Gcophis stenorhynchus Gunther, 1875, Proc. Zool.
Soc. London, 1875 : 230 — Travancore.

Xylophis stenorhynchus Boulenger, 1890, Fauna
Brit. India, Rept. Batr., p. 304; Smith, 1943, Fauna
Brit. India, Rept., 3 : 343.

Material. 1 male total length 115 mm, SV

100 mm; 1 female total length 135 mm, SV

125 mm. Five supralabials. Scale rows at
mid-body 15. Ventrals 102 (male), 119

(female); caudals 19 (male), 14 (female).

Dorsally dark brown with an irridescent

sheen. Two lines of dark tipped scales on
rows 2 and 4; a more or less well defined line
of dark brown scales on row 3. A whitish
collar 1-2 scales wide around entire neck. One
snake has a distinct white temporal stripe.

Ecological Notes. Both specimens were
collected in evergreen forest at 145 and 300
m above sea level under dead leaves. One
was in the accumulated litter between but-
tresses of a tree 60 cm in diameter.

Ahaetulla nasuta (Lacepede)

Coluber nasutus Lacepede, 1789, Hist. Nat. Serp.,
1 : 100 — Ceylon.

Ahaetulla nasuta Stejneger, 1933, Copeia, 1933 :
203.

Dryophis nasutus, Smith, 1935, Fauna Brit. India,
Rept., 3 : 376.

Material. 3 males total length 650-1060
mm, SV 415-665 mm, mean 512 mm; 9
females total length 440-1330 mm, SV 290-
870 mm, mean 611 mm. Eight supralabials,
1 snake with 9 on one side. Temporals vari-
able, 1-2 anterior, 1-3 posterior, frequent asym-
metries within individuals. Scale rows at mid-
body 15. Ventrals in males 179-185, mean
181.6; in females 163-181, mean 176.1. Cau-
dals in males 162-168, mean 165.6; in females
147-159, mean 153.4. Loreal present in only
one snake.

In life brilliant grassy green above, paler

566

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUDI, KERALA

green below. A yellow line along the outer
edge of the ventrals on each side extending
to the vent. Smith (1943) lists several vari-
ants from this color pattern, none of which
is represented in our sample.

Ecological Notes. A diurnal snake, 10 of
12 being caught during the day. Two indi-
viduals were found on exposed soil, one on a
log, and one in a large tree 2 m above the
ground in low branches. The remainder were
taken from low shrubs, 2-2.5 m above the
ground. One specimen was caught in secon-
dary growth at 840 m above sea level; the
rest were collected in evergreen forest (9) or
in moist deciduous forest (2) between 145
and 350 m.

Boiga ceylonensis (Gunther) (Plate VII)

Dipsadomorphus ceylonensis Gunther, 1858, Cat.
Col. Snakes Brit. Mus., p. 176 — Ceylon.

Boiga ceylonensis Smith, 1943. Fauna Brit. India.
Rept., 3 : 351.

Material 2 males, total lengths 755, 940
mm, SV 585, 725 mm; 1 juvenile total length
495 mm, SV 385 mm. Supralabials 8. Tempo-
rals 2+3. Scale rows at mid-body 19. Ven-
trals in males 228, 233; 218 in juvenile.
Caudals in males 108, 112; in juvenile 102.
Hemipenis covered with numerous short,
closely set spines.

Color pattern of the head in all three speci-
mens consisting of a light tan background with
dark brown, symmetrical markings. A trans-
verse bar along the posterior edge of each
parietal, met on the midline by a longitudinal
mid-dorsal streak extending posteriorly from
the parietals 5-7 scales. A thin postorbital
streak from the eye beyond the angle of the
jaw immediately above the supralabials. A
pair of dark chevrons more or less developed
on the anterior margin of the parietals. Body
covered dorsally with alternating dark and
light blotches, producing a diffuse banded

pattern. Ventraliy white with irregular dark
brown flecks.

Taxonomic Notes. We here use B. ceylo-
nensis in the restricted sense of Wall (1909),
as opposed to the extended sense of Smith
(1943), and consider at least B. ceylonensis
and B. nuchalis to be valid species. B. nuchalis
is discussed on p. 568.

Ecological Notes. Two specimens were
collected at 310 m in evergreen forest, one on
the soil surface and the other 60 cm above
the ground in a low shrub. The third snake
was taken in the early morning crossing a road
at approximately 800 m above sea level.

Boiga dightoni (Boulenger)

Dipsas dightoni Boulenger, 1894, J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc., 8 : 528 — Pirmaad, Travancore.

Boiga dightoni Smith, 1943, Fauna Brit. India,
Rept., 3 : 359.

Material. 1 male total length 1170 mm,
SV 920 mm; 1 female total length 965 mm,
SV 770 mm. Female missing the tip of the
tail. Eight supralabials. Scale rows at mid-
body 23. Ventrals 248 and 239, caudals 111
and 90 in the male and female, respectively.

Above uniform light brown; supralabials
tan with fine dark brown specks. Below light
tan with dark brown flecks. The scale counts
for the male is somewhat higher than the
range given by Smith (1943 : ventrals 228-241,
caudals 95-102). However, as Smith had only
3 specimens available, his ranges should be
considered approximate. In all other charac-
ters our material agrees well with Smith’s
description.

This is a rare species in collections, with
apparently only 3 specimens known other than
the two reported here.

Ecological Notes. Both snakes were taken
in secondary growth situations at high altitudes
(700 and 840 m). The male was caught 1.3
m above ground in a small shrub at night

567

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

and contained a partially digested Calotes ver-
sicolor (SV 95 mm, total length 320 mm)
swallowed head first.

Boiga nuchalis (Gunther) (Plate VII)

Dipsas nuchalis Gunther, 1875, Proc. Zool. Soc.
London, 1875 : 233 — west coast of India.

Boiga ceylonensis (part) Smith, 1943, Fauna Brit.
India, Rept., 3 : 351.

Material. 2 males total length 705, 1155
mm, SV 560, 895 mm. Eight supralabials.
Temporals 2+3. Scale rows at mid-body 23.
Ventrals 248, 249; caudals 107, 108. Head
elongate, snout blunt, eyes not protruding.

Head dark tan with a faint darker brown
triangular patch extending from the posterior
border of the parietals anteriorly over the head
to the rostral. A nuchal collar of dark brown
separated from the large dark patch by 2-3
scales. The collar is 3 scales wide in both
specimens. A sharply defined dark streak
from the posterior border of the eye to the
last supralabial. Pattern of the body similar
to that of B. ceylonensis , consisting of alterna-
ting crossbands of dark brown on a tan back-
ground. Ventrally light with brown flecks.

Taxonomic Notes. There has been disagree-
ment in the literature concerning the validity
of this form as a species distinct from B.
ceylonensis. Wall (1909) divided B. ceylonen-
sis into four species ( andamanensis , beddomi,
ceylonensis, and nuchalis ) on the basis of ven-
tral, subcaudal, and mid-body scale counts.
Annandale (1909b) disagreed with Wall’s
judgement and Smith (1943) lists all 4 under
ceylonensis, primarily because he could find
no additional characters corroborating the
scale count differences. We observe a differ-
ence in coloration; compare descriptions pre-
sented here.

Ecological Notes. Both specimens were
caught at night, one on the ground in a large
clearing and the other on a road at 200 m

elevation.

Hypnale hypnale (Merrem) (Plate VIII)

Cophias hypnale Merrem, 1820, Syst. Arrtph., p. 155-
“Levante.”

Hypnale hypnale Gloyd, 1977, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash-
ington, 90: 1009.

Ancistrodon hypnale Smith, 1943, Fauna Brit. India,
Rept., 3: 499.

Material. 4 males total length 276-340 mm,
SV 234-289 mm, mean 260.5 mm; 7 females
total length 353-412 mm, SV 314-360 mm,
mean 335.4 mm; 1 juvenile SV 132 mm. Seven
supralabials. Scale rows at mid-body 17.
Ventrals in males 135-141, mean 137.8; in
females 133-141, mean 138.0. Caudals in males
40-42, mean 40.8; in females 33-35, mean
34.0.

Ecological Notes. Eight of the 12 in this
sample were caught in evergreen forest, 3 in
moist-deciduous forest, and 1 in secondary
growth. Three were on rocks, one on a log,
and the rest at ground level on soil or dead
leaves. Altitudinal range was narrow, 105-350
m. One female (SV 354 mm) had a small
mammal in the gut. Another (SV 340 mm)
contained 5 near term embryos.

Trimeresunis malabaricus (Jerdon)
Trigonocephalus malabaricus Jerdon, 1854, Jour.

Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 22: 523 — Western Ghats.
Trimeresunis malabaricus Smith, 1943, Fauna Brit.
India, Rept., 3: 513.

Material. 13 males total length 340-550 mm,
SV 285-450 mm, mean 388 mm; 13 females
total length 275-665 mm, SV 230-565 mm,
mean 354 mm; 14 juveniles total length 185-
285 mm, SV 155-240 mm. Supraoculars 1-5,
variable between sides. Internasals 2-3 times
size of adjacent scales and meeting in mid-
line. Scale rows at mid-body 21 (38) or 23
(2). Ventrals in males 143-150, in females
138-146, in juveniles 135-152. Caudals in males
53-58, in females 51-59, in juveniles 48-60.

Coloration variable. Larger individuals

568

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Plate VIII

Inger et al. : Amphibians & Reptiles from Ponmudi

Hypnale hypnale.

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM PONMUD1, KERALA

(> 420 mm total length) dark brown with
irregular green crossbars. In some specimens
green predominates, with black saddles across
the back. Head dark with scattered light green
scales. Below mottled green and yellow; a few
of the scales in the lowest lateral row some-
times yellow. Tail above brightly banded with
green and black, occasionally with some yellow.
Juveniles and a few of the adults light brown
above with a series of dark brown, diamond-
shaped saddles distinct or barely visible. In a
few a second series of smaller brown spots
on the first scale row bordering the caudals.

The two color phases in our sample are
very similar to Smith’s (1943) descriptions of
the color patterns of T. malaharicus (greenish)
and T. strigatus (brownish), both from the
southern Western Ghats. However, the scale
counts and condition of the second supralabial
(very long and forming the anterior portion
of the loreal pit) agree with T. malabaricus
regardless of coloration. Several of our inter-
mediate-sized animals appear to be in tran-
sition between the two color forms; that is,
they retain the overall brown saddled pattern

Refe

Adriel, D. (1966) : Working Plan for Trivan-
drum Forest Division 1964-65 to 1973-74, Ernaku-
lam.

Ahl, E. (1931) : Anura III. Polypedatidae. Das
Tierreich, Lief. 55: 1-477.

Annandale, N. (1909a) : Report on a small col-
lection of lizards from Travancore. Rec. Indian Mus.
3: 253-257.

(1909b) : Miscellanea. Reptiles.

ibid. 3: 281-282.

(1918) : Some undescribed tadpoles

from the hills of southern India, ibid. 15: 18-23.

(1919): The fauna of certain

small streams in the Bombay Presidency, ibid. 16:
109-171, 7 pis.

Bhaduri, J. L. & Kripalani, M. B. (1955) : Nycti-
batrachus humayuni, as a new frog from the Western

but are becoming very dark, and the tail is
assuming the green color.

Ecological Notes. Three snakes were caught
in moist-deciduous forest, 35 in evergreen
forest, and 2 in gallery forest extending into
grassland from a block of evergreen forest.
Altitudinal range was extensive, 110-920 m,
although most (28) v/ere found in the 300-
375 m zone. Seven snakes were captured
along water courses, 32 at some distance from
streams, and one in a large clearing. About
half (21) were found at the ground level, on
dead leaves, rocks, and logs, and the remainder
on herbaceous plants, shrubs, stumps, and trees
from 0.1 to 3.0 m above the ground.

Only 4 of these snakes contained food re-
mains. One juvenile (SV 240 mm) had an
adult Cnemaspis tropidogaster (SV 32 mm)
and another (SV 225 mm) had a Rhacophorus
(probably R. pleurostictus, SV 31 mm). An
adult female (SV 545 mm) had recently in-
gested a musk shrew ( Suncus murinus, body
length 120 mm), and another female (SV
565 mm) had mammal hair in its gut.

E n ce s

Ghats, Bombay. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52: 852-
859.

Boulenger, G. A. (1882) : Catalogue of the
Batrachia Salientia S. Ecaudata in the collection of
the British Museum. London.

(1883) : Description of new

species of reptiles and batrachians in the British
Museum. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), 12: 161-167.

(1885) : Catalogue of the

Lizards in the British Museum (Natural History).
London. Vol. I.

(1887): ibid. Vol. 3.

(1890) : The Fauna of British

India. Reptilia and Batrachia. London.

(1920) : A monograph of the

South Asia, Papuan Melanesian and Australian frogs
of the genus Rana. Rec. Indian Mus. 20: 1-226.

569

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Daniel, J. C. (1963, 1975): Field guide to the
amphibians of Western India. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc., Part 1, 60: 415-438; Part 3, 72: 506-522.

Ferguson, H. S. (1904) : A list of Travancore
batrachian. ibid. 15: 499-509.

Gosner, K. L. (1960) : A simplified table for
staging anuran embryos and larvae with notes on
identification. Herpetologica 16: 183-190.

Gunther, A. (1875): Third report on collections
of Indian reptiles obtained by the British Museum.
Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1875: 567-577, pis. 63-66.

Inger, R. F. & Colwell, R. K. (1977): Organi-
zation of contiguous communities of amphibians and
reptiles in Thailand. Ecol. Monogr. 47: 229-253.

Inger, R. F., Marx, H. & Koshy, M. (1984): An
undescribed species of gekkonid lizard ( Cnemaspis )
from India with comments on the status of C.
tropidogaster. Herpetologica 40: 149.

Kirtisinghe, P. (1957): The Amphibia of

Ceylon. Colombo.

Lloyd, M., Inger, R. F. & King, F. W. (1968):
On the diversity of reptile and amphibian species
in a Bornean rain forest. Amer. Nat. 102: 497-515.

Myers, C. S. (1942a) : A new frog from the
Anamallai Hills, with notes on other frogs and some
snakes from South India. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washing-
ton 55 : 49-56.

(1942b): A new frog of the genus

Micrixalus from Travancore. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash-

ington 55: 71-74.

Parker, H. W. (1934) : A monograph of the frogs
of the Family Microhylidae. London.

Pillai, R. S. (1978a) : A new frog of the genus
Micrixalus Boul. from Wynad, S. India. Proc. Indian
Acad. Sci. 87B: 173-177.

(1978b) : On Nyctibatrachus major

Boul. (Ranidae) with a description of its tadpole.
Bull Zool. Survey India 1: 135-140.

Rao, C. R. N. (1918): Notes on the tadpoles of
Indian Engystomatidae. Rec. Indian Mus. 15: 41-45.

(1937) : On some new forms of

Batrachia from S. India. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., 6B:
387-426, 11 pis.

Seshachar, B. R. (1942): The eggs and embryos
of Gegenophis carnosus Bedd. Current Sci. Banga-
lore 11: 439-441.

Smith, M. A. (1935): Fauna of British India.
Reptiles and Amphibians. Vol. II — Sauria. London.

(1943): ibid. Vol. Ill — Serpentes.

London.

Taylor, E. H. (1961): Notes on Indian caeci-
lians. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58: 355-365.

Wall, F. (1909): Remarks on some forms of
Dipsadomorphus. Rec. Indian Mus. 3: 151-155.

(1922): Notes on some lizards, frogs

and human beings in the Nilgiri Hills. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 28: 493-499.

570

POLLINATION ECOLOGY OF EUPHORBIA
GENICULATA ( EUPHORBIACEAE ) 1

E. U. B. Reddi and C. Subba Reddi2
(With a plate & three text-figures)

Euphorbia geniculata is monoecious and reproduces both by geitonogamy and
xenogamy. The stigmas are fully receptive by the 3rd day of anthesis, and the male
phase is evident from the 5th day of female anthesis, with the anthers dehiscing
between 0800-1000 h. The nectar is glucose + fructose dominant type, and is
secreted in quantity by day and night. The cyathium is flat blossom and is of the
promiscous type. Pollination is effected by a broad spectrum of diurnal insects and
is of the ‘mess and soil’ type. The principal pollinators are ants (Camponotus) ,
wasps (Ropalidia, Polistes, Vespa) and beetles (Coccinella) . The ants are consistent
and more abundant, and they alone could satisfy the pollination requirement to result
in 100% reproductive success. The ants because of their crawling behaviour mainly
deliver geitonogamous pollen, but their bellicose nature helps the plant to achieve

more outcrossing by the wasps which being
plant to plant.

Introduction

In the family Euphorbiaceae, the genus
Euphorbia is the largest one represented by
more than 1600 species (Lawrence 1973), all
of which are almost cosmopolitan in distribu-
tion, but majority confined to the tropics
(Kerner 1904, Good 1964). The cyathial
morphology and anatomy were fully studied
by several generations of botanists since
Roeper’s day and the basic structure is now
well understood; however, this knowledge has
never been related effectively to pollination
problems (Webster 1967).

The early works reported diverse groups of
insects visiting 18 species of Euphorbia (Knuth
1906-9); however the importance of insects in
the reproductive biology of these plants re-

1 Accepted December 1982.

2 Department of Environmental Sciences, Andhra
University, Waltair-530 003.

scared of the ants move more often from

mained obscure. Only very recently has there
been a detailed study by Ehrenfeld (1976,
1979) in respect of three species of Euphorbia,
sub -genus Chamaesyce. His results showed that
the three species differ in their reliance on in-
sect vectors for reproduction. Despite such
scattered observations, the floral biology of the
genus Euphorbia characterised by unique floral
device is still rather poorly known (Webster
1967, Ehrenfeld 1976). Realising the import-
ance and dearth of these studies from the
tropical zones, especially of the Indian sub-
continent, attempts were made to collect the
data on pollination ecology of Euphorbia
geniculata, a monoecious annual weed occurring
in the cultivated fields and gardens, and grow-
ing to 1 m height.

Materials and Methods

Euphorbia geniculata Orteg. (E. hetero-
phylla L.) growing at Visakhapatnam in the
cultivable lands of the Botany Experimental

571

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Farm area 3 km away from the Andhra Uni-
versity Campus on NH5 formed the material
for the present study. Fifty cyathia labelled in
bud condition were followed till they ceased
to produce flowers to record daily anthesis
from which the male to female flower ratio
was computed. Numerical assessment of the
pollen grains contained in an anther was made
squashing the mature and undehisced anther
in lactophenol aniline-blue and counting the
entire pollen mass drawn into a band on the
microscope slide. Periodic determinations of
the pollen contained in the dehisced anthers
were similarly done. The pollen grains depo-
sited on the stigmas were counted after press-
ing the stigmas in between two glass slides.
The longevity of pollen was assessed through
in vitro germination studies using 20% sucrose
solution with 1% boric acid solution added.
The length of the stigma receptivity was based
on pollen germination after hand pollinating
the stigmas of different ages.

To monitor the nectar amounts, the plants
in bloom were covered with insect proof cages
for the required periods and DDT was applied
around the plants to prevent the ants reach-
ing the nectar cups. The nectar accumulated
in the cups was measured at intervals using
dispensable micropipettes. Sugar concentration
was read with Erma Hand Refractometer and
sugar composition using paper chromatography
and spectrophotometry (Harborne 1973). Pro-
teins and amino acids were detected according
to Raker & Baker (1973).

The insects caught at the cyathia all through
the study period (1979 and 1980) were got
identified through the courtesy of CIE Lon-
don. Green house was used to study the pre-
vailing breeding system (s) and to estimate the
reliance on insects for pollination. Sticky cylin-
ders were exposed daily for a week at the
plants’ height to assess the role of wind in

pollen dispersal. To assess the efficacy of ants
versus other foragers as pollinators, certain
plants were allowed to receive the foragers
excluding the ants through applying DDT at
the plant bases. Another batch of plants were
open to ant visits only. After leaving sufficient
time, the fruits and the seeds formed, were
scored and compared.

The number of cyathia visited in a bout and
per unit time, and the time spent on a cyathium
by each major insect species were recorded
using a stop watch. The more frequent visitors
were caught at the cyathia and were washed
with alcohol. After adding a droplet of lacto-
phenol aniline-blue, these washings were
observed for pollen under light microscope. To
determine the number of pollen that could be
transferred on to the stigmas by a single visit
of a particular kind of insect visitor, plants
in bloom kept in insect-free cages were opened
in batches for the insects to visit; when such
exposed cyathia received the first visit they
were plucked and their stigmas examined for
pollen. Several such observations were done
and the mean number of pollen transferred,
was calculated.

Observations

FLORAL DYNAMICS

The plants are evident in any part of the
year provided the soil contains enough mois-
ture. Normally, these appear after the first
rains. After a month’s vegetative growth, the
plants bloom, the blooming normally lasting
for l\ to 2 months.

Inflorescence. It is a cyathium. Several such
cyathia (45 =±=18) are arranged in terminal
condensed dichasia of 3. 5 -4.0 cm in diameter.
Cyathium is glabrous without and consists of
an ovoid involucre with the margin lined with
a fringe of fleshy, finger-like lobes. A con-

572

Rate of anther dehiscence in E. geniculata on four different occasions in relation to the prevailing weather

POLLINATION ECOLOGY OF EUPHORBIA GENICULATA

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spicuous, fleshy, terete, stipitate gland with
slightly flared round opening is situated on
the involucre to a side. In rare cases 2-4 such
glands are noticed.

Each cyathium is normally bisexual, but
occasionally the female part is suppressed. Out
of the 550 cyathia examined, 85% bore both
female and male flowers, whereas 15% con-
sisted of only male flowers.

Staminate flowers. Several male flowers sur-
rounding the female are located within the
involucre. They also lack perianth and each
one is monandrous with the subglobose, 2-
lobed anthers being borne on a pedicel of 3 mm
long. The male phase of the cyathium is
evident from the 5th day of female anthesis.
The anther starts getting exserted above the
rim of the cyathium from 0600 h and is fully
exserted by 0800 h. Anther dehiscence is
accomplished by the horizontal fissure on the
side of the anther facing upwards, when the

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Fig. 1. Day to day anthesis of male flowers in the
life-time of the cyathium of Euphorbia geniculata.

573

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

ambient temperature approaches 28-32°C and
RH 70-75% (Table 1). If the conditions are
wet as on a rainy day, the process is suppressed
and the anthers being ephemeral drop away
the next morning.

Each day varying numbers of male flowers
attain maturity (Fig. 1) and over the entire
period (8 ±2, R.6-11 days) of male phase,
55—1 1 (R. 39-68) flowers emerge out.

Pollen morphology. The pollen grains are
subspheroidal, tricolporate, 56 ±5 /xm (R. 48-
64) with the modal class of 56 /xm, and the
exine is reticulate.

Pollen supply. The number of grains per
male flower varied between 276-445, the ave-
rage being 370 ±42 (n=20).

Pollen viability. About 12% of the pollen
per male flower are sterile as evidenced by
their abnormal size, shape and poor stainabi-

lity with lactophenol aniline-blue.

Germ tube initiation occurred after 15 min.
of placing the grains in the medium; the tubes
burst after 3 hrs. On an average 88% of the
freshly collected pollen germinated. The same
sample of pollen showed 80% germination
after 24 hours of storage in the laboratory.
The germination per cent fell drastically after
48 hours, and after 72 hours there is none.

Pistillate flowers. Each cyathium bears a soli-
tary and centrally located female flower lack-
ing perianth. A 3 -celled ovary with a single
ovule in each cell, is supported on a rather
prominent stalk. Styles are 3, connate at the
base; each stigma is bifid.

Maturation of the female flower. Figure 2
represents the different stages in the matura-
tion of the female flower. The exsertion of
the stylar column above the rim of the cyathium

period of post-fertilization changes

Fig. 2. Pictorial representation of the different reproductive phases in a cyathium
of Euphorbia geniculata : A — Female phase with the stigma in various maturation
stages (I — stigma exserting, II — stigma tripartite and shiny, III — stigma well
developed, reflexed and shiny, IV — ovary partly exserted and the stigma shiny,
V _ ovary fully exserted and the stigma shiny); B — Male phase commenced and
the ovary (fruit) stalk started reflexing; C & D — Ovary stalk fully reflexed and
the anthers are freely exposed; E — Male phase ceased and the ovary stalk is in
the process of resuming its original erect posture; F — Ovary stalk has regained its
original erect posture and the nectar cup is in the shrunken state; G — the stalk
after the dehiscence of the fruit.

574

POLLINATION ECOLOGY OF EUPHORBIA GENICULATA

marks the beginning of anthesis. It occurs in
the morning after sunrise, but may vary with
the age of the flower. By this time traces of
nectar are detectable in the nectar cup, though
it continues enlarging. By next morning the
stylar column ' becomes tripartite and the
branches start diverging and the stigmas be-
come bifid and begin reflexing. They are
slightly sticky. By the 3rd day of anthesis, the
stigmas are reflexed and fully receptive. They
remain in this condition for another two days.
By this time the ovary is pushed out of the
cyathium because of the elongation of the
pedicel. The pedicel reflexes so that the ovary
rests on the outside of the involucre on the
side just opposite to the position of the gland;
the stigmas wither and are unreceptive. The
pedicel further elongates and by the 8th day
of female anthesis, the ovary almost assumes
an inverted position. Later it regains its origi-
nal erect posture before dispersing the seeds
in an explosive way.

These movements are obviously designed to
give sufficient room to the anthers when they
are exserted, in order that they inevitably gain
contact when a proper visitor alights on the
cyathium.

Pollen-Ovule ratio. On an average 7980
grains are produced to meet the demands of
one ovule. Out of these only 0.223% reaches
the stigma.

DYNAMICS OF NECTAR

Nectar amounts and pattern of production.
Measureable amounts of nectar are produced
from the 2nd day after the stigma attains re-
ceptivity and continue to be produced till the
cessation of the male phase. Nectar is secreted
both by day and night. On an average a cup
produces 19.23 jul of nectar in its lifespan. The
rate of secretion increases up to the 4th day
and thence decreases till the 13th day when it

ceases. The amounts secreted during the nights
are comparatively more, probably because of
low evaporation taking place. There is no
appreciable trend in the rate of secretion, it
being uniform at different times during day-
time. However, the pooled up amounts ex-
ceeded the quantity removed after the entire
period (Table 2).

Nectar concentration. On a normal day the

Table 2

Nectar volumes of repeat-sampled vs. once-
sampled cups in E. geniculata and the
associated weather

2 hourly

samples

Sample for
12 hours

Time

(h)

Temp.

(°C)

(%)

Mean Mean nectar

nectar volume (^1)

volume

(,*')

0600-0800

29.4

0.470

0800-1000

30.3

0.470

1000-1200

32.1

0.460

1200-1400

32.0

0.455

1400-1600

31.8

0.465

1600-1800

30.8

0.470

0600-1800

. 2.225

Total volume

2.790

2.225

n = 20

n — 20

Table 3

Temporal variation in

E. geniculata

NECTAR

concentration and the

ASSOCIATED WEATHER

Time

Concentration

Temperature

(h)

(%)

(°C)

(%)

0600

23.8

79.0

0900

24.8

69.5

1200

26.7

67.0

1500

26.9

60.0

1800

25.0

70.0

575

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Table 4

Floral visitors on E.

— — SMBI—a—— a 1 f r!“ ' ■ TW JllIU -» . W1MHI

Insect species

geniculata
Forage type

HETEROPTERA

Lygaeidae

Geocoris ochropterus
(Fieber)

COLEOPTERA

Coccinellidae

Coccinella rependa
(Thunberg)

Verania discolor (F.)

V. vincta (Gorham)
Menochilus sexmaculatus
(F.)

Nitidulidae
Macroura sp.

Bmchidae
Spermophagus sp.
Curculionidae
Baris dolosa (Mshl.)
DIPTERA
Asilidae
Laxenecera sp.

Bombyliidae
Eucharimyia sp.

Syrphidae

Eristalinus quinquestriatus
(F.)

Otitidae
Physiphora sp.

Chloropidae

Anatrichus pygmaeus
(Lamb)

Muscidae

Musca pattoni (Ansten)
Calliphoridae

Rhyncomya viridaurea
(Wiedemann)

Chrysomya megacephala
(F.)

HYMENOPTERA

Formicidae

Camponotus sericeus

(F.)

Camponotus sp.

Nectar

Nectar & anthers
Nectar & anthers
Nectar & anthers

Nectar

Solenopsis geminata
(F.)

Paratrechina sp.
Sphecidae

Chalybion bengalense
(Dahlbom)

Vespidae

Ropalidia spatulata
(Vecht)

Polistes stigma tamula
(F.)

Vespa sp.

Apidae

Trigona sp.

A pis ccrana indica
(F.)

A. florea (F.)

ARANEAE

Oxyopidae

Oxyopes birmanicus
(Thorell)

Thomisidae

Thomisus sp.

Salticidae

‘Unidentified’

Nectar

Nectar & Pollen
Nectar & Pollen

Predates mostly
on flies
Predates mostly
on flies

Predates mostly
on flies

concentrations measured at 3 -hourly intervals
from 0600 to 1800 h (Table 3) show a gradual
rise up to 1500 h, of course not to appreciably
high levels, and thence a gradual fall. The
lowest concentration recorded is 25% and the
highest 32%.

Sugars in nectar. The sugars and their rela-
tive amounts per pi are glucose (0.11 mg),
fructose (0.095 mg) and sucrose (0.025 mg).
The nectar is glucose plus fructose dominated,
with a ratio of glucose + fructose/sucrose of
8:2; it is characteristic of unprotected open
nectaries (Percival 1961).

Aminoacids in nectar. They are present and
the score on histidine scale is 6.

Proteins in nectar. A faint greenish blue
colour with the bromo-phenol blue stain on

576

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81
Rcddi & Reddi : Euphorbia genicu/ata

Photographs of insects at the cyathial clustures of Euphorbia geniculata: a - Trigona bee lapping on the
nectar; b - wasp (. Ropalidia spatulata ) lapping on the nectar; c - ant ( Caniponotus sp.) taking the nectar;
d - beetle (Coccinella repancla) taking the nectar; e - beetle ( Verana discolor ) taking the nectar.

POLLINATION ECOLOGY OF EUPHORBIA GENICULATA

the chromatographic paper with nectar drop
dried, indicates the presence of proteins but
in meagre amounts.

INSECTS ACTIVITY DYNAMICS

Composition. A list of the insect visitors

in the population are available in flower during
April-September. Table 5 gives the relative
frequency of different foragers classed under
the arbitrary groups: ants, wasps, beetles, bees,
and others of rare occurrence in different
months.

Table 5

Seasonal variation in the different groups of insect forages at E. geniculata flowers

Sampling day

Ants

Wasps

Beetles

Bees

( Trigona )

Total

Simultaneously blooming associated
plant species

1979

17 April

165

289

E, Pe, So.

17 May

142

248

A, B, E, Pe, Ph, So, Sor.

20 June

258

118

393

Am, B, C, E, J, La, Pe, Ph, So, T, Z.

23 July

225

121

346

Am, C, E, J, La, Le, Pe, Ph, So, T, Z.

29 August

123

160

Am, C, E, J, La, Le, Pe, Ph, So, T.

9 September

136

102

306

Am, C, E, La, Le, Ph, So, T.

1980

7 June

249

127

409

Am, B, C, J, La, Pe, Ph, So, T.

5 July

232

337

Am, C, E, J, La, Le, Pe, Ph, So, T.

24 August

163

269

Am, C, E, J, La, Le, Ph, Sor, T.

21 September

124

136

360

C, E, La, Le, Pe, Ph, T.

29 December

185

B, C, E, La, Sa, T.

Am — Ammonia baccifera; Ar — Arachis hypogea’, B — Brassica nigra', C — Croton bonplandianunr,
E — Euphorbia hirta; J — Jatropha gossypiifolia; La — Lantana camara; Le — Leptadenia reticulata',
Pe — Pennisetum typhoideunv, Ph — Phyllanthus niruri; Sa — Sapindus emarginatus; So — Solanum
nigrum', Sor — Sorghum vulgar e; Tr — Tridax procumbent; Z — Zea mays.

collected during the entire period of the study
is furnished in Table 4, and those insects
photographed at the cyathia are given in
Plate I. Of the 30 species, 7 belong to
Coleoptera, 11 to Hymenoptera, 8 to Diptera,
1 to Heteroptera, and 3 to Araneae; the acti-
vity of 27 of these is mainly directed to collec-
tion of nectar, the other three, not to be
recognised as visitors in the sense of pollination
ecology, are predators and simply await the
arrival of their prey (mostly Dipterans) at the
cyathia.

Seasonal periodicity. During 1979 the plants

Both ants and wasps visited the flowers
throughout the blooming period, but in every
month ants predominated. Beetles appeared
from April and persisted only till June; their
number in April exceeded those of the wasps,
but thenceforth maintained at a lower level.
Bees, mostly Trigona were only evident in
September, and are next to ants in abundance.

In 1980, because of delayed onset of mon-
soon rains, the plants in flower were available
from June onwards. Right then, ants, wasps,
and beetles started visiting. As in 1979 ants
frequented more. Beetles were less frequent all

577

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

through the period. In September as usual
Trigona appeared in relatively large numbers.
From October to November the plants were
not available because of some weeding prac-
tices, but by December some were evident
and ants, wasps and beetles were seen visiting
them in considerable frequency.

It is surprising that Apis species which have
been observed on most plant species of the
Visakhapatnam flora are very rarely noticed
at the flowers of E. geniculata. Why these
honeybees shun E. geniculata flowers ? Pro-
bably as reported by Deodikar et al. (1958),
the forage of this plant may be poisonous to
these bees; these authors reported an instance
of large scale paralysis and deaths among bees
due to their foraging on flowers of E. genicu-
lata. However, Deodikar (1961) remarks that
such plants may be visited due to acute hunger
and starvation in times of acute shortage of
normal forage during floral gap periods.

Diurnal periodicity. Figure 3 illustrates the
activity pattern of different arbitrary groups
of insects studied for half an hour at 1 -hourly
intervals in different months but represented as
pooled up data. Though ants forage on nectar
during the whole day, the activity pattern is
measured only during daytime. Their activity
from 0600 h gradually increased to a maxi-
mum by 1030 h and decreased slowly to lower
levels up to 1330 h but again revived and
kept on increasing till the end of observation
period. The activity pattern of wasps and
beetles is identical with each other. The num-
ber of visits rose to maximal levels between
0730-0830 h, and then declined rather gradual-
ly to minimal levels by 1330 h, but again the
activity slightly resurged and continued till it
ceased with the set in of dusk. Trigona bees
were evident from 0700 h onwards till they
disappeared with the set in of dusk. The acti-
vity increased rather slowly up to the 0830 h,

but then showed a sharp rise to a maximum
in the next hour; thence there was a gradual
decline to lower levels up to 1200 h when
again there was a resurgence increasing to a
considerably higher level by 1630 h from then
onwards the activity fell abruptly.

There is a clear indication of relationship
of insect activity with the temperature. In
general the activity kept on increasing in para-
llel with the temperature but up to certain
temperature levels which varied with the diffe-
rent groups. Thus ant activity increased up to
1030-1130 h, when the ambient air tempera-

Fig. 3. Diurnal variation in the number of different
insects visiting the cyathia of Euphorbia geniculata
related to the prevailing temperature and relative

humidity.

578

POLLINATION ECOLOGY OF EUPHORBIA GENICULATA

Table 6

Temporal variation in pollen depletion from

ANTHERS vs. POLLEN DEPOSITION ONTO STIGMAS OF E.

geniculata under insect activity

Time

(h)

Mean No.
of pollen
depletion /
flower

Rate of
pollen
depletion
(%)

Mean No.
of pollen
deposited
onto
stigma

Rate of
pollen
deposi-
tion (%)

0800

1000

174

47.0

41.9

1200

22.2

30.2

1400

9.5

11.6

1600

8.7

14.0

1800

3.8

2.3

(n=10) (n — 20)

tures were 30. 8-31. 3 °C, wasp and beetle
activity was brisk between 0730-0830 h when
the air temperatures were 28.2-29. 1°C, and
Trigona activity increased up to 0930 h when
the air temperature was 30.1°C. With further
rise in temperature the activity tended to
decline till 1330 h. From then onwards, it was
revived with the downward trend in tempera-
ture. Trigona bees appear to dislike to work
at high humidities, as they have not appeared
before 0700 h when high humidities prevailed.

Pollen depletion v. pollen deposition on to
the stigmas under insect activity. Predictably
there is an inverse relationship between pollen
depletion from the anthers and pollen depo-
sition onto the stigmas (Table 6). Most pollen
(69%) is removed by noon and 72% of the
total stigmatic pollen loads is getting deposited
by then.

Determinations of the pollen content of
anthers dropped off the stamens revealed that
c. 9% of the total pollen output may remain
without removal by the insect activity.

Visits per unit time, and the time spent on
cyathia per visit. As is obvious the time spent
by a visitor on a cyathium is inversely related
to the number of cyathia it visited per unit
time (Table 7). Wasps are mobile spending
c. 3 seconds on a cyathium and visiting 15
cyathia in a minute, followed by Trigona, ants,
and beetles in that order.

Pollen pick up and pollen transfer onto the
stigmas. The ability to transfer pollen onto
the stigmas is directly related to the ability
of a visitor to pick up pollen, both are a func-
tion of body size of the respective insects.
Wasps being relatively larger in size picked up
and moved more pollen than other groups;
ants, Trigona and beetles follow wasps in that
order (Table 7).

Table 7

Dynamics of the insect activity on E. geniculata flowers

Insect

variety

Mean No. of
insect visits/
minute

Mean length
of time at a
flower in a visit
(seconds)

Mean No. of
pollen carried
on insect
bodies

Mean No. of
pollen transferred
per single
visit

Time spent
towards
foraging/
minute
(seconds)

Beetles

Ants

108

Wasps

231

Trigona

n = 20

n — 50

n = 5

n= 10

579

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

MODES OF REPRODUCTION

Table 8 represents the results of breeding
experiments from which it is evident that the
plants are compatible for both geitono- and

Table 8

Fruit and seed set, and fecundity in different

MODES OF REPRODUCTION IN E. geniculata

No. of No. of

Fruit

Seed

Fecun-

Treatment

cyathia cyathia

set

dity

obser-

set

(%)

ved

fruit

Apomixis
(Emasculated
and kept under
insect exclo-

475

sures)

Geitonogamy

97.4

97.0

Xenogamy

Open

98.8

100.0

98.8

pollination
Under insect

568

100.0

95.5

exclosures

496

13.0

47.8

6.7

xeno-gamous pollen with nearly 100% success.
Apomixis is totally absent.

Discussion

The cyathium, though consists of many male
flowers (each in the form of a single stamen)
and one terminal female, is ecologically equi-
valent to a flat simple blossom (Knuth 1906-9).
Such a floral device is very economical both
to the plant and the animal visitor (Grant
1976). The Cyathia in Euphorbia geniculata
are markedly protogynous, thus precluding
pollination within a cyathium and also esta-
blishing a potential for outcrossing and the
resultant genetic variability. In a cluster of
cyathia, different staged ones are evident, such

that on any day some cyathia would be in
a female stage and some in a male stage.

Of the different groups of insect foragers at
the cyathia (Table 4), ants, wasps, and beetles
are treated as the effective pollinators in the
light of the principles propounded by Free
and Williams (1977). No doubt other insects
included in the table also carry out some polli-
nation.

The dehiscent side of the anthers is directed
upwards, and when the insects concerned land
in the cyathia and walk about, pollen is depo-
sited sternotribically. Pollen pick-up by the
insects in unhindered by the floral device
involving the change in position of the
pistil in the cyathia (Fig. 2). When the
pollen laden insects land and move in the
female cyathia they contact the stigmas and
effect pollination which may be geitono- or
xeno-gamous because the plants are adapted
for both modes of reproduction. The cyathia
have no closely evolved relationship with any
of the pollinating insects, and thus function
as a promiscuous floral device in attracting
insects (Grant 1949), and relies on ‘mess and
soil’ insect behaviour (Faegri & Pijl 1979)
to be pollinated. As such, any insect with
sufficient body size to permit contact with
the anthers or the stigmas is capable of pro-
moting pollination at least within the plant by
its movement.

The major groups of insects associated with
the cyathia of E. geniculata are similar to
those encountered in related species of
Euphorbia. (Knuth 1906-9, Kiigler 1970, Pro-
ctor & Yeo 1975, Ehrenfeld 1979), but the
individual species are not one and the same.
As is expected of a tropical environment, the
ants numerically predominated, and are the
only pollinators when the plants occur in the
fields of Sorghum, Pennisetum and maize. The
importance of ants as pollinators becomes

580

POLLINATION ECOLOGY OF EUPHORBIA GENICULATA

much more obvious in view of the demonstra-
tion that when other insects are prevented
from visiting flowers, there is virtually no
difference either in fruit or seed set or in
fecundity (Table 9). Although ants are invaria-
bly considered prototypes of nectar thieves,

Table 9

Fruit and seed set, and fecundity due to
ANT-POLLINATIONS VS. OTHERS IN E. geniculata

Insect .
type

No. of
cyathia
obser-
ved

No. of
cyathia
set
fruit

Fruit

set

(%)

Seed

set

(%)

Fecun-

dity

(%)

Ants

535

513

95.88

95.38

91.46

Other

insects

500

490

98.00

95.50

93.66

authentic

cases

of ant pollination are not

uncommon (Hager up 1932, Kinkaid 1963,
Hickman 1974), and the present situation can
be added to the list of such cases. As crawling
insects spend relatively little energy on travel-
ling (Heinrich & Raven 1972), the ant-polli-
nator interactions involve low expenditure of
energy by both ant and plant, and establishes
the following syndrome: dry-hot habitat;

nectaries small, quantity of nectar too small
to interest larger visitors; blossoms exposed
near the ground, sessile, small with minimal
visual attraction; few blossoms in anthesis at
the same time, gregarious occurrence of seve-
ral individuals further xenogamy; small quan-
tities of sticky pollen prevents too eager clean-
ing, number of ovules per flower small (Hick-
man 1974, Faegri & Fiji 1979). The cyathial
features of E. geniculata comply with most
traits of the syndrome, but reveal that nectaries
need not be small, and nectar volumes need
not be limiting. But as already pointed out
E. geniculata has not specialised to be serviced

by ants alone; on the other hand, it is pro-
miscuous.

Interplant movements of ants are common.
Even then, these crawling ants may be con-
sidered less effective in bringing about out-
crossing. Ants are well known for their
bellicosity, and this behaviour of ants is found
indirectly helping the plant to achieve more
outcrossing. The wasps which are only second
in importance as pollinators, are scared at the
ants and consequently move more often from
inflorescence cluster to cluster and from plant
to plant lapping up the open nectar. Thus the
chances for the delivery of ‘foreign’ pollen by
the wasps becomes maximised and the chances
of geitonogamy are minimised.

Beetle pollination is characteristic of tropi-
cal zones and is not of much significance in
temperate regions (Grant 1950, Proctor & Yeo
1975, Faegri & Fiji 1979). The beetles at the
blossoms of E. geniculata were not encounter-
ed consistently throughout the pollinating
season (Table 5). When they occurred, they
carried out significant pollination. They were
not found visiting the cyathia accidentally and
so could be habitual visitors. They were found
mostly licking up nectar perching on the
cyathium proper, which being flat poses no
problem. The size of the beetles is exactly
suited to the cyathium and pollen is trans-
ferred sternotribically. Beetles tend to protect
themselves by their horny exterior or their
repellent secretions rather than by flight and
so may linger in the same flower or inflores-
cence for hours (Proctor & Yeo 1975). The
beetles concerned, behaved exactly the same
way and could normally effect geitonogamy.
Sometimes they did fly from one plant to the
other and aided in some xenogamy. According
to Faegri & Pijl (1979) nectar-feeding beetles
are a late development and there is no special
blossom type. The fact that E. geniculata is

581

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

promiscuous and is not specifically adapted to
be pollinated by beetles alone, reinforces the
above conclusion. Beetles are considered to
feed destructively on flowers. So Grant (1950)
has remarked that flowers adapted to beetle-
pollination would be expected to have the
ovules well protected from the chewing mandi-
bles of the beetles. This, he suggests, might be
provided by a form of perigyny in which the
ovules are more or less sunken into the recep-
tacle, epigyny (inferior ovaries) or the flowers
may be closely aggregated so as to form a
surface above the ovule. In a majority (80%)
of beetle flowers, which he compiled, such
characters were much more common. In

Refer

Baker, H. G. & Baker, I. (1973) : Some anthe-

cological aspects of the evolution of nectar-produ-
cing flowers particularly aminoacid production in
nectar. In Taxonomy and Ecology, ed. by Hey-
wood, V. H., pp. 243-281. London. Academic Press.

Deodikar, G. B. (1961) : Some aspects of bee-
botany. In Prof. S. P. Agharkar Commemoration
volume, ed. by Mahabale, T. S., pp. 61-78. Pune.
Published by Mahabale, T. S.

, Shah, P. N., Thakar, C. V., &

Salvi, S. R. (1958) : Poisoning of honeybees for-
aging on Euphorbia geniculata. Bee World 39 : 118-
120.

Ehrenfeld, J. G. (1976) : Reproductive biology

of three species of Euphorbia subgenus Chamaesyce
(Euphorbiaceae) . Amer. J. Bot. 63: 406-413.

(1979) : Pollination of three

species of Euphorbia subgenus Chamaesyce with
special reference to bees. Amer. Mid. Nat. 101 : 87-
98.

Faegri, K. & Pijl, L. Van Der (1979) : The
Principles of Pollination Ecology. 3rd revised edn.
Oxford. Pergmon Press.

Free, J. B. & Williams, I. H. (1977) : The Polli-
nation of Crops by Bees. Bucharest. Apimondia
Publishing House.

Good, R. (1964) : The Geography of the Flo-

wering Plants. 3rd edn. London. Longman.

Grant, V. (1949) : Pollinating systems as iso-

lating mechanisms in angiosperms. Evolution 3 :
82-97.

(1950) : Protection of the ovules in

E. geniculata there is no such adaptation. As
the beetles concerned virtually feed on nectar,
of course rarely on pollen, obviously selection
might not have favoured the development of
such protective measures.

ACK NO WLEDGE M E NTS

We wish to thank very warmly Prof. L. W.
Macior, University of Akron, Ohio, USA, for
his appreciation of the quality of the work
described in this paper. We also thank Mr.
K. V. Rama Raju for assistance in the field,
and the CSIR, Govt, of India, New Delhi, for
financial assistance.

ENCES

flowering plants. Evolution 4 : 179-201.

(1976): Pollination. Encyclopedia

Americana 22: 320-323b.

Hagerup, O'. (1932) : On pollination in the ex-

tremely hot air at Timbuctu. Dan. Bot. Ark. 8 : 1-
20.

Heinrich, B. & Raven, P. H. (1972) : Energetics
and Pollination Ecology. Science 176 : 597-602.

Harborne, J. B. (1973) : Phytochemical Methods.
London. Chapman and Hall.

Hickman, J. C. (1974) : Pollination by ants : a

low-energy system. Science 184: 1290-1292.

Kerner, Von Marilaun A. (1904) : The Natural
History of Plants. Vol. 2 Transl. by Oliver,
F. V/. London. The Gresham Publishing Company.

Kinkaid, T. (1963) : The ant plant, Orthocarpus
pusillus. Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc. 82 : 101-105.

Knuth, P. (1906-9) : Handbook of Flower Polli-
nation. Trans, by Ainsworth Davis, J. R. (3 Vol.
1, 1906; 2, 1908; 3, 1909). Oxford. Clarendon Press.

Kugler, H. (1970): Blutenokologie. Stuttgart.

Gustav Fischer Verlag : Aufl.

Lawrence, G. H. M. (1973) : Taxonomy of
Vascular Plants. New Delhi. Oxford and IBH Pub-
lishing Co.

Percival, M. S, (1961) : Types of nectar in
angiosperms. New Phytol. 46 : 142-173.

Proctor, M. & Yeo, P. (1975) : The Pollination
of Flowers. London. Collins.

Webster, G. L. (1967) : The Genera of Euphor-
biaceae in the South Western United States. J. Am.
Arb. 48: 303-430.

582

ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF THE REDUVIIDAE OF
THE SCRUB JUNGLES AND SEMI-ARID ZONES OF THE
PALGHAT GAP, INDIA — AN EVOLUTIONARY

APPROACH1

D. Livingstone and D. P. Ambrose2
(With sixty text-figures in five plates)

Investigations on the tibiae of about 60 species of reduviids from the tropical rain-
forest, scrub jungle and semiarid ecosystems have shown different grades of develop-
ment of tibial pads of the fore and mid legs. Tibial pads facilitate prey capture and
they are totally absent in the characteristic species of the tropical rainforest ecosystem
that provides an abundant supply of litter prey species. Tibial pads reach their
maximum development in the characteristic species of the scrub jungle and semiarid
ecosystems, where they have to depend on vagrant prey species that try to take
shelter in the same concealment habitat. Diurnal activity; arboreal habit; alate
condition without any type of sexual dimorphism with this regard; bright coloration;
deposition of eggs in batches of 5-100 with strongly gluing material; eclosion —
ecdysis — emergence periodicity in the fore and afternoons; almost straight and relative-
ly slender rostrum etc. are complementary features of those species without tibial pads.
Concealment habitats; alary polymorphism (females mostly apterous) ; warning
coloration; deposition of eggs singly in several batches without any gluing substance;
eclosion — ecdysis — emergence periodicity invariably during the scotoperiod; more
curved stout rostrum etc. are complementary features of the species with tibial pads.
Harpactorinae are represented by more number of species and are widely distributed
in all three ecosystems whenever and wherever tropical rainforest conditions prevail and
they are more original and are least specialized for life in the scrub jungles and semi-
arid ecosystems. Piratinae are extremely well specialized for life in semiarid zones and
they are seldom found in tropical rainforests. Intermediate conditions of tibial pad
development (pad-index) are found in Acanthaspidinse.

Introduction

The evolution of the entire flora-fauna com-
plex in a particular ecosystem is closely related
to and profoundly influenced by the geomor-

1 Accepted June 1981. Contribution No. 29, Divi-
sion of Entomology, University of Madras, P. G.
Centre, Coimbatore.

2 Division of Entomology, Department of Zoo-
logy, University of Madras P. G. Centre, Coimba-
tore, Tamil Nadu.

phological evolution. Most of the peculiarities
of the biogeography of India would remain
meaningless if one ignores the decisive role of
history on the changes in the land mass. Con-
ditions operating at present have not given
rise to the present day patterns of flora and
fauna and their present day distribution re-
presents a dynamic phase in the uninterrupted
course of the biogeographical evolution in
India that has by no means either stopped or
even substantially slowed down. According to
Mani (1974), the great bulk of true Indian

583

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

flora and fauna had differentiated and evolved
in the peninsula itself throughout the Palaeo-
zoic, Mesozoic and Tertiary right nearly up to
the Pleistocene and then spread over extra
peninsular areas during late Tertiary. The
original tropical humid forest fauna was very
widely and continuously distributed throughout
the peninsula. The presence of habitat fremd
groups (ecologically anomalous) in the penin-
sula, according to Mani, is a strong evidence
of the fact that formerly the whole peninsular
fauna was a humid tropical one which was far
more widely distributed throughout the penin-
sula than at present and that changes in the
habitat have taken place within relatively re-
cent times. Irreversible changes in the dete-
rioration of ecosystems of the peninsula were
induced by human agencies within historical
times, since the close of last pleistocene glacia-
tions on the Himalaya. Discovery of an in-
creasing number of a wide range of pleistocene
herbivorous mammalian fossils from the pre-
sent day semiarid zones and scrub jungles of
Southern India further convincingly support
this view.

According to Champion & Seth (1968) and
Meher-Homji (1974) the change from the origi-
nal Miocene wet evergreen forest type to the
present day dry evergreen type (Scrub jungle)
may have taken place through an intermediate
dry deciduous type, following the monsoon
pattern of climate that originated subsequent
to the uplift of the Himalaya and the maxi-
mum rise of the Western Ghats in the late
Tertiary era. In most parts of the Palghat
Gap, the annual rainfall rarely exceeds 600
mm, the dry season lasts for over eight months
and the mean temperature of the coldest
month seldom falls below 18°C. Geological
changes are always indicated by phytosociology
and the scrub jungles are associated with fer-
ralitic sandy loams of mid Tertiary (Cudda-

lore sand stone formation). The characteri-
stic composition of the fauna of a particular
region is directly as well as indirectly influenced
by the nature of the substratum (soil).

The geomorphology of Southern India is
characterised by eastwardly directed offshoots
of the Western Ghats that present a corona,
having conditions similar to those of tropical
rainforests; an apron of scrub jungles or dry
evergreen forest (a product of human inter-
ference) and the plains consisting of the agro-
ecosystem and the semi-arid barren land
covered with thickets, sand dunes, chalk
stones and granites. The substratum of the
tropical rainforest ecosystem is humus laden,
with an abundance of litter fauna such as
Blattids, Termites, etc. providing a rich variety
of food for an entomosuccivorous predator.
On the contrary, in a chalk stone strewn hot
semi-arid zone, where the impoverishment of
prey species leaves no other alternative for a
couching starved insect predator other than to
wait in hiding for a stray, vagrant prey which,
due to paucity of proper habitat conditions,
tries to seek shelter underneath the same stone
or a bark of a tree that invariably becomes
its graveyard. Accumulation of heaps of
cases of prey in a particular microhabitat is
a sure indication of the presence of a predator.
Studies on the natural history of a large num-
ber of species of Reduviidae of diverse habitats
of the Palghat Gap, carried out in the Divi-
sion of Entomology, Post-graduate Centre,
Coimbatore for the past four years have
prompted the authors to probe into several
possibilities pertaining to the origin and evolu-
tion of structural adaptations of these bugs
in this region.

Results and Discussion

1 . Distribution of Reduviidae of Southern
India ( Tamil Nadu) :

584

ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF THE REDUVllDAE

From the collection data of 77 species of
reduviids (owing to extensive damage caused
to stored specimens, details of 55 more species
could not be presented here with certainty)
maintained in the Division of Entomology, it
is evident (Table 1) that species abundance,
morphological diversifications and ecotypic
specializations are more significant in those
species collected from the semi-arid zones of
the Palghat Gap. Out of the 77 species in-
vestigated, 64 species have been recorded in
the semi-arid zones, 25 from the tropical rain
forests and 17 from scrub jungles. Out of
these, eight species, viz. Coranus atricapillus,
C. spiniscutis, Coranus spp. (2), Acanthaspis
zebraica, Triatoma mbrofasciatus, Ectomoco -
ris ochropterus, and Rhinocoris marginellus
are found exclusively (characteristic species)
in the semi-arid zones; two species, viz. Rhino-
coris sp. and Petalochirus brachialis are found
exclusively in the scrub jungles and eleven
species, viz. Holoptilus fasciatus, H. melanospi-
ius, Irani ha armipes, Lophocephala guerini,
Endochus cingalensis, E. iroratus, Euagoras
plagiatus, Cydnocoris gilvus, Polididus arma-
tissimus, Sycanus ater and Nabis capsiformis
(Nabidinae) are exclusively found in the tro-
pical rainforests as well as in the corona of
hillocks where tropical rainforest conditions
prevail. Five species, viz. Raphidosoma at-
kinsoni, Rhinocoris fuscipes, Acanthaspis
pedestris, Ectomocoris erebus, and Piratus
affinis have been found in semi-arid zones, in
scrub jungles as well as in the aprons of the
tropical rainforests during summer when
conditions of scrub jungles prevail. Sphedano -
lestes aterrimus, an inhabitant species of tro-
pical rainforest is found in areas of the scrub
jungles during heavy monsoon when tropical
rainforest conditions prevail. However, the
presence of A. pedestris in a very restricted
rocky area of a dense tropical rainforest in

the Palghat Gap, creates considerable interest.
This species is a characteristic species of
scrub jungles and semi-arid zones and mani-
fests extremely variable ecotypic characters
(Livingstone & Ambrose 1978b). Whereas
all ecotypes of this species collected from
these two ecosystems do not exceed 14 mm
in length and 4 mm in breadth, the ecotype
of the tropical rainforest is not less than 16
mm long and 4.5 mm broad, with relatively
longer appendages and is more darkly pig-
mented. While all available ecotypes of the
two ecosystems could be readily reared suc-
cessfully in the laboratory on camponotine
ants, the tropical rainforest ecotype refuses to
feed in captivity and fails to continue all its
activities under laboratory conditions. It may
tempt one to suggest that the tropical rain-
forest ecotype of A. pedestris may have been
transported from the plains by human agency
in the process of transport of timber, granites
and other building materials and due to eco-
logical isolation acquired certain specialized

Table 1

Ecomorphological distribution of reduviids of
Tamilnadu (cf. Figs. 58, 59 & 60)

Morphological habitat

variations

SEMIARID SCRUB TROPICAL
ZONES JUNGLES RAIN
FORESTS

1 . Alate forms

2. Brachypterous forms

3. Micropterous forms

4. Apterous forms

5. Species with tibial
pads both in the fore-

and mid-legs

6. Species with tibial

pad only in foreleg

7. Species without tibial

pad

585

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 81

adaptations for life in tropical rainforest.

It is clear from Fig. 58 that Coimbatore
District which is located in the Palghat Gap has
the maximum number of genera and species
of reduviids recorded.

Fig. 59 indicates that Harpactorinae predo-
minates with 32 species, closely followed by
Acanthaspidinae (22 species) and Piratinae
(19 species). The least represented families
are Tribelocephalinae and Nabidinae. The
latter subfamily is now removed from Redu-
viidae. But, for the purpose of tracing its
relationship in respect of the development of
tibial pad, it is treated here along with Redu-
viidae. Interestingly, the subfamily Apiome-
rinae is not represented. Fig. 60 shows that
the tropical rainforests and semi-arid zones
have larger number of alate species whereas
in scrub jungles, the apterous species pre-
dominate.

Table 1 indicates that though the number of
species recorded in the semi-arid zone is more,
the number of characteristic species recorded
(endemic) in the tropical rainforests is signi-
ficantly high. Whereas the characteristic
species of the semi-arid zones and scrub jungles
are either alate, micropterous, brachypterous
or apterous and most of them are provided
with tibial pads of varying degrees of develop-
ment, all the characteristic species of the tropi-
cal rainforests are significantly (without any
exception) alate and all are without tibial
pads (Table 2). Interestingly, a large number
of alate species without tibial pads (Harpacto-
rinae) are found in all the three ecosystems.
2. Adaptive modifications and their evolu-
tionary significance :

Analysis of certain distinctive features such
as the nature of development of the tibial
pads; wings and coloration; relative curvature
of the rostrum; predatory efficiency; egg depo-
sition pattern; fecundity rate; longevity; sex

ratio; eclosion-ecdysis emergence perio-
dicities; relative development of cannibalistic-
tendency; camouflaging behaviour; hardiness
etc. of more than 60 species of Reduviidae
from the Palghat Gap and certain other areas
of Southern India (Tamil Nadu) have led to
the following conclusions.

a. Except Lophocephala guerini, a copro-
phagous harpactorine species of the tropical
rainforest (Ambrose and Livingstone 1979)
and a couple of species of Haematorrhophus
(Echtrichodiinae) that feed on millipedes, all
other recorded species are entomosuccivorous.
Most of the tropical rainforest species, be-
cause of the abundance and diversity of prey
(litter forms), are polyphagous whereas most
of the species of the semi-arid zones and
scrub jungles are predominantly monophagous,
feeding on Camponotine ants and are rarely
found to be oligophagous.

b. All the characteristic species of tropical
rainforests are alate and are not sexually
dimorphic in this regard. Most of them are
brightly coloured, with reddish tinge predo-
minating, without any kind of warning colora-
tion. They are arboreal and conspicuously
diurnal. They have no tibial pads and their
rostrum is almost always straight or broadly
crescentic. They are invariably found running
by lifting the prey at ease (Fig. 56). Their
eggs are glued to the substratum as well as
to each other with cementing material, in
batches (Fig. 57) of five to over hundred eggs
in each batch. Eclosion, ecdysis and emer-
gence periodicities have been found to be
mostly in the forenoon and afternoon. There is
no nymphal camouflaging and the insects are
less hardy.

c. In the scrub jungles and in the semi-arid
zones there are more number of apterous
or micropterous or brachypterous species
and the females of alate species are seldom
alate. Most of them have well formed tibial pad

586

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81

Livingstone & Ambrose : Modifications of the Reduviidae

Plate I

Fig. 1. Holoptilus fasciatus Reut.; Fig. 2. Holoptilus melanospilus Walk.; Fig. 3. Oncocephalus
annulipes Stal; Fig. 4. O. klugi Dist. (reversed); Fig. 5. O. notatus Krug.; Fig. 6. O. modestus Reut.;
Fig. 7. O. fuscinotum Reut.; Fig. 8. Staccia diluta Stal; Fig. 9. Haematorrhophus sp. ; Fig. 10.
Neohaematorrhophus sp.; Fig. 11. Polididus armatissimus Stal; Fig. 12. Lophocephala guirini Laporte;
Fig. 13. Sphedanolestes aterrimus Dist.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81

Livingstone & Ambrose : Modifications of Reduviidae

Plate II

Fig. 14. Rhaphidosoma atkinsoni Bergr.; Fig. 15. Coranus vitellinus Dist.; Fig. 16.' Coranus sp . ; Fig. 17.
Coranus sp.; Fig. 18. Coranus atricapillus Dist.; Fig. 19. C. spiniscutis Reut.; Fig'. 20. Irantha armipes
Stal; Fig. 21. /. consobrina Dist.; Fig. 22. Endochus cinga/ensis Stal (reversed); Fig. 23. E. inoratus Stal;
Fig. 24. Euogoras plagiatus Burm.; Fig. 25. Rhinocoris kumarii sp. nov.; Fig. 26. R. fuscipes Fabr.;
Fig. 27. R. maginellus Fabr.; Fig. 28. R. longifrons Stal.

R.EDUVIIDAE OF SOUTHERN INDIA (TAMILNADU) — DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES PURPORTING TO EVOLUTIONARY TREND

ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF THE REDUVIIDAE

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on both the fore and mid tibiae and very
rarely on the foretibiae alone. Eggs of most
species are deposited singly, haphazardly with-
out any cementing material and have more
number of batches with less number of eggs
in each batch. Eclosion, ecdysis and emer-
gence periodicities are found mostly at dusk
or at night. The rostrum is acutely curved
(Fig. 55) and the prey is seldom lifted.
Most characteristic species are with warning
coloration (Black and yellow) and are ex-
tremely hardy. Cannibalistic tendency is signi-
ficantly developed and nymphal camouflaging
is found only in Acanthaspidinae where this
tendency is better defined and characterised.

The relative development of the tibial pads
has been considered here as a visible indica-
tion of predatory efficiency in Reduviidae
(Livingstone and Ambrose 1978a) and this
character has been taken as a significant in-
dex of adaptive evolution of the Reduviidae
of the scrub jungles and semi-arid zones of
this region. All other characters such as
progressive curvature of the rostrum; nature
of the eggs and the pattern of oviposition;
eclosion, — ecdysis — emergence periodicity
patterns, alary polymorphism; cannibalistic
tendency and nymphal camouflaging and warn-
ing coloration are considered supplementary
attributes to predatory efficiency in an adverse
ecosystem.

According to the steps in the origin and evo-
lution of tibial pads as proposed here (Table
3), the Holoptilinae [Holoptilus fasciatus (Fig.
1) and H. melanospilus (Fig. 2)] have very slen-
der, more elongated tibiae, provided with very
long, slender, (plumose type) movable spines.
This type is structurally the least specialized
in prey capture, presumably originated from
Cimicid stock. The next step in the develop-
ment of tibial pad is marked by better defined
concentration of sharp spines on the ventral
extremity of each tibia as well as the tarso-

590

J . Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Plate III

Livingstone & Ambrose : Modifications of Reduviidae

Fig. 29. Nabis capsiformis Germ (reversed); Fig. 30. Petalochirus brachialis Stal; Fig. 31.
Paralisarda sp. ; Fig. 32. Lisarda annulosa Stal; Fig. 33. Triatoma rubrofasciatus Degeer;
Fig. 34. Acanthaspis pedestris Stal; Fig. 35. A. zebraica Dist.; Fig. 36. Edocla slateri Stal;
Fig. 37. Acanthaspis quinquespinosa (L.) Fabr.; Fig. 38. A. siva Dist.

J . Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81 Plate IV

Livingstone & Ambrose : Modifications of Reduviidae

Fig. 39. Piratus affinis Serv.; Fig. 40. Piratus sp.; Fig. 41. P. quadrinotatus Fabr.; Fig. 42. Catamiarus
brevipennis Serv.; Fig. 43. Ectomocoris elegans Fabr.; Fig. 44. E. erebus Dist.; Fig. 45. Ectomocoris sp.;
Fig. 46. E. atrox Stal.; Fig. 47. E. cordatus Wolff.; Fig. 48. Ectomocoris sp.; Fig. 49. E. ochropterous
Stal; Fig. 50. E. cordiger Stal; Fig. 51. E. quadriguttatus Fabr.; Fig. 52. E. gangeticus Bergr.; Fig. 53.
E. tibialis Dist.; Fig. 54. Serthenea flavipes Stal.

ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF THE REDUVIIDAE

TRIATOMINAK

Table 3

Proposed steps in ti-ie origin and Evolution of
Tibial Pads in Reduviidae

ECTOMOCORIS

CATAMIARUS SIRTHENEA

PIRATES

PXRATINAE

ACANTHASPIS

EDOCLA

ACANTHASPIDINAE

PARALISARDA

LISARDA

PETALOCHIRUS

SALYAVATINAE

RHINOCORIS

EUAGORAS

ENDOCHUS

IRANTHA

CORANUS

SPHED AN OLESTES

RHAPHIDOSOMA

LOPHGCEPHALA

POLIDIDUS

HAR P ACTORIN AE

STACCIA

ONCOCEPHALUS

STENOPODINAE

NABIDINAE

HAEMATORRHOPHUS
NEOHAEM ATORRHOPHU S ( ? )

ECHTRICHODIINAE

TRIBELOCEPHALINAE
APIOMERINAE (?)
EMESINAE
HOLOPTILUS
HOLOPTILINAE

CIMICID STOCK (?)

591

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

meres, as exhibited by members of the sub-
family Stenopodinae (Figs. 3 to 8). In Onco-
cephalus annulipes (Fig. 3) the extremities
of tibiae and tarsomeres on their ventral sur-
face bear more prominent tuft of bristles.
Gradual reduction in the bushy nature of
these bristles and subsequent replacement by
more stiff spines on the ventral surface of the
tibial extremity in all the legs, as found in
Staccia diluta (Fig. 8) appear to be a clear
indication of the initial stage in the process
of tibial pad formation as seen in O. notatus
(Fig. 5). From such a condition, members
of the subfamily Echtrichodinae appear to
have been branched off as an off shoot through
Neohaematorrhophus (?) (Fig. 10) which is
an entomosuccivorous species having least
differentiation of tibial pads, found in semi-
arid zones as well as scrub jungles, to several
other species of Haematorrhophus ( Physor -
rhynchus) having well developed tibial pads
in the fore and midlegs and prominent tibial
comb. They feed exclusively on millipedes.

Further differentiation of the tibial extre-
mity of an Oncocephalus notatus type is
marked by more expanded tibial comb on
its dorsal surface in the harpactorine species
as indicated in Polididus armatissimus (Fig.
11) with prominent sensory bristles. Subse-
quent stages of development of tibial extre-
mity are marked by gradual reduction of the
dorsal tibial comb with a corresponding en-
largement of the ventral surface of its distal
extremity as found in Lophocephala guerini
(Fig. 12) a coprophagous species having very
restricted distribution in certain patches of the
tropical rainforests and in Sphedanolestis
aterrimus (Fig. 23), also a characteristic ento-
mosuccivorous species of the tropical rain-
forest. In all the harpactorine species exa-
mined, there is a step by step reduction of
the dorsal tibial comb, almost synchronising

with the development of the precursor of
tibial pad as expansion of the ventral surface
of its distal extremity (Figs. 14-28), but
for a few exceptions among the Rhinocoris
species. Development of precursors of tibial
pad in all 3 pairs of legs in Rhinocoris sp.
(Fig. 25), a scrub species having very restricted
distribution in a hillock near Cape Comorin, is
significant whereas in all other harpactorine
species, the fore and mid legs alone develop
precursors of tibial pad. Rhinocoris longifrons
appears (Fig. 18) to have developed a better
defined tibial pad among the harpactorine
species and therefore it is considered here as
better adapted among the Harpachorinae in
a scrub jungle and a semi-arid ecosystem.

The next stage of tibial pad development
closely following the harpactorine Rhinocoris
pattern, is found in the sub-family Salyava-
tinae. The highly expanded condition of the
fore leg tibia and the distinct differentiation of
the tibial pad as a small lobe ventral to the
distal extremity of the tibia is found in Petalo-
chirus brachialis (Fig. 30), an exclusive scrub
species, manifesting extreme condition of spe-
cialization of tibia. Information available at
present cannot adequately explain this pheno-
menon. In another two species of Salyavatinae
viz. Li sard a annul osa and Paralisarda sp.
(Figs. 31 & 32) the trend in the development
of tibial pad is clearly marked towards the
acanthaspidine pattern.

It is worthwhile to record here that Nabis
capsiformis has developed a distinct tibial pad
closely resembling that of the Salyavatinae.
Distant (1904) considered this species as a
representative of Nabidinae, a sub-family of
Reduviidae. At present it is removed from
Reduviidae and elevated to the status of a
family (Nabididae) relating it closely to Cimi-
coid families (Carayon 1950). The develop-
ment of a distinct tibial pad in N. capsiformis

592

ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF THE REDUV11DAE

may tempt one to suggest its closer relationship
with the Salyavitinae.

Among Acanthaspidinae, the haematopha-
gous species Triatoma rubrojasciatus (Fig. 33)
differs from all other entomosuccivorous spe-
cies in having greatly developed spinocity of
tibial extremity with more soft tibial pad,
having the least tibial pad index (0.02), sug-
gesting a specialization associated with haema-
tophagy. Among Acanthaspidinae, Acan-
t has pis siva (Fig. 38) has attained the maxi-
mum development of tibial pad, having reached
the index 0.539. In almost all species of
Acanthaspidinae, development of subapical
lateral tibial comb, which is structurally differ-
ent from the dorsal tibial comb of lesser harp-
actorinae, is considered here as an additional
evidence of tibial differentiation towards tibial
pad formation.

The sub-family Piratinae has attained the
maximum development of tibial pads which
are relatively more soft, extending beyond the
tibial extremity, almost reaching the entire
length of the tarsomeres. The genus Piratus
has the tibial combs (Fig. 41) similar to those
of Acanthaspidinae and the maximum develop-
ment of tibial pad index is 0.5 indicating a
closer resemblance in both. The genus Ecto-
mocrois has the tibial combs almost invariably
lost and the pads have reached the maximum
degree of development (Figs. 43-53). E. guadri-
guttatus has the unique distinction of having
gained the highest tibial pad index ( 1 . 02) .
They take relatively less time in capturing the
prey (Livingstone and Ambrose 1978a).

Sirthenea flavipes, a Piratine species of the
scrub jungles, alone has the tibial pads deve-
loped only on the fore legs and the pad index
is intermediate between Pirates and Ectomo-
crois. It is considered here as a deviation
(specialization) from the direct line of tibial
pad evolution.

In Rhodnius prolixus , the tibial pad was
considered as an adaptation for climbing on
smooth surface (Wigglesworth 1938). Miller
(1938, 1952 & 1956), after having examined
the multiple arrangement of hairs on the
“fissula spongiosa” (tibial pad) of a number
of species, concluded that provision of such
structures either in the fore or mid tibiae or
both has mechanical advantage in prey cap-
ture, facilitating proper grasping of the prey,
Edwards (1962 and 1965) after having studied
the arrangement of hairs in three different
series on the tibial pads and the secretory
material that is found in them corroborated
Miller’s view. Investigations on the chrono-
logical aspects of the feeding behaviour and
predatory efficiency of a large number of
species of reduviids of the Palghat Gap led
Livingstone and Ambrose (1978a) to con-
clude that the reduviids with tibial pads are
better adapted for capturing and pinning the
prey.

The foregoing comparative account of the
development of the tibial pads in Reduviidae,
as summarised in table 2, provides additional
evidences to suggest that the tibial pads in
these insects have direct impact on their life
in their ecosystem and that their relative deve-
lopment is directly related to the gradual trans-
formation of tropical rainforests into scrub
jungles and semiarid conditions. It is also clear
that the maximum extent of development of
tibial pad as seen in Ectomocoris (Piratinae), a
characteristic species of both scrub jungles
and semiarid zones, has a number of inter-
mediate stages represented by Acanthaspidinae.
Whereas the characteristic species of the tropi-
cal rainforests do not have even a well organi-
zed precursor of the tibial pad and all of
them are alate, diurnal, arboreal and deposit
their eggs vertically in batches with gluing
material, the characteristic species of the scrub

593

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 81

jungles and semiarid zones are all with tibial
pads. Paucity of prey species in these two
ecosystems necessitates these species to aug-
ment every effort to prevent any vagrant prey
from escaping a firm grip, provided by the
tibial pads. Ecotypic specializations, alary
polymorphism, crepuscalar activity in a con-
cealment habitat, warning coloration, depo-
sition of eggs singly and haphazardly without
any gluing material, cannibalistic tendency and
nymphal camouflaging, as commonly observed
among species of these two ecosystems are
considered here as mere complementary at-
tributes for life in adverse conditions.

The fact that the Southern Block of Indian
peninsula was covered with wet tropical rain-
forest till late Tertiary era and since then radi-
cal transformations of ecological conditions
have occurred in historical times (Mani 1974)
may guide one to suggest that the original
reduviid fauna of the Palghat Gap was spread
all over and was alate, arboreal and without
tibial pad. At present the Harpactorinae
(Table 2) has the maximum number of species
and their representation in the scrub jungles
and semiarid zones is more during heavy
monsoon when tropical rainforest conditions
prevail. Louis (1974) has reported that “the
harpactorines are in some respects (vide infra)
the most advanced reduviids. Considering
their distribution all over the globe and the
fact that Harpactorinae contains the largest
number of species found in any sub-family of
Reduviidae, they are the most successful
reduviids”. Since Harpactorinae are better
represented when tropical rainforest conditions
prevail in an ecosystem in this region it is
reasonable to suggest that Harpactorine species
are more original and least specialized and
could survive only when tropical rainforest
conditions prevail and prey species are avail-
able in plenty in the litter. All other species
with tibial pads are specialised for life in

drought prone ecosystems where prey species
are scarce and competition is more acute.

The harpactorine species in this region
deposit their eggs in batches and glue them
together, an indication of parental care, as re-
ported by Louis (1974). Available informa-
tion on the natural history of the reduviids of
this region does not provide any evidence of
parental care though material and parental
care in Reduviidae have been reported only in
harpactorines such as Rhinocoris albospilosus
(Odhiambo 1959) and in Poisilus tipuliformis
(Parker 1965). According to Cobben (1968)
“it is a recently evolved character in view of
the advanced type of the harpactorine embryo-
genesis” and laying eggs in batches and gluing
them according to him is “an approach to
formation of ootheca is that standing eggs are
covered with sticky substance”. If this crite-
rion is given consideration it is certainly a
primitive feature. Louis (1974) however
attaches the importance of survival value
under such conditions of egg deposition. There-
fore, it is argued that the Harpactorinae of
the Palghat Gap represent the original, least
specialized reduviid stock of the Southern
Block of peninsular India.

Ack nowledgements

We are grateful to the authorities of the
University of Madras for providing facilities
and the Junior author is grateful to the C.S.
I.R., New Delhi for providing financial assi-
stance during the course of this investigation
in the Division of Entomology, P. G. Centre,
Coimbatore. We express our thanks
to Dr. Michael Lockwood, Madras Christian
College, Tambaram for providing the Asahi
pentax photomicrographic apparatus. Thanks
are due to Dr. M. K. Ghauri and the Director
of the Commonwealth Institute of Entomology,
London for kindly confirming the identifica-
tion of several species.

594

NUMBER

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81

Livingstone & Ambrose : Modifications of Reduviidae

Plate V

districts

□ AlATE

a GENERA
■ SPECIES

1 ACANTHASPIDINAE

2 ECHTRICHODIINAE

3 EMESINAE

4 HARPACTORINAE

5 HOLOPTILINAE

6 NABIDINAE

7 PIRATINAE

8 SAICINAE

9 SALYAVATINAE

10 STENOPODINAE

11 tribelocephalinae

10 11

40 .

e HRACHYPTEROUS
63 MICROPTEROUS
H APTEROUS

SUBFAMILIES

Tig. 55. Acanthaspis pedestris feeding on Camponotine ant. Notiee the rostral curvature and position of
the fore and mid legs; Fig. 56. Sphedanolestis aterrimus lifting and feeding on Cimex hemispteris. Notiee
the straight rostrum and the fore and mid legs devoid of tibial pad and let free; Fig. 57. Rhinocoris
marginatus in the act of oviposition; Fig. 58. Districtwise distribution of Reduviids in the Scrub jungles of
Tamil Nadu (S. India); Fig. 59. Familywise distribution of Reduviids in the scrub jungles of Tamil Nadu
(S. India); Fig. 60. Coimbatore (Palghat Gap) distribution of Reduviids on the basis of ecomorphological
variations.

ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF THE REDUVIIDAE

References

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Carayon, J. (1950) : Characteres anatomiques et
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Champion, H. G. & Seth, S. K. (1968) : A re-
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Cobren, R. H. (1968): Evolutionary trends in
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Edwards, J. S. (1962) : Observations on the deve-
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(1965) : Observations on the life

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Livingstone, D. & Ambrose, D. P. (1978a) : Feed-
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(1978b): Bio-
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(1953) : Notes on the biology

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595

A NOTE ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOME PLANTS
IN GANGANAGAR DISTRICT, RAJASTHAN1

B. P. Singh and N. S. Brar2

A distribution of 25 taxa in Ganganagar district of Rajasthan has been recorded, the
majority of which being reported from the State for the first time.

Introduction

The district of Ganganagar having an area
of 20,629 sq. km is situated in the north of
Rajasthan State between 28°40'-30°6' N. Lat.
and 72°36'-75°30' E. Long. It constitutes a part
of the Great Indian Desert. The district is be-
ing irrigated by the Gang Canal, Bhakra Canal
and Rajasthan Canal which has greatly affected
the natural flora of the area in many ways.
The irrigation waters which owe their source
to the Punjab rivers have been bringing seeds
and other propagules of a number of extra-
limital species year after year and many of
these have already become successfully esta-
blished in the area as crop weeds or along the
banks of canals. The most wonderful example
of this naturalization of Himalayan plants in
the Great Indian Desert are species of Riccia,
Marchantia and Ophioglossum vulgatum L.
(Singh & Brar 1980) which are found fre-
quently in the canal irrigated areas, showing
thereby the extent to which plants from the
Himalayas and other places have become
naturalised in this irrigated desert.

We are presently working on the flora
of North Rajasthan and about 500 species
are collected and identified. While studying
the specimens, we found some of these were
not reported previously from Rajasthan (Blatt.

1 Accepted April 1983.

2 SGN Khalsa College, Sriganganagar (Raj.).

& Hallb. 1918-21, Puri et al 1964, Bor 1960,
Bhandari 1978, Sharma & Tiagi 1979, Katewa
1979, Aery 1978, Majumdar 1980), therefore,
new records for the State. The specimens
have been preserved in the Herbarium, Depart-
ment of Botany, SGN Khalsa College, Sri-
ganganagar (Raj.).

Acknowledgements

Our thanks are due to Dr. K. B. S. Dhillon,
Principal, S.G.N. Khalsa College, Sri Ganga-
nagar for providing necessary facilities. One
of us (NSB) is thankful to the UGC for
finance.

Ehretiaceae

Cordia fulvosa Wight. Icon. Vol. 4, 2 (1850): 15,
t. 1380; Cooke II: 267.

FI. & Fr. : April-June.

Spec. & Loc.: Bhiani nursery; Singh & Brar: 755.
Distribution : India (W. Peninsula).

CUSCUTACEAE

Cuscuta capitata Roxb. FI. Ind. 1: 448, 1932; FBI
4: 227; Nair 176.

FI. & Fr.: Nov.- April.

Spec. & Loc.: Padampur; Singh & Brar: 759.
Distribution: A temperate weed, co-distributed

with Me dicapo sativa.

Orqbanchaceae

Orobanche acgyptiaea Pers. Syn. 2: 181, 1807; Cooke
2: 387; Duthie 2: 164; Kashyap 190; Nair 194.
O. indica Buch.-Ham. in Roxb. FI. Ind. 3: 27,
1832; FBI 4: 326.

596

DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN GANG AN AGAR DISTRICT, RAJASTHAN

FI. Sc Fr. : Jan.-March.

Spec. Sc Loc .: Padampur; Singh & Brar: 784.
Distribution : Central and Western Asia; India
(throughout the plains, especially on mustard
crops) .

POLYGONACEAE

Polygonum lanigerum R. Br. Prodr. 419, 1810, FBI
5: 35; Duthie 3: 34; Nair 231.

FI. Sc Fr. : Jan. -June, Oct.-March.

Spec. Sc Loc.: ‘ Z ’ Minor; Singh & Brar: 826.
Distribution : Java, Philippines, Egypt, Tropical

and S. America and Africa, Australia, India
(Bengal, lower Himalayas, Punjab).

Euphorbiaceae

Chrozophora oblongifolsa (Del.) A. Juss. Tent.
Euphorb. 28, 1824; Kashyap 230; Nair 233.
Croton oblongifolius Del. FI. Aeg. 139. 1813.
Chrozophora obliqua Juss. loc. cit. 28, 1824; FBI
5: 409; Cooke 3: 104; Duthie 3: 105.

FI. Sc Fr. : March-Nov.

Spec. Sc Loc.: Budhajaur; Singh & Brar: 834.
Distribution : Arabia, N. Africa, India (Punjab,
Kashmir) .

Euphorbia helioscopia Linn. Sp. PI. 459, 1753; FBI
5: 262; Kashyap 223; Nair 237.

FI. Sc Fr. : Feb. -April.

Spec. Sc Loc.: Govt, nursery; Singh & Brar: 835.
Distribution : Afghanistan, Westwards to Atlantic,
Japan, India (Punjab and Western Himalayas).
Euphorbia serpens H. B. K. Nov. Gen. 2 : 52, 1817;
Boiss in DC. Prodr. 5(2) : 29, 1862; Mitra in
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68(3) : 825-856,

1972. Raizada Suppl. FI. UGP 1976.

FI. Sc Fr. : Dec. -Jan.

Spec. Sc Loc.: Botanical Garden; Singh & Brar:
526.

Distribution : Java. India (Bengal, Bihar, Madras,
Gangetic plains).

Note. Recently Mitra (1972) has pointed out that
the plant which was previously known under the
names of E. microphylla Heyne or E. bombaiensis
Santapau or E. orbiculata H.B.K. is really E. ser-
pens H.B.K.

Urticaceae

Pouzolzia pentandra (Roxb.) Benn. PI. Jav. Rar. 67,
1838; FBI 5 : 583; Cooke 3 : 137; Duthie 3 : 132;
Kashyap 235; Nair 242. Urtica pentandra Roxb.
A. Ind. 583, 1832.

FI. Sc Fr. : Sept. -Nov.

Spec. Sc Loc. : Gang Canal; Singh & Brar : 527.
Distribution : Afghanistan, Java, China, India

(Dehradun, Tropical Himalayas, Punjab, Assam,
Khasia Hills, Bengal, Orissa).

Moraceae

Morus mdica Linn. Sp. PI. 986, 1753; FBI 5 : 492;
Cooke 3 : 159; Duthie 3 : 136; Kashyap 235.
FI. Sc Fr. : Jan. -April.

Spec. Sc Loc.: Sohan Lai Baug; Singh & Brar:
540.

Distribution : Temperate and Tropical regions,
India (Outer Himalayas, Sub-Himalaya tracts,
Bengal, Nilgiri hills, Punjab).

Aponogetonaceae

Aponogetosi nataus (Linn.) Engl. & Krause in
Pfreich. 24 : 11, 1906; Nair 256. Saururus natans
Linn. Mant. 227, 1771. A monostachyus Linn,
f. Suppl. 214, 1781; FBI 6 : 564.

FI. & Fr : Sept.-Dee.

Spec. Sc Loc. : Gang canal; Singh & Brar : 549.
Distribution : Warm regions from India and S.

China through Malaya to Australia, dominant
in Tropical and S. Africa and Madagascar.

POACEAE

Aristida piumosa Linn. Sp. PI. ed. 2, 2: App. 1666;
FBI 7 : 228; Bor 411.

FI. Sc Fr. : Aug. -Oct.

Spec. Sc Loc. : 58 GB; Singh & Brar : 573.
Distribution : Mediterranean region, Pakistan,

Afghanistan, North-west India.

Catabrosa aquatica (Linn.) P. Beauv. Ess. Agrost.
97, t. 19, f. 8, 1812; FBI 7: 310; Bor 528. Aira
aquatica Linn. Sp. ed. 1, 64, 1753.

FI. Sc Fr. : Aug. -Oct.

Spec. Sc Loc. :Lyallpur garden; Singh & Brar :
853.

Distribution : Europe, Temperate Asia and North

America.

Dicliantliium odoratum (Lisboa) Jain et Deshpande
in Bull. bot. surv. India 20 : 133-135, 1978. An-
dropogon ocloratus Lisboa in JBNHS 4 : 123,

1889.

FI. & Fr. : Throughout the year.

Spec. Sc Loc. : Gang Canal; Singh & Brar : 904.
Distribution : Bombay State, apparently endemic.

597

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 81

Digitaria bicornis (Lamk.) Roem. et Schult. ex
Laud., Hort. Bril. 24, n. 1578, 1830; Bor 299.
Paspalum bicorne Lamk., Tab. Encycl. Math. Bot.
1 : 176, 1791.

FI. & Fr. : Sept.-Dee.

Spec. & Loc. : Kola Forest; Singh & Brar : 584.
Distribution : Tropical Asia.

Digitaria stricta Roth ex Roem. et Schult., Syst.
Veg. 2 : 474, 1817; Bor 305.

FI. & Fr. : Rainy season.

Spec. & Loc. : College campus; Singh & Brar :
592.

Distribution : Tropical Asia, including many parts
of India, Burma, Ceylon.

Diplachne fusca (Linn.) P. Beauv. Ess. Agrost. 80,
163, 1812; FBI 7 : 329; Bor 492.

FI. & Fr. : Sept. -Jan.

Spec. & Loc. : River sides; Singh & Brar : 854.

Distribution : Cosmopolitan.

Eragrostis nutans (Retz.) Nees ex Steud. Nom. Bot.
ed 2 : 563, 1840; Bor 511. Poa nutans Retz. Obs.
Bot. 4 : 19, 1796.

FI. & Fr. : Aug.-Oct.

Spec. & Loc. : Gang Canal; Singh & Brar : 862.
Distribution : India (Madras, Bihar)

Koeleria argentea Griseb. in Goett. Nachr. 77, 1868;
FBI 7 : 309; Bor 444.

FI. & Fr. : Aug.-Oct.

Spec. & Loc. : Tibbi; Singh & Brar : 594.

Distribution : Alpine Regions of Tibet, and the
Himalayas.

Leptochloa chinensis (Linn.) Nees in Syll.

Ratisb. 1: 4, 1824; Bor 516. Poa chinensis Linn.
Sp. PI. ed. 1, 69, 1753.

FI. & Fr. : Aug.-Oct.

Spec. & Loc. : Local gardens; Singh & Brar :

865.

Distribution : South-east Asia.

Lophochloa phleoides (Vill.) Reichb. FI. Ger.
Excurs. 42, 1830; Bor 445; Maheshw. 402; Nair

283. Festuca phleoides Vill. FI. Delph. 7, 1785.
FI. & Fr. : Feb.-March.

Spec. & Loc. : College campus; Singh & Brar :

870.

Distribution : From Europe and the Mediterra-

nean region. India (Punjab).

Panicum austroasiaticum Ohwi in Act.

Phytotax. et Goebot. 2 : 1, 45, 1942; Bor. P.
humile Nees ex stud. Syn. Gram. 84; FBI 7 : 48.
FI. & Fr. : Jul.-Oct.

Spec. & Loc. : Govt, nursery; Singh & Brar : 601.
Distribution : Tropics of South-east Asia, also in
North Tropical Africa.

Panicum repens Linn. Sp. PI. ed. 2: 87, 1762;

Bor 330. P. ischaemoides Rate. Obs. Bot.

4 : 17, 1786.

FI. & Fr. : Sept.-Oct.

Spec. & Loc. : Lyallpur garden; Singh & Brar :
602.

Distribution : Tropical and subtropical areas of

both hemispheres.

Setaria homonyma (Steud.) Chiov. in Nuova

Giorn. Bot. Ital. n. s. 26 : 78, 1919; Bor 361.
Panicum homonymum Steud. Syn. PI. Glum. 1 :
48, 1854.

FI. & Fr. : Aug.-Oct.

Spec. & Loc. : College campus : Singh & Brar :

871.

Distribution : India and East Tropical Africa.
Sporobolus indicus auett. {non Linn.) R. Br.; Bor 630.
FI. & Fr. :Dec.-March.

Spec. & Loc. : Padampur; Singh & Brar : 876.
Distribution : Ceylon, most warm countries,

throughout India.

Sporobolus stocksii Bor in Kew Bull. 45, 1948: Bor
633. S. ioclados Hook. f. FBI 7: 249.

FI. & Fr. : Aug.-Nov.

Spec. & Loc.: Karanpur; Singh & Brar: 907.
Distribution : Pakistan (Sind), India.

598

DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN GANGANAGAR DISTRICT, RAJASTHAN

References

Aery, N. C. (1980) : Geobotanical Studies of the
Regions of Zinc Ore Deposits in the Udaipur Region;
Ph. D. Thesis, Univ. of Udaipur, Udaipur.

Bhandari, M. M. (1970) : Flora of the Indian
Desert. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur.

Blatter, E. & Hallberg, F. (1918-21) : The
Flora of the Indian Desert (Jodhpur and Jaisalmer).
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26: 218-246; 525-551,
811-818; 968-987; 27: 40-47, 270-279; 509-519.

Bor, N. L. (1960) : The grasses of Burma,

Ceylon, India and Pakistan, Pergamon Press.
London. Oxford. New York. Paris.

Katewa, S. S. (1979) : Systematic and Ecological
studies of certain grazinglands in the Environs of

Udaipur. Ph. D. Thesis, Univ. of Udaipur, Udaipur.

Majumdar, R. B. (1980) : Synoptic Flora of the
Kota Division (S. E. Rajasthan) Part-Ill, BOBSI
22 : 24-44.

Puri, G. S., Jain, S. K., Mukarjee, S. K., Sarup,
S. & Kotwal, N. N. (1964) : Flora of Rajasthan,
West of Aravallis. Rec. Bot. Surv. India 79(1):
1-159.

Sharma, S. and Tiagi B. (1919) : Flora of North-
East Rajasthan. Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana.

Singh, B. P. & Brar, N. S. (1980) : Note on the
occurrence of Ophioglossum vulgatum L. in Raja-
sthan State. J. Indian bot. Soc. 59 : 38.

599

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE INDIAN FRUIT BAT,
CYNOPTERUS SPHINX (VAHL) IN CENTRAL INDIA1

Satwant Sandhu2
( With a text-figure )

Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl) breeds twice in the year in quick succession in central
India, and brings forth one young during each cycle. The cycle commences in
October-November and deliveries in the colony take place during the following
February-March. The females become pregnant within a short time after parturition
and carry the second pregnancy until June-July. The second pregnancy cycle overlaps
the lactation period of the first cycle. The young one is carried by the mother for
about 45 to 50 days. In the first cycle, the right side of the female genitalia is
physiologically dominant, and the persistance of a large corpus luteum in the right
ovary necessitates the left ovary to release the ovum in the second cycle. Although
the sex ratio is balanced at birth, there is an uneven female dominant sex ratio
in the total population due to the preferential mortality of the males during juvenile
life. Whereas the females attain sexual maturity within five months of age, the
males do not reach sexual maturity until they are at least 15 months of age.

Introduction

It is evident from the few casual observa-
tions of earlier workers that Indian mcga-
chiropterans differ considerably from their
counterparts in other parts of the world in
regard to their reproductive habits. The two
brief reports, which are available on two
species of Cynopterus, also point to this
feature. Ramakrishna (1947) briefly mention-
ed that females of Cynopterus sphinx sphinx
experienced post-partum pregnancy at and
around Bangalore. Moghe (1956), while des-
cribing the embryology of Cynopterus sphinx
gangeticus around Nagpur, made a casual re-
ference to the possibility of occurrence of two
pregnancies in a year in this species. Details
of the reproductive cycles were not given by
either of the authors. The absence of any de-

1 Accepted July 1984.

2 Department of Zoology, Institute of Science,
Nagpur 440 001, India.

tailed study on the reproductive physiology
of Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl) in central India
prompted me to undertake a detailed
study of the sex cycle of this bat. The present
report embodies the general pattern of repro-
duction and observations on some associated
phenomena in this species.

Historical

The first ever detailed study on the repro-
duction of any megachiropteran bat was made
by Baker & Baker (1936) on P ter opus geddeii
and Pteropus eotinus from New Hebrides 4°
north of the Equator. The authors showed that
these species breed in a season corresponding
to the southern autumn like most bats in both
the hemispheres and on the basis of this as
well as on the basis of their studies of repro-
duction of some microchiropteran species
(Baker & Bird 1936) they not only emphasised
the fact that these bats have a strictly defined

600

CYNOPTERUS SPHINX IN CENTRAL INDIA

reproductive periodicity even though inhabit-
ing an almost unvarying tropical climate in a
rain forest, but that the biological equator is
different from the geographical equator, the
former being approximately 4° north of the
latter.

Eidolon helvum inhabiting squarely on the
equator in Africa mates in a sharply restricted
season in the year, but there is a very long
period of delayed implantation when the
blastocyst lies freely in the uterus without
undergoing further development (Mutere 1967,
1968).

The above descriptions have indicated that
the Megachiroptera copulate in autumn and
deliver the young in the following spring — a
situation common to bats inhabiting temperate
and cold climates. However, the Indian mega-
chiropteran bat, Rousettus leschenaulti (Gopa-
lakrishna & Choudhuri 1977) at and around
Aurangabad, Maharashtra appears to have
combined in it the autumn breeding pattern
of the temperate bats and the spring breeding
pattern of the tropical bats by breeding twice
in the year. There are, however, conflicting
reports on the reproduction of Pteropus gigan-
teus giganteus. Whereas this species breeds in
a sharply restricted season in Ceylon (Sri
Lanka) with copulations occurring during
the period corresponding to northern autumn
and deliveries in the following spring (Mar-
shall 1947) [although at Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
these seasons are not well defined], this
species has an anomalous breeding pattern in
central India (Moghe 1951, Gopalakrishna &
Sahasrabudhe 1972) without a sharply defined
season of copulation or delivery. On any given
date different females carry embryos at diffe-
rent stages of development, and deliveries in
the colony occur during nearly all the months
of the year except probably during October to
December, and there is no evidence of the

occurrence of more than one pregnancy per
year in each female.

The works of Ramakrishna (1951), Gopala-
krishna (1954), Ramaswamy (1961), Gopala-
krishna & Madhavan (1978), Ramakrishna &
Rao (1977) and Gopalakrishna & Rao (1977)
on several species of bats from different re-
gions of India have revealed that different
species exhibit different breeding behaviour
under different ecological situations. Since some
information (inadequate though) is available
on the occurrence of post-partum pregnancy
in Cynopterus sphinx sphinx (Ramakrishna
1951) at Bangalore, the present studies on the
reproduction of Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl) at
and around Nagpur have been carried out
with a view to finding out if cynopterid bats
have a common pattern of reproduction in
different climatic conditions.

Material and Methods

Specimens of Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl) were
collected at Nagpur, Maharashtra State, India
at frequent intervals for two years commenc-
ing on 24th January, 1982 such that every
calendar month is represented by several col-
lections. Altogether 601 specimens were exa-
mined for the present report. The animals
were shot down with an air rifle and the body
weight of each specimen was recorded by a
sensitive spring balance.

After noting down the nature of the external
genitalia and the condition of the mammary
glands and nipples of each female, the speci-
mens were dissected and their genitalia and
accessory reproductive structures were fixed in
various ways such as in neutral formalin,
Bouin’s, Rossman’s and Zenker’s fixatives. The
mammary glands of the females were also
fixed likewise. After fixation for 24 hours the
tissues were stored in 70% ethanol for further

601

Date wise details of collections of Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl)

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CYNOPTERUS SPHINX IN CENTRAL INDIA

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605

♦Adult specimens had undergone abortion.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Table 2

Monthwise collection of specimens

Month

No. of males

No. of females

Total

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

Total

279

322

601

processing. In the case of males the right testis
and the right epididymis of each specimen
were weighed with a Mettler balance after
gently rolling the organs on a filter paper.
While this does not give the exact weight of
these organs, this method gives accurate rela-
tive values of the organs of the animals since
the error due to fixation and preservation is
same for all animals. The testis and accessory
reproductive organs in the males and the
ovaries, uterine cornua, vagina and mammary
glands of the females were dehydrated by pass-
ing through graded ethanol, cleared in xylol,
embedded in paraffin and cut at 8 to 10 n
thickness. For routine histological study the
tissues were stained with Ehrlich’s or Harris’s
haematoxylin and counterstained with eosin.
Selected sections from each series were stained
by the periodic acid-Schiff procedure (Pearse
1968), some by Mallory triple procedure and
some by Heidenhain’s Azan technique. All
microscopic measurements were taken with the
help of an ocular micrometer calibrated to a
stage micrometer.

A detailed field diary and laboratory record
have been maintained. Table 1 gives the date-
wise details of the collections and Table 2
gives the monthwise collections of the speci-
mens.

Observations and Discussion
A. General remarks

This species normally roosts in the space
formed by groups of downward hanging, dried-
up fronds of palm trees. The specimens emerge
from their roosts about half an hour after
sunset when there is still some twilight. Nor-
mally the specimens do not return to the
roost until after feeding. However, during April
and May the females were noticed to return
now and then probably to give suck to the
unweaned free young ones, which had been
left behind in the roost, while the mothers went
out foraging. This contention received addi-
tional support from the fact that many a
female which was shot during April and May
was in lactation, but had no young at their
breasts.

An interesting feature about the roosting
habits of these bats is that normally adult
males roost separately from the females, and
usually solitarily and rarely in groups of two
or three except during the season of copula-
tion. In fact, whenever a single specimen was
noticed inside the hollows among the dried
fronds, it was invariably a male. Juvenile males
were, however, present among the females
throughout the year.

Several newly delivered young ones were
obtained during February to April and June
and July — the two periods of delivery for
this species The average weight of the young
one at delivery was 11 g and this was also the
average weight of the full term foetus. The
young one gets a firm hold of one of the

606

CYNOPTERUS SPHINX IN CENTRAL INDIA

mammary nipples of the mother soon after it
is delivered. The teeth of the young were so
firmly and deeply sunk in the wall of the
nipple that it required considerable force to
separate the young one from the mother
although the latter was dead and the young
was still alive. The young one is constantly
carried by the mother even during flight for
about 45 to 50 days by which time the young
one reaches a body weight of 34 to 36 g. No
young one above this weight was noticed to
be adhering to the mother’s nipple. Evidently,
the young ones leave their mothers after
attaining this weight, but continue to suck
milk for some more days before they are finally
weaned. This fact also suggests that there is
community suckling for some time after the
young ones leave the breast of their mothers
since it is unlikely that the young ones are able
to find out their own mothers after getting
free and vice-versa . On a few occasions there
were two young ones attached one to each
nipple of the mother. Obviously, one of the
young could not be belonging to the mother
since invariably only a single foetus is borne
by each mother during each cycle.

B. Female genitalia

Externally the female genital organs of
Cynopterus sphinx are built on a typically
bicornuate plan. The two uterine cornua are
of equal size in the non-pregnant female and
form a ‘V’ shaped structure, the two limbs of
the ‘V’ forming an angle of about 60°. In
adult specimens each cornu is 8-10 mm long.
The Fallopian tube arises from the posterio-
median aspect of the ovarian bursa adjacent
to a slit-like opening of the bursa, and, after
taking a simple loop around the cranial aspect
of the ovarian bursa, opens a little behind the
cranial tip of the uterus on each side. The
vagina is 12 to 14 mm long and gives the

female genitalia a ‘Y’ shaped appearance, the
vagina forming the vertical limb of the *Y\
The vulval opening is a transverse slit and
occurs on a thick pad slightly elevated from
the surface of the body. On sectioning, it be-
comes evident that the uterine cornua remain
separate and there are two distinct cervical
canals on the lateral sides of the long cervix
which projects to about half the length of the
vagina. The cervical canals open independantly
subterminally on the two sides of the cervix.
The cranial three-fourths of the cervix is
attached to the dorsal wall of the vagina.
Hence, the vagina appears to be partitioned
into two chambers for some distance and the
vaginal canal appears like a semi-circular
cavity surrounding the cervix in transverse
sectional views.

The mammary glands are located on the
ventro-lateral sides of the thorax just a little
posterior to the axilla. The nipples project
laterally. During lactation each mammary gland
extends almost to the axilla of the respective
side. The nipples become extended and co mi-
lled during the first lactation ofter which they
do not regress completely. Hence, even during
the non-pregnant season the parous females
can be distinguished from the non-parous ones
by the nature of the mammary nipples.

C. Breeding seasons

Since the reproductive stage of the animals
was the same during the two years when the
animals were collected, only the date and the
month are mentioned in the following descrip-
tions except where the mention of the year is
warranted by some special condition. The
examination of Table 1 and the collection diary
reveals that each female specimen experiences
two pregnancies in quick succession, the first
pregnancy occurring during October to March,
and the second pregnancy, which overlaps the

607

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

lactation period of the first pregnancy, com-
mences within a short period after parturition
and continues until June- July. The period from
July to October is the sexually quiescent ano-
estrous period. Not all the females in the
colony conceive at the same time during the
first cycle, and this is also reflected in the
second cycle since deliveries do not occur
synchronously in all the females. Hence, con-
ceptions after parturition in February-March
also occur on different days in different speci-
mens in the colony. Hence, during any date
or month the females were at different stages
of gestation during both the cycles.

The second pregnancy is carried by the
uterine cornu contra-lateral to that which
carried the first pregnancy. This is evident
from the fact that there were several females,
in which, whereas one uterine cornu had not
yet undergone complete involution, the contra-
lateral cornu carried the foetus of the second
cycle. Microscopic examination of the ovaries
revealed that a large corpus luteum occupying
almost the whole ovary persisted for a few
days after delivery in February-March. This
necessitated the production and release of the
Graafian follicle in the opposite ovary. The
corpus luteum of the second cycle also per-
sisted for a few days after parturition in June-
July and had undergone regression quickly
thereafter. Hence, by the time the young one
is weaned the two ovaries present the same his-
tological picture after July, and follicles con-
tinue to develop in both the ovaries.

During each pregnancy cycle one of the
uterine cornua carries a single embryo.
Hence, a single young one is delivered each
time. Two females with unmistakable pre-
gnancy, as evidenced by the occurrence of a
slightly swollen right uterine cornu in each,
were obtained on 22nd October. From the
stage of development of the embryo it was

evident that the animals had conceived three
or four days earlier. After this date more and
more females in the colony had conceived.
Every female in all the colonies was pregnant
during January and February, but the embryo
in the uterus varied in the stage of develop-
ment in different specimens. This is as ex-
pected because the date of conception differed
in different animals. The first delivered young
one was obtained on 16th February, after which
more and more females delivered their young.
Evidently, gestation lasts for about 120 days
allowing a margin of three or four days on
either side. The last delivered young one of
the first cycle was collected on 20th March.
This specimen must have been conceived bet-
ween 15th and 20th November of the previous
calendar year taking the gestation period as
being about 120 days.

The earliest second conception was noticed
on 20th February, and the first newly born
young of the second cycle was obtained on 21st
June. This was probably one or two days
old. This also gives a gestation period of
about 120 days. The last date on which a
newly born young of the second cycle was
16th July, and this must have been conceived
about the middle of March.

The first free young weighing 34g was collec-
ted on 6th April. Assuming that this belonged
to the group delivered in the first batch (that
is, on 16th February), it becomes evident that
this specimen was about 50 days old. How-
ever, the females continue to be in lactation
for another 10 to 15 days more during which
period the free young onces probably take
suck periodically.

Examination of Table 1 reveals that, where-
as during the first cycle 71 females among 99
carried the conceptus in the right cornu of
the uterus, in the second cycle only 27 females
among 81 carried the conceptus in the right

608

CYNOPTERUS SPHINX IN CENTRAL INDIA

cornu. Further, in most of the females col-
lected during February and March, while one
cornu was still in the post-partum condition
and had not completely involuted, the contra-
lateral cornu carried an embryo. These facts
taken along with the fact that a large corpus
luteum of the first cycle persists for a few
days after delivery and during early pregnancy
of the second cycle suggest that there is a
distinct alternation of the two sides of the
female genitalia in the two cycles in the year.
However, within a short time after parturition
in June- July the two ovaries present a typically
anoestrous condition. Microscopic examina-
tion of the two ovaries of the adult specimens
and the non-parous females approaching their
first cycle during August and September re-
vealed that numerous follicles at various stages
of development were present in both the
ovaries. However, in most of the females col-
lected during October the right ovary had
distinctly outstripped the left in the develop-
ment of the Graafian follicles. In both the
ovaries the follicles develop concurrently up
to the vesicular stage, but after this stage the
development of the follicles becomes arrested
in the left ovary in most of the specimens, and
one of the follicles in the right ovary develops
further and releases the ovum. This is why a
large proportion of the females carry the con-
cept in the right ovary in the first cycle during
each year. The persistence of the corpus
luteum of the first cycle for a few days after
parturition necessitates the alternation of the
two sides of the female genitalia during the
two cycles in the year. Hence, in the second
cycle there were more females carrying the
embryo in the left uterus than the right and
the relative proportion is nearly the re-
verse of the proportion of pregnancy in the
two sides during the first pregnancy cycle.

D. Growth and maturity

The following descriptions pertain to the
females only. It has already been shown that
the newly born young one weighs about 11 g,
and they are weaned when they attain a body
weight of about 35 g about 40 to 45 days after
birth. Figure 1 is a scatter diagram to show
the body weight of the females collected on
different dates, and the lines are drawn to in-
dicate the growth rate. The females reach
sexual maturity when they attain a weight of
about 50 g — this being the lowest weight of
a female carrying an early embryo in the
uterine cornu. The growth curves indicate
that the specimens born in February-March,
reach this weight by July- August, that
is about five months after birth, attain sexual
maturity by the time of the onset of the breed-
in season in October. Hence, these females
conceive in October along with parous females.
The females bom in June- July also reach
sexual maturity in November-December, when
they are five months of age. These copulate
and conceive in November-December. This
was why there were a few-non-parous females
in the colonies during October-November and
there was not a single non-pregnant female
available after November every female in the
colony having conceived by this time. This
also explains why different females were at
different stages of pregnancy during January-
March, and why parturition was not synchro-
nous in all the females.

The growth pattern of the males and the
age at sexual maturity have already been des-
cribed (Gopalakrishna §i Sandhu, in press).
It has been shown that the males do not reach
sexual maturity until they are at least 15 to
16 months of age for those animals delivered
during February-March and about 19 to 20
months of age in the case of the animals born
during June-July.

609

BOOY WEIGHT OF FEMALES IN Gras,

90.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

MONTH

Fig. 1. Scatter diagram in which the body weights of the females are plotted
against the dates of collection of the specimens. The dotted line indicates the body
weight at sexual maturity. The curves indicate the manner of growth of the animals
bom during the two breeding cycles. Curves 1 and 2 relate to animals born on the
earliest and the latest dates respectively in the first cycle (February-March). Curves
3 and 4 relate animals born in the second cycle (Tune- July). The shaded areas
represent the periods when conception takes place. It is evident from the figure that

animals born in February-March and also
first conception during October-November

The fact that the number of young ones in
the total population is so small indicates that
there is considerable pre-pubertal mortality in
this species. On several occasions, young ones
with body weights ranging from 17 to 33 g
had become accidentally freed from their
mothers. These helpless young ones are an
easy prey to predators like crows and hawks
during the day time and owls and other
nocturnal birds during the night.

E. Sex Ratio

Table 1 gives the data concerning the sex

those born in June- July experience their
along with parous animals.

ratio of Cynopterus sphinx at different periods
of life. From the table it is seen that among
the 601 specimens studied during two years,
when frequent random collections were made,
279 were males and 322 females. This gives
a clear female-dominant sex ratio of 871 males
to 1000 females in the total population.
Among the 82 sucklings there was an almost
equal number of males and females (42 and
40 respectively). Among 388 sexually mature
adults there were 127 males and 261 females,
giving a spectacular uneven sex ratio with

610

CYNOPTERUS SPHINX IN CENTRAL INDIA

32.8% males and 67.2% females. However,
in the pre-pubertal stage, not inclusive of the
sucklings, the males far outnumber the females
(110 males to 24 females). This is because of
the difference in the age of attainment of sexual
maturity between the two sexes. Whereas the
females attain sexual maturity within 5 to 6
months of age, the males take at least 15 to 20
months to reach sexual maturity. Evidently,
the overall female dominant sex ratio in the
total population is due to a preferential mor-
tality of the males during the growth period.
On the basis of the present status of our
knowledge it is not possible to assign any
specific reason for the occurrence of uneven

Refer

Abdulali, H. (1952) : Sex ratio in Indian bats.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 423-428.

Baker, J. R. & Baker, Z. (1936) : The seasons in
a tropical rain forest (New Hebrides). Part III. Fruit
bats (Pteropidae) . J. Linn. Soc. London 40: 123-141.

Baker, J. R. & Bird, T. F. (1936): The seasons
in a tropical rain forest (New Hebrides). Part IV.
Insectivorous bats (Vespertilionidae and Rhinolophi-
dae). ibid. 40: 143-161.

Gopalakrishna, A. (1954) : Breeding habits of
the Indian Sheath-tailed bat, Taphozous longimanus
(Hardwicke). Curr. Sci. 23: 60-61.

& Choudhari, P. N. (1977):

Breeding habits and associated phenomena in some
Indian bats. Part I. Rousettus leschenaulti (Desma-
rest) — Megachiroptera. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
74: 1-16.

& Madhavan, A. (1970) : Sex

ratio in some Indian bats. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
67: 171-175.

(1978):

Breeding habits and associated phenomena in some
Indian bats. Part III. Hipposideros ater ater (Tem-
pleton) — Hipposideridae. ibid. 74: 511-517.

& Rao, K. V. B. (1977):

Breeding habits and associated phenomena in some
Indian bats. Part IT. Rhinolophus rouxi (Temm.) .
ibid. 74: 213-219.

& Sahasrabudhe, J. D. (1972):

female dominant sex ratio among all the
species of bats so far studied (Gopalakrishna &
Madhavan 1978) except Taphozous melano-
pogon (Abdulali 1952). Probably genetic
factors are responsible for making the males
more susceptible to infection and diseases
than the females thereby resulting in establi-
shing an uneven female dominant sex ratio.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Prof. A. Gopalakrishna,
Project Leader, U. G. C. project on bat re-
search for constant help and guidance. I thank
the U.G.C. for granting a Fellowship for carry-
ing out this work.

E n ce s

Degeneration of the inseminated spermatozoa after
ovulation in two species of Indian bats. Curr. Sci.
39: 489-490.

& Satwant Sandhu (In press) :

Notes on the reproduction and associated pheno-
mena in the male fruit bat, Cynopterus sphinx
(Vahl) in Central India.

Marshall, A. J. (1947): The breeding cycle of
an equatorial bat ( Pteropus giganteus of Ceylon).
Proc. Linn. Soc. London 159: 103-111.

Moghe, M. A. (1951): Development and placen-
tation of the Indian fruit bat, Pteropus giganteus
giganteus (Brunnich). Proc. Zool. Soc. London; 121:
703-721.

(1956) : On the development and

placentation of the megachiropteran bat, Cynopterus
sphinx gangeticus. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 22:
48-55.

Mutere, F. A. (1967): The breeding biology of
equatorial vertebrates. Reproduction in the fruit
bat, Eidolon helvum at latitude 0°20'N. /. Zool.
London; 153: 153-161.

(1968): Breeding biology of the

fruit bat, Rousettus asgyptiacus living at 0°22'S.
Acta tropica 25: 97-108.

Pearse, A. G. E. (1968): Histochemistry. Theore-
tical and Applied. J. & A. Churchill Ltd. London,
W 1.

611

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Ramakrishna, P. A. (1947): Post-partum oestrus
in the short-nosed fruit bat, Cynopterus sphinx
sphinx. Curr. Sci.; 16: 186.

(1951) : Studies on repro-
duction in bats. I. Some aspects of reproduction in
the oriental vampires, Lyroderma lyra lyra (Geoffroy)
and Megaderma spasma (Linn.). J. Mysore Univ. 12:
107-118.

& Rao, K. V. B. (1977):

Reproductive adaptations in the Indian rhinolophis
bat, Rhinolophus rouxi (Temm.). Curr. Sci. 46:
270-271.

Ramaswamy, K. R. (1961) : Studies on the sex
cycle of the Indian vampire bat, Megaderma (Lyro-
derma) lyra lyra (Geoffroy). Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci.
India 27: 287-302.

612

BIRDS OF A POLLUTED RIVER1

Prakash Gole2

{With jour text-figures & three maps)

The Mutha river meanders through Pune
City for a distance of over 6.5 km from
Vitthalwadi to the Southwest, to the Sangam in
the northeast, before it merges into the Mula
at the latter place. The joint stream then
flows for a distance of 4 kilometres before it
leaves the city-limits.

I have been watching birds along these
stretches of the rivers for well over fifteen
years, i.e. since the mid-sixties. This article
however, while taking note of some of the
major changes noted over all these years, is
primarily based on systematic observations
made over a period of over six months, i.e.
from October 1982 to April 1983.

Special mention should be made of the tail-
end portion of the Mula-Mutha, where the
joint stream leaves the city-limits. This 1.5
km stretch of the Mula-Mutha now constitutes
the Mula-Mutha Bird Sanctuary inaugurated
by Dr. Salim Ali in 1977. The Sanctuary
deserves separate treatment on account of the
numbers and variety of birds found there in
winter and spring.

Quality of River-waters

It is generally believed that the water of both
the rivers is polluted. Sewage overflows into
the rivers at many points and industrial effluents

1 Accepted May 1983.

2 IB Abhimanshree Housing Society, Pune 411 008,
Maharashtra.

also drain into the rivers. To gauge the ex-
tent of pollution, water-samples were collected
at many points along the river-course. For
chemical analysis of water a five-litre sample
was collected from each of the points and 250
cc samples were used for the MPN count.
Tables 1A and IB show results of the analysis
of water-samples. The names of collection
points are also given in the tables and the
same can be seen on maps. To compare the
quality of water of the rivers with that of
other water-bodies, samples were also collect-
ed from the Khadakwasla reservoir upstream
on the river Mutha and from Ambil Odha, a
stream that meets the Mutha in the city.

It will be seen from Table 1A that as the
river flows from Vitthalwadi to the Sangam the
proportion of solids. Dissolved solids, COD,
BOD and Chlorides goes on increasing which
indicates that the river is receiving higher and
higher loads of organic matter. This is due to
the increase in the number of sewage overflows
going into the river. The oxygen content is
mostly low. The water of Ambil Odha which
flows through densely populated areas and on
whose banks a number of hutment colonies
are located, brings into the river even greater
loads of pollution. It is also worth noting
that samples from the Mula and the Mula-
Mutha also show a higher concentration of
pollution and compare favourably with the
Odha.

Table No. IB shows the results of the MPN
count. Predictably the analysis shows an in-

613

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Table 1A

Chemical and bacteriological analysis of water samples collected at different points along the

RIVERS IN PUNE CITY

No.

Count of

Collecting Stations
2 3 4

along

the Mutha, the
6 7

Mula & the
8 9

Mula-Mutha

10 Names of Stations

Turbidity (ppm)
Total Solids

1 = Khadakwasla
Reservoir

(mg /litre)
Dissolved Solids

108

120

100

168

184

200

252

322

190

334

2 = Upstream of
Vitthalwadi

(mg/1)

108

100

148

167

191

246

218

180

292

3 - Opp. Pumping
Station

COD

150

4 = Upstream of

Garware Causeway

BOD

5 — Near Shinde Bridge

Dissolved

Oxygen

4.20

1.40

4.60

4.20

5.20

4.30

2.90

2.40

1.30

3.0

6 = Upstream Dengle
Bridge

Nitrates (N205)

7 — Downstream Holkar
Br. (on the Mula)

Nitrites (N203)

8 = Downstream

Sangam Br. (on the
Mula-Mutha)

Chlorides (Cl)

49.5

9 = In Bird Sanctuary
10 = In Ambil Odha

Table IB

Bacteriological count of water collected at

different points along the

rivers in

PUNE CITY

MPN Results: Count per 100ml of water
Sample Collected at Date Count

Upstream of V. wadi

22.3.83

1 .4 X 108

Opp. Pumping Station

25.3.83

2. Ox 105

Below Garware Causeway

22.3.83

2. 5 x 106

Near Natraj Causeway

22.3.83

1 . 3 X 107

Below Omkareshwar

Temple

22.3.83

1 . 3 x 107

Below Shivaji Bridge

22.3.83

3.5 X 106

Below the Sangam

6.4.83

1 . 5 x 105

In the Mula River

6.4.83

l.Ox 105

In Bird Sanctuary

24.3.83

3. 5 X 107

creasing concentration of organisms per 100
ml as the river flows from Vitthalwadi to
Sangam Bridge. The conspicuous rise in coli-
form MPN indicates faecal pollution. This
makes the water highly dangerous to human
beings and activities such as bathing, washing
clothes and utensils, which are normally carried
out by citizens on the river, are fraught with
danger of infection. However, as will be seen
from the discussion that follows, this water,
which carries a great load of organic matter,
may not necessarily be dangerous to birds.
Indeed it appears that certain species of birds
thrive on it.

614

BIRDS OF A POLLUTED RIVER

Broad Habitat-types along the
River course

The 6.5 kin stretch of the Mutha and the
further 4 km stretch of the Mula-Mutha ex-
hibit a variety of habitats. They are : 1) Deep
water; 2) Shallow water; 3) Marshy land;
4) Grassland; 5) Rocks and boulders, and
6) Dryland and scrub. Riverside trees also
constitute a distinct habitat, though arboreal
birds are not considered here. Let us now
see the characteristic bird-life of each of these
habitats. The broad extent of each of these
habitats is shown in the maps.

Deep-water Habitat

The Mutha river within Pune city is shallow
with an average depth of less than a metre.
In certain places, however, deepish pools are
formed, e.g. near Vitthalwadi, near Omkaresh-
war Temple, and near the Sangam. The Mula
is a bigger river and the stretch between
Holkar Bridge and Sangam is deeper (average
depth about 2 metres). The joint flow below
Sangam is of considerable depth too, due to
impoundment near Bund Garden. The river-
flow is again shallow in the Bird Sanctuary.

The common submerged plants occurring in
this habitat are : Hydrilla verticillata, Lemna
gibba, Ceratophyllum demersum, Vallisneria
spiralis, Spirodela polyrhiza etc. Eichhornia
eras sipes became progressively dominant after
October, especially in the Mula and by March
it had almost covered the open water in the
Bird Sanctuary. Another obnoxious weed
Pistia stratiotes was also recorded at a few
places especially on the Mula.

The characteristic bird of this habitat
appears to be Little Grebe or Dabchik.
Groups of these birds were seen at every place
on the Mutha where there is deepish water.

The stretch of the Mula considered here does
not hold any Dabchik perhaps due to lack of
aquatic food and movement of boats in the
river. Upstream of Garware causeway these
birds were seen to breed from February on-
wards on little platforms made up of aquatic
plants ( Hydrilla ) and floating debris. Three
nests and a pair with two chicks were seen in
the last week of February 1983.

Coots, Little Cormorants, a few Large Cor-
morants and ducks like Garganey Teals, Pin-
tails and Shovellers were the other birds that
belonged to this habitat. The Cormorants are
a recent addition to the river fauna. The
Little Cormorants started appearing on the
river since 1969 and the Large ones came as
recently as 1980. They perhaps reflect the
abundance of small and medium-size fish in
the river; fish that thrive on the nutrient-rich
sewage water. It may be significant that the
Cormorants were absent when the proportion
of sewage in river-water was low, i.e. before
the seventies. Do these fish-eaters indicate
the quality of fish in the waterbody, in this
case smaller fish? For, all the fishermen
whom we asked about the quality of fish in
the river, complained that good quality fish
are no longer found in the river, except during
a few days immediately after the monsoon.
This aspect of the correlation between Cor-
morants and fish needs deeper investigation,
however.

Ducks were concentrated in deepish pools in
the Bird Sanctuary. Garganey Teals became
numerous after 1972. They use the Sanctuary
area during daytime for resting on rocks mid-
stream and appear to feed on chironomus
larvae and other floating insects. Over 800
were counted in early March 1983. Since
1970 an occasional Pintail used to be seen in
the Sanctuary area. In the winter of 1982-83
their number was the highest recorded so far.

615

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

A few Shovellers with the colourful males out-
numbering females are to be seen in the Sanc-
tuary every winter. They feed on floating
aquatic insects.

Shallow- water Habitat

Most of the stretch of the Mutha river con-
sidered here, being shallow, this habitat covers
probably the greater part of the river eco-
system. The water is shallow, at places even
midstream, and there are rocky outcrops, is-
lands, floating vegetation and other debris
which the birds can take advantage of, while
wading through shallow water.

Plants of this habitat include partly sub-
merged plants, plants growing at the edge of

water and those growing along drains and
other effluents flowing into the river. Crypto -
coryne retrospirallis, Xanthium strumarium,
Ammania baccifera, Commelina sp., Cyperus
pangorei, Polygonum glabrum, Asclepias cura-
ssavica, Hygrophila auriculata etc. were seen
to be common here.

Typha angustata, Jussiaea suffruticosa, Cri-
num defixum, Bacopa monnieri, Phyllanthus
niruri, Ricinus communis and lpomoea pal-
mat a were the common plants seen growing
around sewage overflows and effluents.

The most characteristic birds of this
habitat are the long-legged herons and
stilts. The numbers of egrets and Black-
winged stilts have risen considerably in recent
years on the rivers. Intermediate and Little

Map. 1. Habitats along the Mutha.

616

BIRDS OF A POLLUTED RIVER

egrets are more common than the cattle egrets
which were mostly seen around sewage over-
flows and accompanying cattle. The egrets
perch on rocks, islands and floating debris
including the weed Eichhornia and were also
seen to congregate around streams that pour
a tremendous load of faecal contamination in-
to the rivers.

Pond herons are more solitary than egrets.
They feed at the edges of water and in dense
masses of Eichhornia. By the beginning of
April some cattle and little egrets came into
breeding plumage. Large egrets. Grey and

Purple herons, and occasionally an open-
billed stork and a White ibis were noted in
this habitat, especially on the quieter stretches
of the Mutha, i.e. between Dattawadi and the
Pumping Station and in Bird Sanctuary. While
the larger herons appeared to feed mainly on
fish, egrets and pond herons were seen to
catch insects from the vegetation at the edge
and on islands. All the herons are only fair
weather inhabitants of the rivers and disappear
completely in June and July and reappear by
August-end.

Blackwinged stilts are also a comparatively

3 Rocks

4 Dryland

5 Marsh

Map. 2. Habitats along the Mutha and the Mula.

617

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

recent addition to the river fauna. They were
detected in some numbers in 1968-69 and
since then their number has been increasing
year by year. Their flocks are to be invari-
ably met with near sewage outflows and in and
around streams that pour sewage in the river.
They arrive by the end of September every
year and their peak numbers are reached in
January. In January 1983 over 2000 could
be seen on the rivers.

Three species of Sandpiper, viz. Common,
Green and Spotted, Little stint, Greenshank,
Ruff and reeve, Little Ringed Plover etc. are
the other birds seen in this habitat. They are
numerous where grassy edges and rock slabs
touch the waters. Actually their habitat is,
of late, decreasing all along the rivers as open

water near the edges is being covered by
Eichhornia especially in the Bird Sanctuary.
Egrets, pond herons, wagtails and to a lesser
extent sandpipers feed on mosquitoes, spiders
and beetles hiding in its leaves. Yellow and
White wagtails and to a lesser extent Large
Pied Wagtail are thus found not only on the
patches of turf and rock along the rivers but
also on the floating water hyacinth.

Marshy Habitat

Water-logged areas are thinly spread along
the rivers, especially where bays and inlets
are formed and where there are depressions
between rock slabs. Plants of this habitat are
not much different from the previous one.
Ipomoea species such as /. earned, I. nil, /.

u ft ■£>

1 Grassland

2 Trees

3 Rocks

4 Dryland

5 Marsh

- 1 jE[

Map. 3. Habitats along the Mula-Mutha.

618

BIRDS OF A POLLUTED RIVER

muricata were recorded commonly in marshy
areas. Also Marselia, Rorippa indica, Homo -
nia riparia were recorded from marshy places.

The characteristic bird of this habitat was
seen to be Snipe (Fantail or Pintail?) and to
some extent Painted Snipes were usually
found hidden in the short, wet grass. Where
the grass is taller and typha stands abound,
hide Purple and Indian moorhens. Bronze-
winged and Pheasant-tailed Jacanas used to
be found on the river some years ago. The
former has now completely vanished while the
latter is seen in decreasing numbers year by
year. Though these birds can take advantage
of floating vegetation due to their long toes,
they are not seen to be much associated with
Eichhornia. Indeed there is some reason to
believe that since the advent of this noxious
weed, these species have declined in number.

Grassland Habitat

Wagtails usually exploit grasslands both dry
and wet. Three subspecies of Yellow Wag-
tail are usually found along the river. In late
winter the Yellowheaded wagtail adds to their
numbers. There used to be enormous flocks
of yellow wagtails on the dry, scrub-covered
plateau and grassland on the left bank of the
Mula-Mutha in the Bird Sanctuary. But as
this plateau is now planted up with trees, there
is a noticeable decline in the number of wag-
tails here. The resident Indian species of
wagtail, the Large Pied, is found in pairs all
along the river. They are fond of perching
on rocks mid-stream and were seen to run on
grass or to hunt for insects on floating
Eichhornia.

Cyperus pangorei, C. globosus, Fimbristylis
bisumbellata, Eleocharis capitata, Echinochloa
colona, Cynodon dactylon, Chloris barbata are
some of the typical plants of this habitat.

Rocky Habitat

Rocks are exposed in several places along
the Mutha. At Vitthalwadi there is a broad
platform of basalt on the right bank. There
is also a broad and high rocky platform on the
left of the Mula-Mutha in the Bird Sanctuary.
In between there are rock exposures on both
the banks of the Mutha and rocky outcrops
in the shallow river-bed. The deeper Mula
does not show rocky exposures on either its
banks within city limits or mid-stream.

Plants growing in rock crevices and bet-
ween gaps in rocks were found to be mostly
grasses. Cynodon dactylon , Cyperus pangorei ,
Alternant htera sessilis, Commelina sp. were
some of the plants recorded from this habitat.
On wet rocks near puddles red patches of
Roiella tenuis were observed and in rock
crevices and on wet rocks Canscora diffusa
was also seen.

Redwattled Lapwing was perhaps the most
characteristic denizen of this habitat. Two
species of Kingfisher, viz . Small Blue and
Whitebreasted can be seen perched on rocks
at many places. As fish and frogs are to be
found in practically every part of the rivers
these kingfishers are to be seen everywhere ex-
cept the stretch between Sambhaji Bridge and
Sangam Bridge. At Vitthalwadi and in the
Bird Sanctuary there are puddles and pools
formed in depressions in rocks. Redwattled
Lapwing, Green Sandpiper and the two king-
fishers can usually be seen on these pools. Grey
Shrike, Rufousbacked Shrike and Little Brown
Doves and Indian Robin are some of the
other birds found here.

Dryland Habitat

Patches of dry, stony ground dotted with
bushes of Lantana, Calotropis, Pongamia etc.
can also be found along the Mutha river. On

619

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

one such plateau in the Bird Sanctuary, trees
such as Erythrina sp., Bauhinia sp.. Cassia sp.,
Bombax ceiba, Cochlospermum religiosum, etc.
are now planted.

Small bushes and stunted trees provide con-
venient perches for a number of bird species.
Rufousbacked Shrike, Common Green Bee-
eater, Stonechat, Black Drongo, Large Grey
Babblers are normally seen to take advantage
of these. Crows and Common Mynas are at-
tracted to these dry, dusty patches on account
of the movement of men and their cattle. The
Common Myna has some favourite roosting
trees along the river. Before flying into these
trees at dusk the Mynas use these dry slopes
as gathering stops where they assemble in
enormous numbers moving into the roosting
trees before sunset.

Commuting birds and birds seen in flight

The broad river channel of the Mutha
appears to provide a route to commuting birds.
In the morning Little Cormorants, Little and
Cattle and Intermediate Egrets, Common Mynas
and to a lesser extent Roseringed parakeets
appear to follow the river on their foraging
trips. They take the reverse route in the even-
ing. Pied Kingfishers are fond of travelling a
great deal along the river course. They favour
the deepish pools, perching on wires running
across the river or scanning the water surface
by hovering in the air. They probably require
a transparent surface and consequently were
seen to be common at places where the turbi-
dity index was low. In their beats up and
down the river they rarely stop to hover bet-
ween Sambhaji Bridge and Sangam. Gullbilled
terns and Marsh Harriers patrol the river to
and fro. The terns pick up insects and floating
debris from the surface while the Harrier
looks for larger prey. House Swifts, Eastern

Common and Redrumped Swallows and some-
times Little Pratincoles are seen to hawk in-
sects in the air.

Trees lining the banks between Vitthalwadi
and Dattawadi Bridge and again in the Bird
Sanctuary area are seen to be patronised by
such arboreal birds as Grey Hornbill, Golden
Oriole, Koel, Crimsonbreasted Barbet, lora.
Grey Tit, Crow-Pheasant, Small Minivet etc.
Even the call of the Grey Partridge could be
heard from cultivation opposite the Pumping
Station and near the Bird Sanctuary.

The winter of 1982-83

Between October 1982 and April 1983 syste-
matic observation and counts of birds were
carried out on the river Mutha and in the Bird
Sanctuary on the Mula-Mutha. Birds were
counted once every month while certain species
were singled out for more intensive counts and
observations. During this period 71 species of
birds were recorded on the rivers. Their distri-
bution according to habitat was:

Deep-water Habitat: 6
Shallow- water Habitat : 9
Marshland Habitat: 16
Dryland and Rocky Habitats: 24
Riverside Trees: 5
Birds in flight: 11

On any one day an average of 37 species
were noted on the river Mutha during this
period, with a total number of 1806 individuals.
In this stretch of about 6.5 km this number
gives an average density of 277 birds per kilo-
metre. This number does not include arboreal
birds seen on trees by the riverside. In the
Bird Sanctuary on an average 1490 individuals
belonging to 42 species were recorded on the
days of counts. This 1 . 5 km stretch thus gives
a density of 993 birds per kilometre.

As will be seen from Fig. 1 there are some

620

BIRDS OF A POLLUTED RIVER

621

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Table 2

Distribution of birds commonly seen along the mula-mutha, january-april 1983

(1)

Vitthalwadi to Garware

Bird The river-course
Species between : -

Jan

College Causeway
Feb Mar Apr

Little Cormorant

Little Egret

Median Egret

Cattle Egret

—

Pond Heron

Shoveller

—

Dabchik

Pintail

—

Garganey Teal

—

Coot

—

Redwattled Lapwing

Blackwinged Stilt

Gullbilled Tern

Green Bee-eater

Pied Kingfisher

Small Blue Kingfisher

White-breasted Kingfisher

Yellow Wagtail

(2) (3)

Garware College Bird

Causeway to the Sangam Sanctuary

Jan

Feb Mar

Apr

Jan

Feb

Mar Apr

—

L \

—

Fig. 3. Distribution of Birds in the Bird Sanctuary.

definite places where birds were seen to con-
gregate. These three places according to the
number of birds found there, are: 1. The
stretch between the Pumping Station and Datta-
wadi Bridge, 2 . The stretch between this
bridge and Garware College causeway, 3. The
stretch between the broken causeway behind
PMT bus terminus and Omkareshwar temple.
Fig. 3 shows the distribution of birds in the
Bird Sanctuary.

Fig. 2 shows birds at different places
along the river Mutha according to three broad
habitat types. As will be seen from the figure,
the number of birds seen along the edges of
the river was the highest followed by the num-
ber seen in deepish water. The number of
species seen along the edges was 15 while those

622

Distribution of more numerous birds along the mula-mutha, January 1983.

BIRDS OF A POLLUTED RIVER

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623

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

seen in deepish water was 7. Some of the
species like Blackwinged Stilt were common
to both these habitats. In the Bird Sanctuary
(Fig. 4) the number of species seen along the

Fig. 4. Distribution of Birds in the Bird Sanctuary
according to Habitat.

edges was 17 while in deepish water the num-
ber was 12. While counting these numbers such
species as House and Jungle Crow, Common
Myna, Pariah Kite and Little Brown Dove
which are not strictly river-birds are excluded.
In the bird count taken in March 1979, in
the Bird Sanctuary, 39 species had been re-
corded with a total number of about 1200
individuals (P. Gole 1980).

The quality of water where birds were seen
to concentrate, was also examined. As has been
pointed out in the section on water-quality,
the river takes on an increasing load of organic
pollution as it flows from Vitthalwadi on-

wards. It will now be' interesting to see if any
change in the composition of bird species in
different months on the stretches where birds
concentrated, can be detected. Table No. 2
gives this information. The table shows that in
the first two stretches the numbers of egrets,
stilts, dabchiks, and Gullbilled terns are low;
while these birds become more numerous from
Garware College causeway to Omkareshwar
temple. We have recorded in greater detail the
distribution of these species between January
and April. Table No. 3 shows their distribu-
tion along the entire river course. From this
it is clear that these birds are fewer where the
quality of water is better and drains do not over-
flow into the river. Their numbers progressive-
ly increase as the quality of water deteriorates
and its organic content goes up. It appears
that these birds have adopted the role of
scavengers along the river course. Special men-
tion should be made of Blackwinged Stilt.
These were found to be concentrated, at places
in very large numbers, where streams loaded
with faecal matter and drains flow into the
river. To a lesser extent this can be said to be
true of the three species of egrets also. Gull-
billed terns were also seen to patronize such
places in numbers and to swoop repeatedly to
pick up floating organisms.

As the summer advances and April gives
way to May, most of the migratory birds in-
cluding the hordes of Blackwinged Stilt which
make the dirty river so colourful, will have
left. June and July would see even the egrets
disappearing from the river. With the mon-
soon in full swing, floods roar down the river
channel and the turbulent stream appears to
cleanse itself of all the dirt that man continues
to heap on it.

Acknowledgements

The study formed a part of the much wider

624

BIRDS OF A POLLUTED RIVER

investigation aimed at drafting an eco-deve-
lopment plan for the improvement of Pune’s
river-fronts. This wider study was financed by
the Ecological Society of Pune. I was helped
in the field by Miss S. Limaye, Miss S. Ranje-
kar and Miss S. Jangam. The water-samples

Refer

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. Dillon (1968 & 1969):
Handbook of the Birds of India & Pakistan, Vols.

I and II. Oxford University Press.

were analysed by Shri Kirad of Kirloskar Con-
sultants Ltd. and Dr. Godbole of Vidnyan-
vardhini. Botanical specimens were identified
by Dr Vartak of Vidnyan-vardhini and Miss
Sane of Garware College. I thank all these
persons.

E N C E S

Gole, Praicasli (1980) : A March Bird Count In
Poona. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 77: 49-55.

625

ORCHIDS OF GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND AND THEIR

CONSERVATION1

D. K. Hore2 3 * and N. P. Balakrishnan5

The paper lists 33 taxa of orchids recorded so far from the Great Nicobar island,
emphasising the field observations, habitat and ornamental potentialities. Phytogeo-
graphical affinities of the species has been drawn up. Strategies and measures on
conservation of orchid species in the island has also been proposed. Several species
are illustrated with photographs.

Introduction

The Great Nicobar Island is a continental
island belonging to the Andaman and Nicobar
group of islands. It occupies a phytogeographi-
cally strategic position in the SE Asian tropics,
situated between mainland India, on the one
hand and Sumatra and Malay peninsula on
the other. The island has an area of 1045 sq.
km. and lies between 6°45'N and 7°15'N lati-
tudes and 93°37'E and 93°56'E longitudes.
This southernmost Indian land area is hardly
145 km away from Sumatra.

The topography of the island is highly
rugged. It has long narrow stretches of flat
land scattered along coasts and hilly ranges
running in north-south and east-west direc-
tions. The different hill ranges culminate in
the peak called Mount Thullier which is 670 m
high above m.s.l. The island is basically
mountainous with several rivers and perennial
streams. At some places the coastal areas are
fringed with coral reefs extending almost from
the shoreline to some considerable distance out
to the sea. There are no deep lagoons bet-

1 Accepted October 1982.

2 Department of Agricultural Engineering, Indian
Institute of Technology, Kharagpur-721 302, (W.B.).

3 Botanical Survey of India, Andaman & Nicobar

Circle, Port Blair-744 102.

ween the reef and shore. Dense forests occupy
about 85% of the whole island, starting from
the coastal forest zone to right up to the peaks.

The climate of the island is purely tropical.
The daily temperature ranges from 22° — 32°C
with mean relative humidity of about 82%.
The annual rainfall ranges from 300 to 380 cm.
April is the hottest month of the year. The
island is subjected to gales and cyclonic winds
changing in direction with the monsoons and
due to sudden depressions in the sea around.

The forests of Great Nicobar Island are
mainly evergreen with a few deciduous
elements. They consist of mostly tall trees,
palms, climbers, epiphytes and ferns. The
dense vegetation supports much diversity in
its species content. The vegetation can be
classified into six major types : 1) Beach for-
mations, 2) Saline swamps, 3) Lowland
littoral swamp forests (mixed with a few deci-
duous elements), 4) Riverain vegetation,

5) Inland forests of hills and low mountains
(mixed with a few deciduous elements), and

6) Secondary vegetation. There is hardly any
aquatic vegetation on the island due to lack
of freshwater ponds and lakes. Pure grass-
lands are not found, although a few weeds
come up very fast as secondary formations
due to the deforestation in certain areas of the
island.

626

ORCHIDS OF GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND

These continental islands of the Andaman
and Nicobar islands, which lie in the tropical
zone are very little explored, due to their isola-
tion and inaccessibility. But several expedi-
tions were undertaken to this island by bota-
nists like Kurz (1876), Sahni (1953), Thotha-
thri (1973) and Balakrishnan (1976-78). Bet-
ween 1979 and 1981, six field trips were under-
taken, each lasting more than a month, in
order to intensively study the floral constituents
of the island. All these field trips provided
rich collections and the orchids are enumer-
ated here in the following inventory.

All together 33 taxa of orchids belonging
to 26 genera have been recorded so far from
this island. The number of species is the
highest among the monocotyledonous families
so far known from this island. Some of these
species were studied earlier and categorised
as rare, endemic and endangered by Bala-
krishnan (1977, 1978).

In the enumeration of the species below,
emphasis is given on the habit, field observa-
tions on flowers, frequency of distribution,
habitats along with suggestions for introduc-
tion into gardens, and full citation of specimens
with localities and the herbaria in which they
are housed.

Enumeration

1 . Aerides emericii Reichb. f. in Gard.
Chron. 18(2): 586. 1882; Hook, f., FI. Brit.
India 6:47. 1890.

Epiphyte, inflorescence slender, c. 20-30
cm long; flowers pinkish. Frequent in coastal
as well as inland forests. Suitable for cultiva-
tion in gardens.

Flowers. April-May.

Fruits. June- July.

Specimens. 36 km on East-West road,

Balakrishnan 3956 (PBL); Campbell Bay,

Balakrishnan 5514 (PBL); Campbell Bay,

More 7281 (PBL, CAL); Kopenheat, Flore
8216 (PBL).

Distribution. Endemic to Nicobar Islands.

2. Anoectochilus nicobaricus Balakr. & P.
Chakrab. in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 20 : 80.
1978.

Terrestrial, erect herb, c. 15-30 cm; leaves
3-4, dark purplish with golden reddish reti-
culate venation above, dark brownish below;
inflorescence 4-8 flowered, solitary, terminal;
sepals greenish purple; lip white. In shaded
places on the inlands mixed forest floor. Rare
and hence necessary to propagate them in
Botanic Gardens. Commonly known as ‘Jewel
orchid’, this ornamental orchid can be culti-
vated in gardens.

Flowers. November-December.

Fruits. Unknown.

Specimens. 6 km on East-West road, P.
Chakraborty 3226 (PBL) ; Galathea river bank,
N. G. Nair 7147 (PBL).

Distribution. Endemic to Great Nicobar
Island.

3. Appendicula reflcxa Bl. Bijdr. 301. 1825.

Epiphyte, inflorescence mostly axillary;

peduncles short; flowers greenish white, c. 15
cm long, few-flowered. Rare in forests of
marshy coastal areas as well as shaded inland
forests.

Flowers. June- July.

Fruits. July onwards.

Specimens. 20 km on North-South Road,
Balakrishnan 3834 (PBL, CAL); Campbell
Bay to Chengappa Bay, Balakrishnan 6082
(PBL); Galathea river mouth, N. G. Nair 7125
(PBL).

Distribution. Great Nicobar Island, Thai-
land, Sumatra to New Guinea.

4. Ceratostylls sobelata Bl. Bijdr. 206. 1825.

Epiphyte, stem clustered, 15-20 cm; flowers

creamy-white or yellow, minute. Scarce in
shaded inland forests.

627

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Flowers. August-December.

Fruits. Unknown.

Specimens. Campbell Bay, Thothathri &
Banerjee 11419 (CAL); 17 km on East-West
Road, Balakrishnan 3033 (PBL, CAL, L);
Near Galathea Bridge on East- West Road,
N. G. Nair 7185 (PBL, CAL); Laful forest,
Hore 8785 (PBL).

Distribution. Great Nicobar Island, Burma,
Malaya and Java.

5. Cleisostoma uraiense (Hayata) Garay &
Sweet in Orch. S. Ryukyu Xsl. 156. 1974.
Sarcanthus uraiensis Hayata, Ic. PI. Formos.
8 : 130, f. 58. 1919.

Epiphyte; flowers on 15-20 cm long panicles,
on upper leaf axils; flowers greenish white; lip
white; fruits black when dry. Sparsely distri-
buted in coastal, littoral as well as inland
forests.

Flowers. July- August.

Fruits. September-October.

Specimens. Campbell Bay, Thothathri &
Banerjee 11346 (CAL, PBL); Campbell Bay,
Balakrishnan 2937 (PBL, CAL, L); Galathea
river to Pygmalion Point, Balakrishnan 3869
(PBL); Chengappa Bay, Hore 7721 (PBL);
4 km on North-South Road, Hore 8287 (PBL).

Distribution. Philippines, Taiwan and For-
mosa. Probably introduced and naturalized
in Great Nicobar Island.

6. Corymborkis veratrifolia (Reinw.) Bl. in
Coll. orch. Arch. Ind. 125 : tt. 42 E & 43.
1859. Hysteria veratrifolia Reinw. in Bot. Zeit.
2 : 5. 1825.

Terrestrial, c. 1 m or more, erect or a little
slender; flowers white in axillary panicle; fruits
greenish. Common in certain localities in
shaded inland and coastal littoral forests.
Valued as febrifuge in treating Malaria.

Flowers. June- July.

Fruits. August-September.

Specimens. Castiarina Bay and Pulokunio,

Thothathri & Banerjee 11559 (CAL); 20 km
North-South Road, Balakrishnan 3829 (PBL,
CAL, L); 25 km East- West Road, near Gala-
thea river, Balakrishnan 5797 (PBL); Pulo
Kunyi, Hore 8260 (PBL); Pygmalion Point,
littoral forest, Hore 8835 (PBL).

Distribution. Peninsular India, NE India,
Burma, Malaysia, Singapore, Java and Sri
Lanka.

7. Cymbidium pubescens Lindl. in Edw.
Bot. Reg. 26 : Misc. 75, 27, t. 38. 1841; Hook,
f. FI. Brit. India 6 : 11. 1890.

Epiphyte; inflorescence racemose, c. 15 cm;
stalk arising from rootstock, few flowered;
flowers brownish red; perianth with yellow
margins; lip with yellow spot at middle on disc.
An ornamental orchid, suitable for cultivation;
rare in shaded places in inland forests.

Flowers. August-September.

Fruits. Unknown.

Specimens. Campbell Bay, Balakrishnan
2799 (PBL, CAL).

Distribution. Great Nicobar Island, Burma,
Thailand, Malaya, Singapore and Indonesia.

8. Dendrobium anceps Sw. in Vet. Act.
Holm. 246. 1800.

Epiphytic slender herb; flowers from leaf
axils, solitary or paired, white or creamy
yellow; lip yellowish inside. Common in in-
land mixed or evergreen forests.

Flowers. June-December.

Fruits. Not known.

Specimens. Campbell Bay, Balakrishnan
2948 (PBL, CAL); 30 km on East-West Road,
Balakrishnan 4012 (PBL, CAL); Campbell
Bay to Chengappa Bay, Balakrishnan 5696
(PBL, CAL); 26 km on East-West Road,
N. G. Nair 7189 (PBL, CAL); Chingenh,
Hore 8850 (PBL).

Distribution. NE. India, Burma, Thailand
and Indo-China.

628

ORCHIDS OF GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND

9. Desidrobium crumewatum Sw. in Schrad.
J. Bot, 2 : 237. 1799.

Epiphyte, often leafless when in flowers,
pseudobulb 20-45 cm; flowers from naked
nodes, solitary, white, sweet-scented. Scattered
along coastal and inland forests in shaded
places. An ornamental herb, popularly known
as ‘Pigeon Orchid’, can be cultivated in gardens.

Flowers. April-August.

Fruits. Unknown.

Specimens. Campbell Bay, Balakrishnan
2933 (PBL); Kopenheat to Koshindon, Bala-
krishnan 4028 (PBL, CAL); 14-15 km on
North-South Road, Balakrishnan 5845 (PBL);
Galathea Bay, Thothathri & Banerjee 11480
(CAL); Campbell Bay, More 8820 (PBL).

Distribution. Sri Lanka, India, Burma,
Indo-China, Taiwan, Malaya, Java and the
Philippines.

10. Dendrobium pensile Ridl. in J. Linn.
Soc. 32 : 253. 1896 et FI. Mai. Pen. 4 : 40.
1924.

Epiphytic, drooping herb; leaves alternate;
flowers axillary, small, white. Scarce in low-
land forests near coastal areas.

Flowers. June- July.

Fruits. August-September.

Specimens. 15 km on North-South Road,
Balakrishnan 6081 (PBL); 41 km on East-
West Road, More 8235 (PBL).

Distribution. Nicobar Islands, Malaya and
Singapore.

11. Eria bractescecis Lindl. in Edw. Bot.
Reg. 27. 1841, et Misc. 18: 30, t. 29. 1844.

Epiphyte; inflorescence in spikes, c. 10-13
cm long, showy; flowers white; lip. with red-
dish lamellae on disc; column with red patches.
Scattered in beach and inland forests. Ideal
orchid for gardens as they can be easily
cultivated.

Flowers. May- June.

Fruits. July-August.

Specimens. Galathea Bay, Thothathri and
Banerjee 11466 (CAL); Great Nicobar Island,
Balakrishnan 5627 (PBL, CAL).

Distribution. NE India, Andaman & Nico-
bar islands, Burma, Malaya, Singapore, Java
and the Philippines.

12. Eria bractescens Lindl. var. kurzia Hook,
f. FI. Brit. India 5: 797. 1890.

Epiphyte; flowers white with pinkish brown
lip. Mostly seen in beach forests associated
with ferns; can be introduced into gardens.

Flowers. March-May.

Fruits. Unknown.

Specimens. Campbell Bay, Thothathri &
Banerjee 11312 (CAL).

Distribution. Endemic to Andaman & Nico-
bar islands.

13. FMckingeria fimbriafa (Bl.) Hawkes in
Orch. Weekly 2, 46 : 454. 1961. Desmotricum
fimbriatum Bl. Bijdr. 329. 1825.

Epiphyte; flowers solitary from leaf axils;
petals and sepals creamy white or white; lip
fringed with purple or brown-red spots on up-
curved lateral lobes. Scarce along mixed low-
land forests. Prolonged flowering plant suit-
able for introduction into gardens.

Flowers. June-December.

Fruits. Unknown.

Specimens. Pulo babi. Salmi 23018 (DD);
Near Kopenheat, Balakrishnan 3904 (PBL,
CAL); 25 km on East-West Road, Bala-
krishnan 5789 (PBL); 31 km on East-West
Road, Hore 8232 (PBL).

Distribution. India, Sri Lanka, Malaya,
Java and the Philippines.

14. Goodyera procera (Ker-Gawl.) Hook. f.
in Exot FI. 1 : 3, t. 39. 1823 et FI. Brit. India
6 : 111. 1890. Neottia procera Ker-Gawl. in
Bot. Reg. 8 : t. 639. 1822.

Terrestrial, erect herb, c. 0.2-0.3 m, inflore-
scence a terminal spike; flowers greenish-white,
fragrant. Popularly known as ‘Rattle snake’

629

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Orchid. Seen along rocky, shaded, stream-
sides in humid places; very rare in the island.

Flowers. May- June.

Fruits. July- August.

Specimens. Navy Dera, Hore 7592 (PBL).

Distribution. India, Sri Lanka, Burma,
Indo-China, Malaya, Java, the Philippines,
Taiwan and Japan.

15. Hetaeria ofeliqua Bl. in coll. Orch. Arch.
Ind. 104, t. 34, f. 1. 1858.

Terrestrial orchid, c. 1 m high; flowers in
terminal spikes; petals creamy; column yellow.
Rare in inland forests on shaded humus
covered forest floors.

Flowers. March-April.

Fruits. Unknown.

Specimens. Campbell Bay, Thothathri &
Banerjee 11416 (CAL); Casuarina Bay,
Thothathri 8l Banerjee 11566 (CAL).

Distribution. Nicobar Islands, Malaya and
Indonesia.

16. Hetaeria oblosigifolia (Bl.) Bl. in Coll.
Orch. Arch. Ind. 102, t. 32. 1858. Etaeria
oblongifolia Bl. Bijdr. 410, f. 14. 1825.

Terrestrial herb, c. 0.5 m erect; flowers in
terminal spike, whitish yellow; dried fruits
brown. Rare in low hilly moist forest floor.

Flowers. March-April.

Fruits. May onwards.

Specimen : Laful forest, Hore 7782 (PBL).

Distribution : Nicobar Islands, Bangladesh,
Burma, Thailand, Malaya, Java, the Philip-
pines, New Guinea and Australia.

17. Luisia teretifolia Guad. in Freyc. Voy.
Uranie et Physic. Bot. 427, t. 37. 1829.

Crowded epiphyte without pseudobulb, rigid,
terete; leaves terete; flowers small, few in axil-
lary spikes, short ped uncled, purplish green;
fruits pale greenish yellow. Scarce along low
inland forests.

Flowers. May- June.

Fruits. July.

Specimens. Kopenheat to Koshindon, Bala-
krishnan 4031 (PBL, CAL); 4 km on East-
West road, R. P. Dwivedi 8507 (PBL).

Distribution. Sri Lanka, Peninsular India,
NE. India, China, Burma, Malaysia, Indo-
nesia, the Philippines and New Caledonia.

18. Nerviiia punctata (Bl.) Makino in Bot.
Mag. Tokyo 16 : 199. 1902. Pogonia punctata
Bl. Mus. Bot. Lugd.-Bat. 1 : 32, 1849.

Terrestrial, rhizomatous herb, c. 11 cm;
leaf solitary, simple, palmate, slightly reddish,
purple beneath; flowers pale yellowish green
with a few scattered purplish spots inside.
Scarce in inland hill forests, prefers shade and
grows well on humus covered soil. A plant
suitable for pot culture. Used as medicine in
Asiatic tropics.

Flowers. April-May.

Fruits. Unknown.

Specimens. Campbell Bay to Chengappa
Bay, Balakrishnan 5709 (PBL, CAL); Near
Shompen hut, 36.8 km on East- West Road,
Balakrishnan 5817 (PBL, CAL).

Distribution. Great Nicobar Island, Thai-
land, Malaysia and Indonesia.

19. Phalaenopsis speciosa Reichb. f. in
Gard. Chron. n.s. 15 : 562 1881; Flook. f. FI.
Brit. India 6: 30. 1890.

Epiphyte with long aerial roots, inflorescence
stalk c. 15-30 cm; peduncle 2.5-3 cm long;
flowers spreading, c. 3-3.5 x 4-4.5 cm; lip with
deep purple or reddish tinge. Scarce in deep
interior of inland forest. Flowers longlasting
and useful in cut-flower trade. Conservation
in botanic gardens is necessary as the wild
population is restricted and endangered and
threatened with extinction.

Flowers. May-August.

Fruits. Unknown.

Specimens. Laful forest, Hore 7767 (PBL).

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ORCHIDS OF GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND

Distribution. Endemic to Andaman & Nico-
bar islands.

20. Phalaenopsis speciosa Reichb. f. van
tetraspis (Reichb. f.) Sweet in Amer. Orch.
Soc. Bull. 37: 1092. 1968. Phalaenopsis tetraspis
Reichb. f., Xenia Orchid. 2: 146. 1868; Hook,
f. FI. Brit. India 6: 30. 1890.

Epiphyte; inflorescence stalk c. 12-40 cm,
long; flowers in spikes, white reddish trans-
verse patches inside; lip yellowish, hairy. Rare
and rather uncommon in dense inland forests.
Flowers longlasting, hence suitable for culti-
vation in gardens.

Flowers. May-November.

Fruits. Not known.

Specimens. 17 km towards East-West Road,
P. Chakraborty 3212 (PBL, CAL, AMES);
Navy Dera, Hore 7289 (PBL).

Distribution. Andaman & Nicobar islands
and Java.

21. Pholidota pallida Lindl. in Bot. Reg.
sub. t. 1777. 1836.

Epiphyte, pseudobulb oblong; inflorescence
in spike, longer than leaf length; flowers white.
Rare in beach and littoral forests.

Flowers. August-October.

Fruits. November-December.

Specimens. Way to Chengappa Bay, Tho-
thathri & Banerjee 11437 (CAL); Campbell
Bay, Balakrishnan 3028 (PBL, CAL, L);
Baludera, Hore 6763 (PBL, CAL); Dogmar
river bank, Hore 7972 (PBL).

Distribution. Andaman and Nicobar island,
Burma, Indo-China, Malaya, Java, the Philip-
pines and Australia.

22. Plocoglottis javanica Bl. Bijdr. t. 21.
1825; Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 6: 22. 1890.

Terrestrial, slender or erect herb, c. 60 cm;
leaves arising from rootstock; petioles c. 20
cm long; inflorescence longer than leaves;
peduncle reddish green; flowers pale yellow

or white with purple or red spots inside.
Sparsely distributed in shaded humus covered
forest floor in dense inland forests.

Flovsers. July-November.

Fruits. Unknown.

Specimens. 35 km on East-West Road, Bala-
krishnan 3989 (PBL, CAL); Laful to Navy
Dera, Hore 7743 (PBL).

Distribution. Great Nicobar Island, Burma,
Thailand, Malaya, Sumatra and Java.

23. Podochilus mlcrophyllus Lindl. Gen.
Sp. Orch. 234. 1835; Hook. f. FI. Brit. India
6: 81. 1890.

Epiphyte; flowers solitary, terminal, white
with a combination of purple lines on each
sepal and purple patches at the centre of
petals. Few or scattered in shaded inland
forests and edges of forests.

Flowers. December.

Fruits. July.

Specimens. 35 km on East-West Road,
Balakrishnan 3892 (PBL, CAL); 30 km on
East-West Road, N. G. Nair 7204 (PBL).

Distribution. Great Nicobar Island, Burma,
Thailand, Malaya, Sumatra and Java.

24. Pomatocalpa andamanicum (Hook, f.) J.
J. Smith in Nat. Tijdschr. Ned. Ind. 72: 103.
1912. Cleisostoma andamanicum Hook. f. FI.
Brit. India 6: 71. 1890.

Epiphyte; flowers white; fruits green. Rare
in Great Nicobar Island, found in beach
forests.

Flowers March-May.

Fruits. April onwards.

Specimens. Campbell Bay, Thothathri &
Banerjee 11313 (CAL); Campbell Bay, Bala-
krishnan 2937 (PBL, CAL, L).

Distribution. Endemic to Andaman & Nico-
bar Islands.

25. Pomatocalpa wendlandorum (Reichb.
f.) J. J. Smith in Nat. Tijdschr. Ned. Ind. 72:
108. 1912. Cleisostoma wendlandorum Reichb.

631

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

f. iii Otto & Dietr. Allgemein. Gartenz. 24:
219. 1856; Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 6: 74. 1890.

Epiphyte; inflorescence 5-10 cm, arising
from root axils; flowers in racemes, creamy
yellow with pinkish-brown striations; fruits
green. Frequent in beach forests. Can be culti-
vated in gardens.

Flowers. March-April.

Fruits. May onwards.

Specimens. Way to Chengappa Bay from
Campbell Bay, Thothathri & Banerjee 11436
(CAL); Laful, Hore 7590 (PBL, CAL).

Distribution. Andaman and Nicobar islands,
Assam and Burma.

26. Pteroceras feerkeleyli (Reichb. f.) Holtt.
in Kew Bull. 14 (2): 269. 1960; Thrixsper-
mum berkeleyii Reichb. f. in Gard. Chron. ser.
2, 17: 557. 1882.

Epiphyte; inflorescence axillary racemes,
17-20 cm long, somewhat pendulous; pedun-
cles 2-2.5 cm; flowers white, delicate; fruits
c. 14 cm long, needle-like. Rare in dense inland
humid forests. This orchid with attractive
flowers is suitable for cultivation in gardens.

Flowers 8t Fruits. May- June.

Specimens. Laful, Hore 8722 (PBL).

Distribution. Andaman and Nicobar islands
and Malaya.

27. Spathoglottis plicata Bl. Bijdr. 401, t.
76. 1825.

Terrestrial, erect herb, c. 60-100 cm high;
inflorescence stalk directly arising from the
rootstock and about double the length of the
leaves; flowers pink, velvety purple or reddish,
crowded at apex, fruits oblong. Open sunny
hillslopes, at 25-200 m altitude; frequently seen
in large populations. Very easily cultivable and
suitable for gardens.

Flowers & Fruits. June-November.

Specimens. 12 km on East- West Road, P.
Chakraborty 3214 (PBL); 36 km East -West

Road, Balakrishnan 3957 (PBL); 33 km East-
West Road, Balakrishnan 5741 (PBL, CAL);
27 km East- West Road, Hore 6770 (PBL,
CAL); 39 km East-West Road, Hore 8207
(PBL).

Distribution. Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
Thailand, Combodia, Vietnam, Taiwan, Malaya,
Java, the Philippines and New Guinea.

28. Thelasls pygmaea Lindl. in J. Linn. Soc.
3: 63. 1859; Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 6: 86.
1890; Yoganarasimhan et al. in Curr. Sci. 50:
284, 1981.

Small epiphyte; flowers small, crowded, pale
green. Rare in roadside forests and edges of
forests.

Flowers. April-May.

Fruits. Not known.

Specimens'. North-South Road, near Camp-
bell Bay, Simhan et al. 659 (RRCBI).

Distribution. NE India, Sikkim, Nicobar
Islands, Nepal and Burma.

29. Thrixspermum hystrix (Bl.) Reichb. f.
in Trans. Linn. Soc. 30: 14. 1874. Dendrocolla
hystrix Bl. Bijdr. 291. 1825.

Epiphyte; inflorescence arising directly from
leaf axils; stalk 4-6 cm long; flowers yellow;
fruits 6.5-8 cm long, pointed at both ends.
Rare in dense inland forests.

Flowers. May- June.

Fruits. July- August.

Specimens. Laful, Hore 8782 (PBL).

Distribution. Andaman and Nicobar islands,
Burma, Thailand, Malaya, Sumatra, Java and
Borneo.

30. Trichoglottis cirrhifera Teysm. & Binn.
in Nat. Tijdschr. Ned. 493. 1853.

Epiphyte; flowers solitary, axillary; sepals
and petals pinkish brown but labellum white
with 2-lilac spots. Rare in beach forests.

Flowers. March.

Fruits. Not known.

632

ORCHIDS OF GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND

Specimens. Campbell Bay, Thothathri Sc
Banerjee 11307 (CAL).

Distribution. Nicobar Islands, Thailand,
Malaya and Java.

31. Trichoglottis orelildea (Koenig) Garay
in Bot. Mus. Lead. Harvard Univ. 23 (4) : 209.
1972. Epidendrum orchideum Koenig in Retz.
Observ. Bot. 6: 48. 1791.

Epiphyte, pendulous; flowers solitary arising
from a little above of the leaf; flowers c. 1.5
cm long; sepals and petals reddish orange; lip
white with pink spots at middle; spur white.
Frequent in shaded inland forests; can be
cultivated in greenhouses.

Flowers. August-February.

Fruits. Not known.

Specimens. Campbell Bay, Balakrishnan
2912 (PBL, CAL); 41 km on East-West Road,
R. P. Dwivedi 7870 (PBL).

Distribution. Peninsular India, Nicobar
Islands and Malaya.

32. Vanilla andamanica Rolfe in Kew Bull.
237. 1918.

Climber; leaves 15-20 x 3. 5-4. 5 cm, oppo-
site, acuminate; capsule 15 x 2.5 cm, green.
Common in shaded places in inland forests.
The capsules can be used for extraction of
Vanilla essence if properly cured; potentially
useful for cultivation.

Flowers. April- June.

Fruits. July- August.

Specimens. 20 km on North-South Road,
Balakrishnan 3833 (PBL, CAL, L)
Distribution. Endemic to Andaman and
Nicobar Islands.

33. Vrydagzynea albida (Bl.) Bl. in Orch.
Arch. Ind. 75, t. 19. f. 2. 1858; Hook. f. FI.
Brit. India 6: 97. 1890.

Etaeria albida Bl. Bijdr. 410. 1825.

Terrestrial, decumbent herb, c. 20 cm; leaves
alternate; flowers terminal and condensed to-

gether, white. Rare along shaded streamsides
on clayey loam.

Flowers. July- August.

Fruits. September-October.

Specimens. 37 km on East-West Road, on
Path to Shompen village, Balakrishnan 3979/1
(PBL).

Distribution. Great Nicobar Islands, Bangla-
desh, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia,
Indonesia and the Philippines.

Phytogeography

The phytogeographical relationship of the
flora of Great Nicobar Island was not suffi-
ciently known to the botanical world. The con-
jecture of Jacobs (1978), that the flora may
be closely related to the Sumatran flora, is
now found to be true. Based on the Orchids
we find that the floristic affinities of the island
are predominantly Indonesian and Malaysian
and to some extent related to Burmese-Thailand
elements. From the geographic situation of the
island, the Malaysian and Indonesian elements
are certainly to be expected in its flora.

Rapid accumulation of data regarding the
orchid elements in this island and those of
adjacent regions or countries greatly help
us for a better understanding of the phyto-
geography of individual genera and species.
It is now known that some genera are highly
developed in distant regions but have single
or a few representatives in the Malaysian re-
gion. Thus, Cleisostoma uraiensis earlier re-
ported only from the Philippines, Taiwan and
Formosa, is now found in fairly good popula-
tions in this island.

The orchids of Nicobar Islands show closer
affinities with the Indonesian rather than
Burmese- Andamanese elements. A few ende-
mic species like Eria bractescens var. kurzii,
Phalaenopsis speciosa, P. speciosa var. tetraspis,

633

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 81

Pomatocalpa andamanicum, Pteroceras berke-
leyii and Vanilla andamanica occur both in
Andaman and Nicobar group of islands. While
Aerides emericii is restricted to the Nicobar
group of island. Anoectochilus nicobaricus is
restricted to the Great Nicobar island only.

Representatives of even more widely distri-
buted species such as Corymborkis veratrijolia,
Dendrobium crumenatum, Goodyera procera,
Luisia teretifolia, Pholidota pallida and Vryda-
gzynea albida which extends up to Sri Lanka
and peninsular India occur in this island.
Some of these reach even the Himalayan
regions also. Spathoglottis plicata is distribut-
ed almost throughout Malaysia, but does not
extend northwards beyond Tenasserim in
Burma. Thelasis pygmaea, a Himalayan species
has been recently discovered from this island.

Except for Spathoglottis plicata (up to 100
m altitude), there is no altitudinal restriction
for orchid habitats in the island. Phalaenopsis
speciosa prefers a rather humid climate.

Conservation

The conservation of threatened species
serves the positive purposes of providing genetic
reservoirs, making significant contributions to
modern agriculture, horticulture, pharmaceu-
ticals and industrial processes in all parts of
the world.

Human activities threaten some species and
habitats more than others. As man’s number
increases and as each generation becomes
more demanding, his environment and plant
heritage will be affected. In this process man
finds himself creating inexorable changes. In
case of orchids, Beckner (1979) estimated that
a possible 200 billion orchid plants are being
destroyed every year due to human activities
either through agricultural land clearing around

the world, or collection for horticultural trade.
Naturally, the need for conservation of orchid
species is of paramount importance today.
Many articles have been written (Ayensu
1975, Hunt 1968, Melville 1971, Peterson
1974, Pradhan, M. G. 1974, Pradhan, U. C.
1975), expressing intense concern and aware-
ness of the orchid conservation problems. As
a major step on conservation strategy and its
execution and regulation of trade in wild
orchids, the criteria discussed by Ayensu &
Defilipps (1981) are worth following.

Though the Great Nicobar Island is small
with an area of about 1045 sq. km, there exists
many valuable wild orchids in the primary
forests, occupying about 85% of the land area.
At present only about 40% of the land area has
been botanically explored and this itself yielded
about 33 orchid taxa so far. No doubt more
species would be collected when the unexplo-
red areas are intensively surveyed.

Despite our limited knowledge about the
genetic reservoirs, it is a certainity that this
island contains germ-plasm materials of many
wild relatives of cultivated species in localized
pockets. Hence their conservation in situ is
indispensible and simultaneously it is necessary
to ascertain frequently their protection status
also. The primary objective of a rational con-
servation policy is to preserve viable population
of as many species as possible that inhabit the
pristine primary forests. To achieve this the
following steps are suggested :

1) To preserve and protect a large area,
rather than only small pockets of habitats.
This is easy because three fourths of the
forest area of the island is still virgin. It
should be effectively buffered against
human onslaught and natural disasters.
For this a large area of primary virgin
forests should be declared as Biosphere
reserve with sufficient buffer zone around.

634

ORCHIDS OF GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND

2) To check the growth of human population
by putting a complete stop on any further
settlement on the island.

3) To maintain in botanic gardens, species
suggested for ornamental propagation
along with their range of genetic diversity
is necessary. This is extremely important
as emphasized by Schoser (1977).

Refer

Ayensu, E. S. (1975) : Endangered and threatened
orchids of the United States. Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull.
44 : 384-394.

Ayensu, E. S. & De Filipps, R. A. (1981) : The
international regulation of trade in endangered
species of wild orchids. Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull.
50(8) : 959-967.

Balakrishnan, N. P. (1976) : Our orchids. The
A. & N. information. 153-165. Port Blair.

(1977) : Recent botanical

Studies in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Bull. Bot.
Surv. India 19 : 132-138.

& Chakraborty, P. (1978) :

Descriptive notes on some new or little known
orchids of Nicobar Islands, ibid. 20: 80-90.

Beckner, J. (1979) : Are orchids endangered?
Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 48(10) : 1010-1017.

Hunt, P. F. (1968) : Conservation of Orchids.
Orch. Rev. 76 : 320-327.

Jacobs, M. (1978) : Expeditions and other explo-
rations. FI. Males. Bull. 31 : 2988-2991.

Kurz, S. (1876) : A sketch of the vegetation of

4) To conduct field research and data collec-
tion on pollination biology of orchid
species is another interesting aspect which
can be done successfully only in this
undisturbed wild conditions.

Only through this, it would be possible to
save the rare valuable species of orchids of
Great Nicobar Island.

E N C E S

the Nicobar Islands. J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 45(3) :
105-164.

Melville, R. (1971) : Conservation of orchids.
Orch. Rev. 79 (931) : 21-22.

Peterson, R. (1974) : Conservation conversation.
Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 43 : 99.

Pradhan, M. G. (1974) : Orchid conservation in
India. Amer. Orch. Soc. Bull. 43 : 135-139.

Pradhan, U. C. (1975) : Conservation of Eastern
Himalayan Orchids — Problems and prospects-I, II,
III. Orch. Rev. 83 : 314-317; 345-347 and 374.

Sahni, K. C. (1953) : Botanical exploration in
the Great Nicobar Island. Indian Forester 79(1) :
3-16.

Schoser, G. (1977) : The conservation of tropi-
cal orchids. In The Role and Goals of Tropical
Botanic Gardens (ed. B. C. Stone) : 175-179.

Penerbit Universiti, Malaya, Kuala Lumpur.

Thothathri, K., Banerjee, S. P., Mukerjee, P.
K., Hajra, P. IC. & Pal, G. D. (1973): Botanical
results of the joint scientific expedition to the Great
Nicobar Island. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 15: 235-265.

635

IS HABITAT DESTRUCTION IN INDIA AND PAKISTAN
BEGINNING TO AFFECT THE STATUS OF ENDEMIC

PASSERINE BIRDS 71

A. J. Gaston2

The status and distribution of endemic passerine birds in India and Pakistan was
examined to test the hypothesis that, in areas where human degradation of natural
ecosystems is very pervasive, continental passerine species may become vulnerable
to extinction. Species were classified according to their distribution, habitat satura-
tion and abundance. The initial hypothesis was supported by the evidence and

Pakistan was identified as an area affected
Introduction

Interest in the fate of endangered birds has
centred mainly on large, spectacular species,
such as the Great Indian Bustard Choriotis
nigriceps and the Siberian Crane Grus leuco-
geranus, or insular forms such as the Laysan
Finch Psittirostra cantans or the various Haw-
aiian Honeycreepers (Halliday 1980). Small
continental species do not generally merit
such concern with a few prominent exceptions
(Kirtland’s Warbler Dendroica kirtlandii,
Noisy Scrub-bird Atrichohrnis clamosus).

The resilience of continental passerine spe-
cies compared with non-passerines stems from
the high densities that they maintain, allowing
adequate populations to survive in relatively
small patches of habitat. However, with the
continuing conversion of ecosystems from
natural to man-made configurations, we may
anticipate the fragmentation of species popula-
tions sufficient to qualify for the attention of
conservationists.

Because of the antiquity of human settle-

1 Accepted December 1983.

2 Canadian Wildlife Service, Ottawa, Ontario KIA
OE7, Canada.

particularly badly.

ments and cultivation in India and Pakistan
(Thapar 1966, Allchin & Allchin 1968) and
the very high density of population maintain-
ing over many centuries over most of the
area (e.g., Bose et al. 1965), natural ecosys-
tems occurring in the Indo-gangetic plain and
the Deccan plateau have been virtually eradi-
cated. They have been replaced, in areas
suitable for agriculture, with intensive culti-
vation, and in most other areas with derelict
scrub and semi-desert communities (Eckholm
1979, Baig 1980).

I have examined the status of endemic pas-
serines in India and Pakistan to test the hypo-
thesis that species characteristic of the heavily
disturbed lowland ecosystems of the Indo-
gangetic plain and the peninsular India may
show signs of increased rates of extinction, or
vulnerability to extinction. I have based my
assessment on personal observations made
over the last twelve years throughout India
and Pakistan, augmented by those of T. J.
Roberts for Pakistan, combined with descrip-
tions of status given by Ali & Ripley (1969-
74) and others. I have confined my appraisals
of status to Pakistan and India east to about
West Bengal which is the area over which
my own experience extends and I have omitted

636

HABITAT DESTRUCTION AND STATUS OF ENDEMIC BIRDS

Sri Lanka, with its varied endemic avifauna,
and the Andaman Islands.

I have classified each species according to
three criteria :

(1) Distribution. Each species is assigned to
one of four eco-geographical areas (see
below) on the basis of its present distri-
bution.

(2) Habitat saturation. Species are classified
as (a) continuous, present in all suitable
habitat; (b) local, absent from some
areas of apparently suitable habitat within
its overall range; (c) very local, present
in only a few isolated pockets.

(3) Abundance. Species are ranked based

, on numbers generally encountered in the

course of a day’s birdwatching in suitable
habitat : (a) abundant, >100; (b) com-
mon, 10-100; (c) scarce, 1-10; (d)
rare, < 1.

Inevitably, I have had to be somewhat sub-
jective in my choice of “endemics”. Although
I have only considered Pakistan, India and
Western Nepal in my appraisals of status, I
have dealt with all species which are endemic
to the temperate western Himalayas, including
some which extend into Afghanistan, and some
species of the Indo-gangetic Hood plain which
extend into lowland Burmah.

Distribution and Ecology

I have divided the endemic species under
consideration into four groups based on pre-
sent distributions and ecology :

(1) Species with distribution centred on the
Indo-gangetic plain associated mainly with
waterside vegetation, and hence presum-
ably forming part of the fauna of the
seasonally inundated flood-plain forests
and grasslands that must originally have
covered much of the plains prior to the
introduction of agriculture. This area

now supports a very high density of
human population; more than 400. km*2
(Bose et al. 1965).

(2) Species found mainly in the dry rolling
plateau of the Deccan. This area was
formerly covered in deciduous forest,
particularly Teak Tectona grandis. Al-
though considerable areas of forest re-
main, these are much affected by distur-
bance, particularly grazing. Large areas
have been felled, some of which have been
replanted as monocultures, but large areas
support only a derelict open scrub
(Baig 1980).

(3) Species occurring in the high rainfall
moist-deciduous and evergreen forests of
southwest India and the Western Ghats.
This forest has been much reduced by
commercial timber extraction and the
construction of hydro power dams, but
moderate areas of seminatural forest re-
main except in the narrow strip of coastal
plain where natural forest has been practi-
cally eliminated.

(4) Species occurring in the temperate forests
of the Himalayas and associated moun-
tains as far east as central Nepal. This
encompasses species living at altitudes
above those characteristic of species found
in the adjacent plains (area 1), but below
those characteristic of arctic-alpine habi-
tats, most of which extend into Tibet and
central Asia (Vaurie 1972). Forests in
this zone consist mainly of mixed ever-
green oaks ( Quercus spp.) and conifers.
Although large areas of forest have been
destroyed by timber extraction, there are
still substantial areas of intact natural
forest (Gaston et al. 1983). *

Results

The endemic species considered are listed

637

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 81

Table 1

Status of endemic passerine species in India and Pakistan, south of the great Himalayan range

Species

Distribution
(Area #)

Habitat

Saturation

Abundance Notes

Sturnus contra

Continuous

Abundant

Well adapted to man-

Acridotheres ginginianus

Continuous

Abundant

made environments

Chrysomma altirostre

Local

Rare

Western race, C. a.
scindicum disjunct,
probably rare

Turdoides earlei

Local

Common

Western race, T. e.
sonivius very local,
probably not very
numerous

Prinia biirnesii

Very local

Uncommon

Western race, P. b.
burnesii disjunct,
probably not numerous

Saxicola leucura

Very local

Uncommon

Passer pyrrhonotus

Very local

Uncommon

Ploceus megarhynchus

Very local

Uncommon

Ploceus benghalensis

Local

Common

P crier ocotus erythropy gius

Local

Uncommon

Mira fra erythroptera

Local

Uncommon

Abundance hard to judge
because species is very
similar to M. assamica

Pycnonotus xantholaemus

Local

Uncommon

Pycnonotus lut coins

Local

Uncommon

Turdoides malcolmi

Continuous

Common

Well adapted to
agricultural land

Parus nuchalis

Local

Uncommon

Estrilda formosa

Local

Uncommon

Prinia buchanani

Continuous

Common

Chaetornis striatus

Very local

Uncommon

Skulking, status may be
better than it appears

Saxicola macrorhyncha

Very local

Rare

Cercomela fusca

Local

Common

Pycnonotus priocephalus

Local

Uncommon

Turdoides subrufus

Local

Common

Often numerous on tea
estates

Garrulax cachinnans

Local

Common

Garrulax jerdoni

Local

Common

Myiophoneus horsfieldii

Continuous

Common

638

HABITAT DESTRUCTION AND STATUS OF ENDEMIC BIRDS

Muscicapa pallipes

Local

Uncommon

Hard to see because of

Muscicapa nigrorufa

Local

Uncommon

dense habitat

Schoenicola platyura

Local

Rare

Skulking, possibly
commoner than appears

Brachypteryx major

Local

Uncommon?

Common according to
Ali & Ripley (1972)

Nectarinia minima

Continuous

Common

Turdoides nipalensis

Very local

Common

Garrulax variegatus

Continuous

Common

Phylloscopus tytleri

Local

Uncommon

Hard to identify

Phylloscopus subviridis

Local

Common

Parus melanolophus

Continuous

Abundant

Aegithalos leucogenys

Local

Uncommon

Aegithalos niveogularis

Continuous

Uncommon

Mycerobas icterioides

Continuous

Abundant

Callacanthis burtoni

Very local

Common

Pyrrhula aurantiaca

Local

Uncommon

in Table 1. Three of the species of area 1
comprise more or less disjunct races split bet-
ween the Indus and Ganges valleys. In all
cases the western (Indus) populations are
local or very local and may warrant conserva-
tion measures soon, particularly Chrysomma
altirostre. Passer pyrrhonotus is confined to the
Indus but appears to have adapted to tree-lined
irrigation canals (T. J. Roberts, pers comm.).
Ploceus megarhynchus is found only in a few
localities in northern Uttar Pradesh in season-
ally inundated grasslands (Ali& Crook 1959)
and the status of this species invites concern.

In area 2, Saxicola macrorhyncha and Chae-
tornis striatus seem sufficiently uncommon to
require attention, although the latter is a skul-
king species, easily overlooked, and may be
more common than it appears. The minivet,
PericYOcotus erythropygius, has certainly be-
come less common around Delhi in the last
50 years and its status elsewhere may warrant
investigation (cf. Basil-Edwards 1926, Gan-
guli 1976, pers. obs.). Three other species
appear to be local and uncommon, but area
2 is very large and with many remnant patches
of forest it is hard to assess the status of

forest birds such as P. erythropygius, Pams
nuchalis and Pycnonotus xantholaemus.

The status of species in area 3 is easier to
assess than that of species in area 2, because
the area of typical forest vegetation is much
smaller and extensive surveys have been car-
ried out recently by Kerala Forest Research
Institute and Calicut University researchers.
Only Schoenicola platyura appears rare, but
as in the case of Chaetornis striatus, the
species is hard to locate and may be common-
er than it seems. Five other species are local
and uncommon and could easily become vul-
nerable to extinction with further reduction
of their preferred habitats.

Area 4, like area 3, can be fairly accurately
assessed because it is small and has been fre-
quently visited by ornithologists during the
past 20 years (e.g., Gaston et al. 1981). The
status of Phylloscopus tytleri is hard to judge
because the species is very difficult to identify
in the field; it may be fairly common within
its small range. P. subviridis is sufficiently
common in its winter range in the north Indian
plains to indicate that it is fairly numerous
somewhere, although its breeding area is not

639

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

well known. Probably none of the species
from area 4 warrant concern at present.

Discussion

The initial hypothesis that areas where al-
terations to the natural ecosystems have been
greatest will have the greatest proportion of
species which are local /very local and un-
common/rare seems to be supported by the
present analysis (Table 2). Areas 1 and 2,

Table 2

Proportion of species in four eco-geographical

AREAS OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT FALLING IN
DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF DISTRIBUTION AND
ABUNDANCE

Area

Local /V.
local

Uncommon/

Rare

Local/V.

local/

Common

Continuous/

Uncommon

Continuous/

Common

Abundant

5(55%)

8(72%)

5(50%)

3(30%)

Total

Combining Areas 1 and 2 (highly disturbed), and 3
and 4 (less disturbed) and columns 2 and 3 (not
vulnerable), Chi2, with Yate’s correction = 1.6,
P > 0.05.

the most intensively cultivated and those sup-
porting the highest human population densi-
ties have 55% and 72% of their endemics in
the local /very local and uncommon /rare
categories, compared with only 30% for area
4. These differences are not statistically signi-
ficant. However, five species from areas 1
and 2 are very local, compared with only one
in the other two areas.

The very local classification of species in
areas 1 and 2 does not indicate that their
ranges are smaller or their populations lower
than the local species found in other areas.
What it does indicate is that these species
occupy a much smaller proportion of the ap-
parent potential habitat. Several of the endemic
species of area 3 have very small ranges and
populations may number only a few thousand
pairs (e.g., Garrulax spp., Muscicapa nigro-
rufa, Brachypteryx major ) . However, this
is clearly a function of the relatively small
area of natural evergreen forest in southwest
India.

One point that emerges from consideration
of endemic species in areas 1 and 2 is that
those occupying the Indus basin appear to
be faring worse than those in the Ganges
basin, with one species, Saxicola macrorhyn-
cha, possibly vulnerable to extinction and two
of the endemic races, Chrysomma altirostre
scindicum and Prinia b. burnesii, perhaps also
vulnerable. It is tempting to point to a con-
nection with the very early establishment of
urban civilization in the Indus valley (Allchin
& Allchin 1968), but it seems more likely to
be related to the greater aridity of the Indus
valley generally and the smaller area involved,
hence providing fewer remaining refuge areas.

Ack nowledgements

I would like to thank Kamal Islam and T. J.
Roberts for information on birds in Pakistan,
and the latter also for detailed criticism of an
earlier draft. I also received useful comments
from P. J. Garson, B. Beehler and S. Dillon
Ripley. My wife, who accompanied me in
my travels to the uttermost parts of India,
has always been an ideal companion, making
much of my work possible.

640

HABITAT DESTRUCTION AND STATUS OF ENDEMIC BIRDS

References

Ali, S. & Crook, J. M. (1959): Observations
on Finn’s Baya ( Ploceus megarhynchus Hume) re-
discovered in the Kumaon terai, 1959. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 56 : 457-483.

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1969-74) : Handbook

of the Birds of India and Pakistan, Vols. 1-10.
Bombay, Oxford University Press.

Allchin, B. & Allchin, R. (1968) : The Birth

of Indian Civilization. Harmondsworth, Penguin
Books.

Baig, M. A. (1980) : Plundering the forests.

India Today 5(6) : 84-85.

Basil-Edwardes, S. (1926) : A contribution to
the ornithology of Delhi. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
31 : 261-273; 567-578.

Bose, N. K., Mitra, A., Gupta, P. & Mukherjee,
M. (1965): The Gazetteer of India, Vol. 1, Coun-
try and People, Ed. by P. N. Chopra, pp. 289-366.
New Delhi, Government of India.

Eckholm, E. P. (1975) : The deterioration of

mountain environments. Science 189 : 164-170.

Ganguli, U. (1976) : A Guide to the Birds of
the Delhi Area. New Delhi. I.C.A.R.

Gaston, A. J., Hunter, M. L., jr. & Garson,
P. J. (1981) : The Wildlife of Himachal Pradesh,

Western Himalayas. University of Maine School of
Forest Resources Technical Note, No. 82, 159 pp.

(1983) : The status and conservation

of forest wildlife in Himachal Pradesh, Western

Himalayas. Biol. Conserv. 27 : 291-314.

Halliday, T. (1980) : Vanishing Birds. Har-

mondsworth, Penguin Books.

Thapar, R. (1966) : A History of India, Vol. 1.
Harmondsworth, Penguin Books.

Vaurie, C. (1972) : Tibet and its Birds. London,

M. F. & G. Witherby.

Whistler, H. (1922) : The birds of Jhang district,
S. W. Punjab, Part 1, Passerine birds. Ibis 7: 259-
309.

641

FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF FINGERLINGS AND
JUVENILES OF MAHSEER (TOR PUT IT ORA HAM.) IN

NAYAR RIVER1

Prakash Nautiyal

AND

M. S. Lal2

( With three text-figures)

The food and feeding habits of the fingerlings and juveniles of Tor putitora inhabiting
river Nayar were studied for one year.

Observations on the nature of food and feeding habits indicated them to be “mono-
phagic” and “column feeder”. Inspite of the fact that the RGL values supported
its omnivorous habit, the percental value of insect food item and their occurrence
in 5% of the fishes clearly indicated a “ Carnivorous ” habit.

Introduction

The present contribution deals with the food
and feeding habits of Garhwal mahseer ( Tor
putitora Ham.). Recent contributions in this
field are by Das & Pathani (1978), on the
adaptation of alimentary tract in relation to
the feeding habits, Pathani & Joshi (1979)
on the food and feeding habits of the finger-
lings of Tor tor and Tor putitora, and Badola
& Singh (1980) on food and feeding habits
of fishes belonging to genera Tor, Puntius and
Barilius.

Bearing in mind the significance of such
data it was felt desirable to investigate the
food and feeding habits of the fingerlings and
juveniles of Tor putitora inhabiting river
Nayar. This river was chosen for study as
it harbours a large population of mahseer
juveniles throughout the year suggesting its

1 Accepted January 1982.

2 Fishery Biology Research Laboratory, Depart-
ment of Zoology, Garhwal University, Srinagar,
Garhwal-246 174, U.P.

high productivity (Nautiyal & Lal 1978).

Materials and Methods

For analysing the food and feeding habits
of the mahseer, fish were procured at regular
monthly intervals for one year from river
Nayar. After measuring the length and
weight the entire specimen was fixed in 5-7%
formalin and brought to the laboratory. The
fish available during these months ranged
from 40.0 mm to 354 mm. Those ranging from
40.0 mm to 70.0 mm were considered as fin-
gerlings and those above, as juveniles.

After recording the morphometric data, the
fish was dissected and gut contents were exa-
mined for food habits. The fish being a typi-
cal cyprinid lacks the conventional stomach
and as in others possesses an intestinal swelling
in the anterior part, called “the intestinal bulb.”
The entire gut was taken out and moisture was
removed by blotting paper. The total length
of the gut was measured for determining Re-
lative Gut Length (RGL) which was calcu-

642

FEEDING HABITS OF MAHSEER (TOR PUTITORA HAM.)

lated as the ratio of intestinal length to total
body length. The “intestinal bulb” was then
separated, weighed and then reweighed after
evacuating its contents into a petri-dish. Their
difference gave the weight of the entire gut
contents. Volume of the food was recorded
by displacement method. From the average
data thus obtained the “Gastro-Somatic Index”
(GSI) was determined for each fish to study
the seasonal variations in food by the formula:
Weight of the stomach contents

GSI = — x 100

Weight of the fish

The percentage of food composition was
detected by the points method. While allotting
points to the different food items the size of the
fish and state of the intestinal bulb were taken
into consideration. Points were allotted on
their relative volumes as assessed by visual
estimation and converted into percentages.

The feeding intensity was assessed by classi-
fying the intestinal bulbs as Full, j Full, \
Full, i Full, Poor and Empty, and were
awarded 20, 15, 10, 5, 2.5 and 0 points res-
pectively, depending on the state of disten-
tion of stomach and amount of food in it.
“Feeding Index” (Tham Ah Khow 1950) was
calculated to express the feeding intensity.

The annual percentage of occurrence of the
different food items in the guts was assessed
by the Occurrence method (Allen 1935, Frost
1939, 1946). They were graded by the “Index
of Preponderance” (Natrajan 8z Jhingran
1961).

Macroscopic and Microscopic examinations
of the gut contents were made to identify the
food items. In spite of this, to ensure the
qualitative analysis of the fish’s diet, the in-
testinal as well as rectal portions were also
examined.

Feeding habits were observed in the field but
this was possible only during winter and early

summer when water remained crystal clear
most of the time.

Observations
Food and Its nature

The examined gut contents of Tor putitora
consisted of insects, their larvae and nymphs
along with plant debris, worms, sand and fish
remains. Insects formed the highest percental
value (Fig. 1) as compared to the other items,
annually.

H| WORMS

® INSECTS

Fig. 1. Pie diagram showing percentage annual feed
of Tor putitora.

1. Insects : Insects constituted the major

part completely intact or slightly damaged
insects, their larvae and nymphs were cate-
gorised as insects, their undigested remains
which included legs, wing pads etc. were term-
ed as chitinuous matter, and the digested
portion which had the look of white torn
flesh was identified and classified as the dige-
sted matter of the insects. In the present
paper, in order to make an easy interpreta-
tion all the three items were grouped as in-
sect matter. It was recorded that 73.5% of
the fish had insect matter in their guts.

The insects constitute 81.7% of the gut
contents annually. Microscopic and macro-
scopic examinations of the gut contents re-
vealed that the fish feeds on the nymphs of
may-flies and stone-flies, larvae of caddis-flies,
and other aquatic insects along with the adults
of water bugs.

2. Plant debris : During monsoon the surface

run-off along with high velocity of water in

643

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 81

the streamlets bring either broken twigs or
even branches of shrubs and trees growing on
their banks, into the river. Small, granular
particles were present in the intestinal bulb
and identified as epidermal cells of plants and
was thus termed as “plant debris”. It con-
stituted 15.9% of the gut contents annually
and was present only during the month of
August, 1980 and July, 1981 in 7.7% of the
fish collected.

3. Worms : The worms which were often
present in the gut have been considered as gut
contents, but not as food, for they were para-
sites. This was confirmed by dissecting out
the alimentary canal of the freshly killed speci-
mens in which the worms were found to be
alive. They were in higher percentage in the
intestinal bulbs possessing only digested matter.
They constituted 0.8% of the gut contents,
annually and were present in 12.0% of the
fish.

4. Miscellaneous : The items included in this

category were sand and fish remains (verte-
brae, scales, dermal bones etc.) which consti-
tuted a major part as compared to fish remains
which were found only during May. These
items were present in 6.8% of the fish.

Feeding Intensity : The feeding intensity as

is evidenced by the “Feeding Index” varies
from month to month (Fig. 2). It was also
observed to differ with the length of the fish
(Table 1) for the fishes ranging from 40.0-
90.0 mm were observed to possess higher
feeding intensity. The intensity however fell

Table 1

Feeding index values for different length
groups of Tor putitora

40.0-90.0

64.9

91.0-140.0

34.3

141.0-190.0

40.0

after the fish attains the length of 190.0 mm
or more.

Relative Gut Length : The relative gut

length ranged from 0.819 to 0.918 in finger-
lings and from 1.056 to 1.825 in the juveniles
(Table 2).

Table 2

Relative gut length values for Tor putitora

FROM RIVER NAYAR

Months

RGL Values

August

1.056

September

1.406

October

0.819

November

0.868

December

0.918

January

1.159

February

1.454

March

1.301

April

1.556

May

1.675

June

1.825

July

0.835

Discussion

The food and feeding habits of Tor putitora
inhabiting high altitude Kumaun lakes
and the hill streams of Garhwal Himalayas
have been worked out by some authors.

Based on the Relative Gut Length values,
position of the bile duct and percentage of
the food items. Das & Pathani (1978) have
considered it to be an “herbi-omnivore”. Its
fingerlings have been declared by Pathani &
Joshi (1979) to be of “zoophagus nature”.
Badola & Singh (1980) have assessed Tor
putitora to be a “carni-omnivore”. However,
observations our differ from those made by
these authors. The investigations revealed that
the insect matter ranked first and was con-
sidered as the “basis food” (Nikolsky 1963)

644

FEEDING INDEX

FEEDING HABITS OF MAHSEER (TOR PUTITORA HAM.)

of the fingerlings as well as of the juveniles.
Since the plant debris and the fish remains
were consumed only in time of need, they were

M ON THS

Fig. 2. Variations in the feeding intensity of
Tor pu tit ora.

categorised as “obligatory food” (Nikolsky
1963). Among the insects the Ephemeropteran

Fig. 3. Gastro-Somatic Index. Quantitative variations
in the Diet of Tor putitora.

nymphs dominated, followed by Trichopteran
and other insect larvae. Plecopteran nymphs
were present occasionally, while hemipteran
and coleopteran adults were rarely found.

The GSI exhibited no marked seasonal
variation throughout the year, except for the
month of August (Fig. 3) which can be attri-
buted to intensive feeding by the young ones.

Feeding intensity has been worked out by
some authors applying the fullness method
(Frost, 1939, and a few others). Hynes (1950)
has determined the extent of feed by consider-
ing the state of stomachs. Tham Ah Khow
(1950) has propounded the “Feeding Index”
based on the number of 3/4 and full stomachs
while Lai & Dwivedi (1969) have determined
the feeding intensity by the number of empty
stomachs. The feeding index has been success-
fully applied by Venkataraman (1960) and
Toor (1964). In the present case the maximum
feeding intensity in Tor putitora was recorded
during July and August. During these two
months the fingerlings were available which
evidently being young stages fed voraciously
(Table 1). However, if the juveniles are taken
into consideration, from September onwards
the index exhibits a peak in January after
which it gradually went down to minimum
in May.

Feeding habits

The fingerlings were mostly found in the
lee of flooded pools during monsoon and thus
feed on some plants which get submerged in
them. However, the juveniles feed actively in
shoals during early morning hours. They were
observed to feed on the river margins but
switched over to the middle section during day.
While feeding on insects they scrape the stones
with the help of their lower jaw. Juveniles
which have attained larger size were usually
solitary in habit and inhabited the deeper pools.

645

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 81

The fish is thus “marginal-cum-mid” or
“column feeder.”

The mid- or bottom feeders may be herbi-
vores, omnivores, or carnivores in nature (Das
& Moitra 1963). The Garhwal mahseer, as is
evidenced by the inferior pharyngeal teeth
(Nautiyal et al. 1980) and the RGL values,
seems to be omnivores in nature. If the percen-
tal values of the gut contents are taken into
consideration its “insectivorous” nature cannot
be denied. The term insectivore (Khanna &
Pant 1964) has been included in the category
of carnivores (Das & Moitra 1963).

In the case of Tor putitora, insect matter
constituted 81.7% and the plant matter
15.9% of the annual feed. The latter was
occasionally present in the guts examined
(during July and August) We thus concluded
that the fish under investigation is a “Carni-
vore” by habit. The contradiction thus arising
due to the comparison of the actual dietry
habits of the fish with the RGL values supports
the view that the fish can adapt to the diet avail-
able in the particular environment (Steven 1930,
Pillay 1953, Martin 1954, Kapoor 1958 and
Singh 1966). Also, that it is not always possi-

Refer

Al-Hussaini, A. H. (1949) : On the functional
morphology of the alimentary tract of some fish in
relation to differences in their feeding habits; ana-
tomy and histology. Quart. J. Micro. Sci. London.
90: 109-139.

Allen, K. R. (1935) : The food and migration
of perch ( Perea fluviatilis ) in Windermere. J. Anim.
Ecol. 4, 264-273.

Badola, S. P. & Singh, H. R. (1980) : Food and
feeding habits of fishes of the genera, Tor, Puntius,
and Barilius. Proc. Indian Natn. Sci. Acad., B 46
(1): 58-62.

Das, S. M. & Moitra, S. K. (1963): Studies on
the food and feeding habits of some freshwater
fishes of India. IV. A review on the food of some
freshwater fishes, with general conclusions. Ichthyo-
logica. 2(1-2): 107-115.

ble to relate fish’s diet to the length of the
alimentary canal (Al-Hussaini 1949). The
herbi-omnivorous nature of the Kumaon
mahseer has been reported to be a peculiar
example of evolutionary transition from herbi-
vorous to omnivorous nature (Das & Pathani
1978). Naturally, the Garhwal mahseer too
seems to be a similar case exhibiting changes
in the food habits from omnivorous to carni-
vorous habits, an adaptation to the environ-
ment of the Nayar river, a spring-fed hill-
stream.

Ack nowledgements

We wish to thank Dr. H. R. Singh, Professor
& Head Department of Zoology, Garhwal Uni-
versity, Srinagar, Garhwal for providing us
laboratory facilities and literature pertaining to
the present work. The Senior author (P. N.)
is thankful to Dr. S. S. Pathani, Department
of Zoology, Kumaon University, Nainital for
his reprints on the subject. Thanks are also
due to Sri S. N. Bahuguna, Research Fellow,
Department of Zoology, Garhwal University,
Srinagar Garhwal for his suggestions during
the preparation of this manuscript.

EN CES

Das, S. M. & Pathani, S. S. (1978): Studies on
the biology of the Kumaon mahseer ( Tor putitora
Hamilton) : Adaptation of the alimentary tract in
relation to feeding habits, body weight and body
length. Indian J. Anim. Sci. 48(6) : 461-465.

Frost, W. E. (1939) : River Liffey. II. The food
consumed by the brown trout ( Salmo trutta Linn.)
in acid and alkaline waters. Proc. R. Irish Acad.
45B : 139-206.

(1946) : Observations on the food of

eels ( Anguilla anguilla ) from the Windermere catch-
ment area. J. Anim. Ecol. 15: 43-53.

Hynes, H. B. N. (1950): The food of freshwater
sticklebacks ( Gasterosteous aculeatus and Pyrosteus
pungitius ) with a review of the methods used in
studies of the food of fishes. /. Anim. Ecol. 19:
36-58.

646

FEEDING HABITS OF MAHSEER (TOR PUTITORA HAM.)

Kapoor, B. G. (1958) : The morphology and
histology of the alimentary tract of a plankton feeder
Gadusia chapra. Ann. Mus. Civ. Stor. Nat., Geneva.
70: 8-32.

Khanna, S. S. & Pant, M. C. (1964) : On the
digestive tract and feeding habits of some teleostean
fishes. Agra Univ. J. Res., XIII (I) : 230-243.

Lal, M. S. & Dwivedi, A. S. (1969) : Studies on
the Fishery and Biology of a freshwater teleost,
Rita rita, IV Food and Feeding habits. Indian J.
Zoot. X(2) : 67-68.

Martin, N. V. (1954) : Catch and winter food of
lake trout in certain Algongwin Park lakes. /. Fish.
Res. Bl. Ottawa (Canada). 11: 5-10.

Natrajan, A. V. & Jhingran, A. G. (1961) : Index
or Preponderance a method of grading the food
elements in the stomach analysis of fishes. Indian
J. Fish. 8(1): 54-59.

Nautiyal, P. & Lal, M. S. (1978) : Eco-biological
studies on some hillstream fishes of Garhwal Hima-
layas III. Hydrological factors and their bearing
on productivity of mahseer in the hillstream Alak-
nanda, Mandakini and Nayar. Indian J. Zoot. XIX
(I): 21-27.

Nautiyal, P., Mishra, M. & Lal, M. S. (1980):
Functional morphology of the hyobranchial skeleton
of some hillstream fishes of Garhwal region (U.P.),

India. I. Hyobranchial skeleton of Tor (species),
ibid. XXI: 97-105.

Nikolsky, G. V. (1963) : ‘The Ecology of Fishes.’
Academic Press, London Inc.: 321.

Pathani, S. S. & Joshi, M. (1979) : On food and
feeding habits of fingerlings of the two Kumaon
Fishes, Tor tor and Tor putitora Flam. Bioresearch.
4 (1) : 43-46.

Pillay, T. V. R. (1953) : Studies on food and
feeding and alimentary tract of the Grey Mullet
Mugil fade Forskal. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci., Calcutta
(India). 19(6): 777-827.

Singh, R. (1966) : Morpho-histological studies of
the alimentary canal of Bagarius bagarius. Agra Univ.
J. Res., Agra (India). 15: 69-81.

Steven, G. A. (1930) : Bottom fauna and the food
of fishes. /. Mar. Biol. Assoc., London. 16: 677-
700. Quoted by Singh (1966).

Tham Ah Khow (1950): The food and feeding
relationships of the fishes of Singapore Straits. Fish.
Publ., London. 1 : 1-35.

Toor, H. S. (1964) : Biology and Fishery of Pig
Face Bream Lethrinus lentajan Lacepede I. Food
and Feeding habits. Indian J. Fish. 11(2): 559-580.

Venkataraman, G. (1960): Studies on the food
and feeding relationships of the inshore fishes of
Calicut on the Malabar coast. Indian J. Fish. 7(2) :
275-306.

647

THE ENVIRONMENTAL LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE

OF THE ASIATIC LION1

Paul Joslin2
(With six text-figures)

These findings first appeared in a more expanded thesis form in 1972, and were
distributed to the respective government and non-government agencies which had
assisted in the study. At about the same time the shorter version given here was
submitted for publication, intended as one of several papers to be prepared by the
various research staff at the Gir Ecological Research Station that were to appear
in a special issue of the Journal. However, for a number of reasons, not the least
of which was funding, the project did not come to fruition.

More than a decade has since passed, during which time there has been great changes
in the Gir Sanctuary. Thanks to far sighted government action, the numbers of lions
are now up, the population of other wildlife are improved and the habitat is sub-
stantially richer and more luxuriant. However, rather than re-write the report to
reflect the changes, it has been decided to publish the original version in order to best
describe the conditions as they originally existed during the three year study period,
and to report separately on the results of a more recent, but less exacting study,
carried out over a period of less than one month.

Introduction

This study was undertaken because of an
interest in investigating the problems and ways
of conserving an endangered species. The
Asiatic lion (Panthera leo persica) was chosen
from the International Union of Conservation
of Nature Resources list of rare and endan-
gered species in 1966, in consultation with
Dr. Lee Talbot, Mr. Noel Simon and others.
It was thought to be a typical example of an
endangered mammal because more than half
of the recently extinct mammals were pre-
dators, and most of these were large (Talbot
1959). The Asiatic lion was suitable for an
intensive study because, although rare, its dis-

1 Accepted April 1984.

2 Chicago Zoological Society, Brookfield, Illinois
60513, U.S.A.

tribution was concentrated into a single 1300
km area in Gujarat State, western India.
There had also been repeated requests to have
it investigated (Daniel 1956, Talbot 1959,
Spillet, unpublished report; Indian board for
wildlife in 1956).

Acknowledgements

It is with pleasure that I acknowledge the
financial help of several institutions which
made this study possible. I am especially
grateful to The Royal Society, the Smithsonian
Research Foundation in collaboration with the
Bombay Natural History Society, the Volkhart
Foundation (WWF Project Number 198), the
Children’s Section of the World Wildlife Fund
British National Appeal, and the Fauna Pre-
servation Society for the monetary support
which they so generously contributed. I thank

648

THE ASIATIC LION

the International Biological Programme for
accepting the study as part of the India —
United Kingdom contribution.

I am grateful both to the members of the
Gujarat State Forest Department and the
Bombay Natural History Society for assisting
me in innumerable ways. Special thanks are
extended to Mr. R. D. Joshi, Chief Conser-
vator of Forests, Mr. M. K. Dalvi, Conservator
of Forests, Mr. M. A. Rashid, Conservator of
Forests, Mr. J. D. Tolia, sanctuary super-
intendent, Mr. P. B. Vyas, retired sanctuary
superintendent, Mr. Zafar Futehally, hono-
rary secretary of the Bombay Natural History
Society, and Mr. J. C. Daniel, the Society’s
curator. Special thanks are given to Mrs.
Almitra Patel, Gir Project Officer, without
whose administrative assistance much less time
would have been available to my colleagues
and myself for doing research.

I am grateful to my colleagues, Mr. K. T. B.
Hodd, Dr. Stephen Berwick, Mr. Robert
Grubh, Mr. Nicky Sanyal and Mr. Sanat
Chavan, who were engaged in research in the
Gir Sanctuary during parts of my stay, and
who offered much assistance and consultation.
Warm thanks are also extended to Dr. Lee
Talbot, Dr. George Schaffer and Prof. Dr.
Paul Leyhausen, who kindly gave me advice
in the field.

I appreciated the help of many temporary
assistants, especially Miss Dorothy Brewster,
Mr. K. S. Mohmed Bashirkhanji, Mr. Nata
Mashru, Mr. Mohmed Sheikh, Mr. Hassan
Sidi, Mr. Chondu Joshi, Geno and Bejal. Last
but not least, I am very grateful to Dr. David
Jenkins for his patient and encouraging super-
vision both in the field and at the University
of Edinburgh.

Description and History

The Asiatic lion resembles the African with
only a few apparent differences. Along the

length of the abdomen it has a prominent fold
of skin which seldom is found in African
lions. Comparing the skulls, in African lions,
as in all mammals, there is only one infra-
orbital foramen below the eyesocket on each
side, while Todd (1965) found that in more
than fifty per cent of skulls of Asiatic lions
taken from the single remaining population
there was pairing of either one or both of the
infraorbital foramen (fig. 1). Behaviorally

African Asiatic,

Fig. 1. Comparison of infraorbital foramen between
lion skulls from Africa and from the Gir Sanctuary.

they are astonishingly docile and tolerant of
visitors on foot, the means by which most
visitors see them. A few lions have actually
been touched in the wild. The adult males are
responsible for nearly all the potential territo-
rial advertisement, such as roaring, scraping or
spraying of scent, whereas among African
lions Schaffer (1972) has found that such
advertisements are by no means limited to
the males alone.

The range of the Asiatic lion once extended
from Syria, across the middle east to eastern
India (fig. 2). However between 1850 and
1900, when firearms came into popular usage,
most of the lions were killed, although a few
dwindled on in Iran until 1942 (Heaney 1943).
Credit for the survival of lions in the Gir hills
in Gujarat State, was due to the limited hun-
ting permitted by the Nawab of Junagadh on
whose land the lions existed. At the time of

649

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

independence the area was designated a re-
serve, and in 1965 it was upgraded to be called
the Gir Forest Wildlife Sanctuary.

Population Size and Decline

In June 1968 the Gujarat State Forest
Department undertook a census of the lion
population and concluded that there were ap-
proximately 177 lions remaining within the
1265 sq. km. sanctuary and surrounding lands.
This count was about 40 per cent lower than
any of the previous counts within recent years.
To verify their enumeration I made five esti-
mates of the size of the lion population. Three
estimates were ascertained from road counts,
counts at waterholes and density assessments
of known prides. The fourth and fifth assess-
ments were extrapolated from an approxima-
tion of the total amount of domestic bovids

consumed per year and two estimates of the
amount of food required per lion per year.
The object in making five estimates was to
partially overcome the problem of known and
unknown biases and sources of error asso-
ciated with any one estimate. The average
of the five determinations was 190, or not
significantly different from the government
count. That the government was also right
in pointing out a decline was evident by the
marked decrease in the lion’s range. In 1955
half the lion population counted was found
outside the present boundary of the reserve,
while in 1968 only 17 per cent of the total
lion population could be located outside.
Moreover lions could no longer be found in
the Girnar range to the north or in the
Mithila range to the east where in 1955 they
still existed.

650

THE ASIATIC LION

Poisoning

The decline could not be attributed to
hunting, as there had not been any for many
years. Instead poisoning was blamed, espe*
daily by the news media. Lions were attack-
ing domestic stock which resided both in and
around the sanctuary, and occasionally the
owners would retaliate by poisoning their
losses, and allowing the lions to feed. How-
ever when I examined the government files
on each case between 1963 and 1969 I found
that poisoning was rare, or at least its dis-
covery was rare, for only an average of one
case of foul play was uncovered per year.
Certainly such incidental cases would not
bring about a reduction in the lion population.
However poisoning was dramatic. It involved
both adult lions and young. It brought about
police action and court proceedings. In
essence it lent itself to popular attention.

Overgrazing

When Dr. Lee Talbot visited the area brief-
ly in 1956, he was aware even then that the
lion population was declining, and he provided
an alternative explanation. By standing in
the middle of the sanctuary in the dry season
one can see either a teak forest, or an acacia
scrub forest. By moving more towards the
edge of the sanctuary much of the forest gives
way coincidental with the sharp build up in
the concentration of domestic graziers. Out-
side the sanctuary one sees almost no forest.
Talbot (1959) reported that the amount of
overgrazing and associated misuse was so bad
that within a mere 20 years the Gir Forest
would be gone, and with it the lions. How-
ever he had come only at the height of the
dry season, when conditions looked particu-
larly bad. He did not have a chance to see

how tenaciously the forest hangs on aided by
the monsoon rains. So attuned had evolution
adapted the Gir forest to the clockwork onset
of the monsoon that in the weeks before its
arrival more than 50 species of trees and
scrubs would begin growing new shoots and
fighting back.

From 1968 to 1970 Hodd (1970) monitored
the effects of overgrazing by fencing some
areas and comparing the amounts of growth
inside and outside. During the first growing
season five times as much vegetable biomass
was produced inside the fenced plots com-
pared with outside. In otherwords the san-
ctuary had not been so severely damaged as
to be permanently impaired. Thus he con-
cluded that it was unlikely that the destruc-
tion of the Gir habitat through overgrazing
was the principal cause for the lion’s decline
in the short term. By, standing on top of
the highest hill in Gir in the monsoon and
seeing how extensive and productive the
forest still appeared with 13 of the 20 year pre-
diction having passed, it was apparent to me
that perhaps a century or more would pass
before overgrazing could totally destroy the
forest. So another more important reason for
the lions’ decline had to be sought.

Cultivation

The most likely contender was the ‘green
revolution’. The replacement of grazing land
by cultivation meant the displacement of
range, cover and more importantly the wild
and domestic animals upon which the lion
depended for food. Black cotton soil, one of
the best substrates for crop development,
formed a major part of the surrounding low
lying areas, and in a country where man was
hungry it would have been surprising if these
lands were not converted to crops.

651

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. SI

I made several reconnaissance flights over
the southern boundary of the sanctuary, which
was fairly typical of the areas surrounding
the sanctuary. It was only possible to take
oblique aerial photos. In any single photo-
graph, therefore, the actual amount of culti-
vated land existing below could not be deter-
mined. However by taking a large number
of photographs at random so that any one
land use had as much likelihood of being in
the foreground or background as the next,
and averaging the results, it was found that
approximately 70 per cent was cultivated. Of
that remaining only J3 per cent appeared sui-
table for lions — that is forest, scrub and
riverside cover. The rest was largely denuded
fragments of limited value to lions.

The ‘green revolution’ was in progress out-
side the sanctuary, and it was outside where
the bulk of the lion population had dis-
appeared since 1955. Where lions still existed
on the outside was in the few remaining
forested regions adjoining the sanctuary which
had not yet been cleared for cultivation.

Within the sanctuary the extent of cultiva-
tion was very limited. By combining my
findings from oblique aerial photos with esti-
mates made by forest department surveyors
in 1968 and 1970, and allowing for areas of
overlap, I estimated that six per cent of the
sanctuary was either cultivated or allocated
for development. Such a limited amount of
damage to the sanctuary was not of much con-
sequence to the indigenous lion population.
However, since much of the cultivation was in
the processes of expanding, it is reasonable to
assume that it would have serious repercussions
if not curbed.

Size and Composition of Prey Population
Within Sanctuary

In the dry season some 49500 ungulates

were estimated to be using the sanctuary
daily, consisting of approximately 11 per cent
wild ungulates and 89 per cent domestic
bovids. The species composition was 53 per
cent buffalo, 30 per cent cow, 5 per cent oxen,
8 per cent spotted deer and 3 per cent other
wild and domestic species, including nilgai,
sambar, wild boar, four-horned antelope, In-
dian gazelle, camel, horse, sheep and goat.

The wild ungulate population was assessed
by night road counts in 1968 and the species
composition crosschecked with casual counts
made mostly in daytime, and counts at water-
holes. Extrapolating for the sanctuary I
estimated there were approximately 5600 wild
ungulates. The following year Berwick re-
peated the road counts. His population esti-
mate did not differ significantly from my own
(Berwick and Jordan 1971).

The number of resident domestic stock was
assessed by counting the animals in a sample
of 20 villages during the evening milking
period when all were corralled, and extrapo-
lating for the sanctuary. A second determina-
tion was made by extrapolating from the 178
km sampled area to that of the total sanctuary.
The two figures, which were within six per
cent of each other, averaged 19650. Similar
assessments were made for the forest settle-
ment village stock which bordered the sanc-
tuary and the non-resident stock which grazed
within the sanctuary for part of each day.
These totalled 5550 and 18700 animals
respectively.

Food Habits Based on Faecal Analysis

I next looked at the diet of the lion as
reflected in their faeces. Over 1800 carnivore
scats of unknown species origin were collected.
From a sample of 95 scats of known species
origin, be it lion, leopard, hyaena or dog, it

652

THE ASIATIC LION

was found that 90 per cent of the lion faeces
measured 45 mm or more in diameter, while
the other species were all smaller. Applying
this dimension to the unknown sample, I
then selected 480 faeces which I could assume
were of pure lion origin. The next task was
to identify the prey species which they con-
tained from the remnants of hair.

After trying various methods, it was found
that hair cross sections were the best means
for identification. For example buffalo hair
was characterized by its oval shape, grey me-
dulla, slight pigmentation of the cortex due
to cortial pigment granules, and an average
cross sectional length of about 90 microns.
Nilgai hair, in contrast, was less oval in shape,
with a black medulla which was slightly point-
ed and flattened on one side, a cortex witnout
pigment, and an overall cross sectional length
averaging 140 microns. Sambar hair was
highly elongated in cross section, the medulla
divided into 30 or more segments, and occu-
pying most of the cross section leaving only a
thin cortex. The cross sectional length aver-
aged 300 microns or more.

After working out a reliable key and
applying it to the sample of lion faeces, it
was found that some 75 per cent contained
hair of domestic stock, which was not at all
surprising considering the preponderance of
domestic stock which had been shown to
exist in the sanctuary.

Lion Predation on Domestic Stock

I next offered rewards to cattle graziers
for cooperating in an inquiry into their
domestic losses. Those graziers who reported
lion kills within 24 hours of the event, and took
me to see them were given ten rupees. This
was a very productive part of the study.
Information was gathered on some 330 car-

casses and data established on some 18 vari-
ables, ranging from type of prey, age, time of
attack, where killed in relation to the village
of origin, where killed in the sanctuary,
amount of carcass eaten, etc. With the aid
of a 360/50 computer a systematic analysis of
the data was made by associating each vari-
able against each of the other 17. Those
results which are of primary importance are
discussed here.

Prey selection : Cow, buffaloes and to a
lesser extent oxen were attacked more often
than other domestic prey. In a sample of
330 animals 40 per cent were cows, 41 per
cent were buffalo, 13 per cent were oxen and
only 6 per cent consisted of the combined
totals of camel, sheep, goat, horse and dog.
Because the latter five species were very much
in the minority in the live population, their
poor representation in the kill record was to
be expected. However, sheep, goat, and dog
were all small prey of little or no value to
the herdsmen, and hence might not have been
considered worth reporting (although I paid
an equal reward for all cases investigated). It
was illegal to graze sheep within the sanc-
tuary, which may have contributed to there
being no reports of sheep loss.

Sixty-one per cent of bovid kills were from
sanctuary villages, 25 per cent from villages
outside the sanctuary, and 14 per cent from
forest settlement villages. Stock from sanc-
tuary villages remained inside the sanctuary,
and hence were always available to lions,
while stock from outside villages came into the
sanctuary for only variable parts of each day,
and never at night, thus accounting for their
poor representation among lion kills. Few
animals were from forest settlement villages
probably because they contained only 10 per
cent of the available prey population.

The three village classes, sanctuary nesses,

653

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

forest settlement villages and villages outside
the sanctuary, also kept different proportions of
cows, oxen and buffalo. To determine the lions’
food preferences, I compared the kill records
with the bovid stock maintained by each class
of village. While predation always reflected
prey abundance to some extent, cow and oxen
were preferred over buffalo in all three village
classes (fig. 3). The probability of obtaining

0 Percentage occurrence
in the population

□Percentage occurrence
among lion kills

Sanctuary Transient Forest settlement

village

Classes of livestock

Fig. 3. Lion selection of prey from three classes of

livestock.

such a result three times due to chance was less
than 0.02. Averaging the results for the three
village situations, twice as many cows and oxen
were killed as would have been expected if
they were killed directly in proportion to avail-
ability, while the proportion of buffalo kills
was less than half that expected.

There was evidence that cow and oxen
were more available than buffalo. First, their
placement within the herd was at greater risk
to predation. Miss Dorothy Brewster (pers.
comm.) collected data on the position of cow,
buffalo and herdsmen within herds. In a
total of 27 observations she found that adult
cows predominantly occupied the front of the

herd in 61 per cent, buffalo occupied the
middle and rear in 81 per cent, and herdsmen
occupied the middle and rear in 93 per cent.
In otherwords, adult cows were located where
the protective influence of herdsmen was
weakest. Moreover cow and oxen herds
normally fled when attacked, while buffalo
herds were commonly belligerent towards
lions, sometimes succeeding to drive them
away before the herdsmen came to their
rescue. Ninety-seven per cent of 32 herds
consisting only or mostly of cows were re-
ported to have fled when attacked while 36
per cent of 75 herds consisting only or mostly

STOCK

□

Adult (N = 135)

Young (less than 5 years)
(N = 74)

S Sanctuary village

F Forest settlement village and

non-sanctuary village

0/0

S F

cows

B U F F A L 0

Fig. 4. Percentage occurrence of adult and young
stock among lion kills from two village classes (S and
F) and for two types of prey.

654

THE ASIATIC LION

of buffalo behaved aggressively. Seven of 8
herds consisting only or mostly of oxen fled
when under lion attack. While oxen thus
appeared to exhibit little defence, these data
were too few to be conclusive. However, it
was further substantiated by 96 per cent of
24 herds containing mostly cows and some
oxen, which fled when under attack.

Age selection : Thirty-seven per cent of 240
kills of bovid stock examined for age were
young animals less than five years old. The
true proportion of young animals killed was
probably higher because herdsmen valued
mature animals more highly, and were more
likely to report their loss, despite an equal
reward offered for the report of kills of any
age. In sanctuary villages 41 per cent of the
live bovid population and 35 per cent of kills
were young stock.

More young were available inside villages
than outside, and this was reflected in 20 per
cent more young killed inside villages than
outside (number of cases investigated = N
= 240; Chi square = X2 = 4.47; degrees of
freedom = d.f. = 1; probability of occurrence
= p <0.05). Lions killed approximately 20
per cent more young buffalo than among
cows. The same pattern emerged no matter
whether the losses were from villages inside
or outside the sanctuary (fig. 4). Lions
killed approximately 40 per cent more young
among oxen than among buffalo (N = 126; X2
= 6.44; d.f. = 1; p<0.05), excluding those cases
where oxen had been left alone overnight out-
side villages. Under such favourable conditions
lions killed all stock regardless of prey type or
age. A disproportionate number of adult oxen
had been left out overnight, while only an in-
significant number of buffalo and cows had
been left out. The selection of young oxen
was largely due to their greater availability.
In daytime most adult oxen were employed

outside the sanctuary either as plough
animals or to draw carts.

Time of attack ; In the 24 hour cycle there
were two peaks in the numbers of prey
attacked. Twenty-three per cent of attacks
occurred between 0630-1130 hours and 33 per
cent between 1530-1930 (fig. 5). A number

Approximate time (hrs.)

Fig. 5. Number of lion attacks upon domestic stock
during each hour of the 24 hour cycle, as reported

by herdsmen.

of factors accounted for these peaks. In the
morning there was a build up in attacks,
starting from a minimum at approximately
0600 hours and increasing to a maximum by
1000 hours. This was associated with the in-
crease in the number of animals grazing in
the sanctuary. Few attacks were made bet-
ween 1130-1530 hours, when the combina-
tion of high air temperatures and direct ex-
posure to the sun was most severe. Of those
attacks which occurred between 1130-1530
hours, all but one took place either in the
monsoon or early in the cool season, when
daytime temperatures were moderate (less
than 29°C). In the hot season most lions
rested in shade through the middle of the day.
The herdsmen also contributed to the lack
of contact between predator and prey by

655

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

resting their stock for approximately 2 hours
during that time.

Between 1530-1730 hours there was a
dramatic build up in numbers of attacks,
followed by an appreciable decline over the
next 3 hours. At the same time the pattern
of activities which paralled the morning’s
peak were repeated in reverse. Lions stopped
resting and livestock again grazed, then re-
turned to their village or origin, which in
many cases was outside the sanctuary.

Fifteen per cent more animals were attacked
in the shorter afternoon peak than in the
morning, the possible reasons for which were
varied. Lions also consumed more of what they
killed in afternoons because of less competi-
tion with hide collectors. Stock were
taken to graze in the morning only after day-
light, while some stock did not return until
dusk, when reduced visibility made the
animals more vulnerable to attack. Stragglers
were more apparent in herds by mid after-
noon than in the morning, and perhaps were
not given all the due care and attention by
the herdsmen who were tired and anxious to
return home. It was also apparent that herds-
men allowed their stock less time to graze
in the afternoon, and instead kept them
moving. This both increased the likelihood of
a lion encounter and made conditions more
unfavourable for stragglers attempting to keep
up.

Only 39 per cent of attacks were made at
night (approximately 1930-0530 hours). These
included 11 night attacks not recorded in
figure 5 because the herdsmen did not know
at what hour the attack occurred. Lions were
much more active at night. However, their
domestic prey, which had moved about the
sanctuary in daytime, was confined to village
corrals at night. Only by entering the periphery
of villages was it possible for lions to make an

attack at night. Secondly, before any animals
could be attacked, lions had to penetrate either
thorn scrub fencing or rock walls which had
been used as corral material specifically to
prevent predation. An thirdly, much of the
stock which had grazed within the sanctuary
in the daytime was unavailable at night be-
cause it had been taken to villages outside the
sanctuary.

Within villages the fewest night attacks
occurred between 1930-2030 hours, presum-
ably because herdsmen were not yet bedded
down for the night. Some stock were also
attacked outside villages at this time because
a few herdsmen were late in returning their
stock from grazing. No pattern was discern-
ible among attacks in the remainder of the
night. However this may have been because
herdsmen were unable to estimate the time of
attacks at night with much accuracy unless
they occurred early.

Food consumption : Although 74 per cent
of kills were reported to have involved more
than one lion, the meat available was poorly
utilized. In a sample of 173 kills, lions ate
nothing from 24 per cent and 1-10 kg from
approximately 22 per cent (table 1). Lions ate
less from prey killed at night. They ate nothing

Table 1

Amounts consumed by lions from each kill

Amount removed
from carcass

Number

animal:

of Adjusted per cent
s Per cent

Nothing

1-5 kg

6-10 kg

A large portion

(approx, half)

Fully utilized

Some

Total

173

100

656

THE ASIATIC LION

from 41 per cent of night kills, 19 per cent
of kills made between sunrise and noon, and
2 per cent of kills made between noon and
sunset. Lions ate more than 10 kg from 11
per cent of night kills, 30 per cent of morning
kills, 45 per cent of afternoon kills.

At night lions obtained most of their prey
from villages. Few animals killed inside villages
were eaten, while most animals killed outside
villages were fed upon. The pattern was simi-
lar for carcasses from which lions ate more
than 10 kg. Feeding was completely prevented
in villages unless the prey was dragged outside
the fences before the lions were driven off.
Lions were able to feed better by day when
stock was out grazing, but still lost substantial
amounts.

Hide collectors : Lions failed to eat much
of what they killed in the day time, because
they were driven off by the graziers and be-
cause hide collectors appropriated the car-
casses for the hide and meat. Herdsmen re-
ported that they attempted to drive lions away
in 72 per cent of 169 lion attacks. Once
driven off, lions sometimes did not return or
did so only after some time had passed. In the
did so after a period of absence. In the
meantime the herdsmen informed hide collec-
tors who paid them for the meat and hide.
If lions were present when hide collectors
arrived, they drove the lions off. Hide collec-
tors claimed 56 per cent of 210 kills examined.
They did not bother so much with calves as
with adults (N = 168; X2 = 3.07; d.f. = 1;
0.1 > P > 0.05). The largest hides also
represented the greatest amounts of potential
lion food. Whenever hide collectors claimed
lion kills outside villages, lions fed from fewer
livestock and ate lesser amounts. Lions were
more successful in feeding from afternoon
kills because hide collectors were sometimes

informed too late to claim the carcasses
before dark.

Lions utilized 25 per cent more kills inside
the sanctuary than outside (N = 177; X2 =
7.82; d.f. = 1; P < 0.01), probably because
hide collectors claimed about 25 per cent
fewer kills inside than outside (N - 210; X2 =
7.36; d.f. = 1; P < 0.01). Hide collectors lived
in only 5 per cent of the villages within the
sanctuary. By contrast all 36 villages surveyed
among 70 possible villages within 2 km of the
sanctuary edge were inhabited by hide collec-
tors. More carcasses were claimed inside the
sanctuary than would be expected from the dis-
tribution of hide collectors because collectors
came into the sanctuary from outside, mainly
to claim cattle belonging to their villages. Dur-
ing the village to village census of the popula-
tion of hide collectors each hide collecting
family was asked to show their most recently
collected skin and asked the cause of death.
The skin was examined for evidence of tooth
impressions and claw marks. In a total of 100
such hides examined, 20 to 25 per cent I classi-
fied as lion kills. In otherwords lion kills were
representing quite a sizeable part of the
hide collector’s livelihood. Any program
that recommended preventing them from ap-
proaching lion kills would have to take this
account.

Hide collectors did not take the meat if
the distance to carry it was too great, or they
already had meat at home. However when
meat was left it was usually taken by vultures,
predominately white backed vultures (Gyps

benghalensis), and only rarely by lions. Hide
collectors attracted vultures by pulling car-
casses into the open. Skinned carcasses were
easily eaten by vultures. It took only 13-30
minutes to consume three adult bovids. In
contrast less than 3 kg was consumed by

657

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

vultures from two intact adult bovids after
30 minutes of intense activity. Vultures were
able to penetrate the hide only at the anus,
mouth, nostrils, eyes and ears. Even after
the abdominal cavity of a third carcass had
been penetrated, they consumed less than 20 kg
in 3 hours. These marked differences in the
rates by which vultures were able to consume
skinned and unskinned carcasses was corrobo-
rated by Dr. Robert Grubh (pers. comm.).

Compensation : Payments were made by
the Gujarat government to herdsmen whose
bovid stock had been killed by lions. Its
purpose was to discourage the herdsmen from
poisoning lions in retaliation, and so maintain
the system of lions preying on domestic stock
with the minimum of hardship to the herds-
men. The number of reported cases of poi-
soning averaged about one per year, as point-
ed out earlier in this paper; presumably of
minor importance to the lion population as a
whole. Whether such a low level was attri-
butable to compensation payments was ques-
tionable. When I asked herdsmen who lost
stock whether they intended to request as-
sistance, only 49 per cent replied in the affir-
mative. In many cases the herdsmen only
had to walk 100 m from my office to the govern-
ment office in order to make notification.
They could have been paid compensation of
Rs. 100-250 for each animal, while I only
offered Rs. 10 for the opportunity of seeing
their loss, independent of the number of animals
involved. Probably fewer than 49 per cent of the
people whom I did not interview applied for
compensation, because my sample consisted
of herdsmen who had shown initiative in the
first place.

Many complained about the compensation
system. Few understood the conditions for
eligibility, all had to wait months for pay-
ment, and when it was not forthcoming they

were rarely told why. The sanctuary super-
intendent kindly made available the applica-
tion records between April 1969 and January
1971. In that time 430 applications were re-
ceived, and 25 per cent rejected. Compen-
sation was not given to those;

a) whose stock was killed more than two
furlongs (approximately 400 m) from their
village;

b) who possessed more than 20 head of
stock;

c) who lived outside the sanctuary, but
grazed their stock more than two fur-
longs inside the sanctuary;

d) who lost camels, goats, horses and other
non-bovids.

Sixty-two per cent of 252 lion kills which
I examined were further than two furlongs
from the village of origin. Ignorant of the
importance of distance, 45 per cent of herds-
men who lost stock beyond two furlongs said
they were intending to apply for compensation.
Similarly in 35 per cent of 150 cases herds-
men possessed more than 20 animals. None
knew that they were not eligible for compen-
sation. These results show that the compen-
sation system was of limited practical benefit
to herdsmen.

The effect of Food Limitations on
the Lion Population

Considering first the adult male lions, they
were far more active than their female coun-
terparts, moving about twice as often, and
averaging more than double the distance
travelled per move. Males usually travelled
either singly or in pairs, and attempted to keep
out all other mature males. As far as food
procurement went, when they killed an animal
and the herdsmen drove them off, they simply
moved on and killed again some place else. They

658

THE ASIATIC LION

also appropriated kills made by lionesses when-
ever they came across any. Although there were
far fewer adult males in the population then
there were adult lionesses, I believe they
regulated their numbers by driving males out of
the area. They especially persecuted sub-adult
males nearing maturity, which if driven out
of the pride before they were old enough
would starve for lack of success in food
procurement. I rarely saw sub-adult males
over two years of age.

Lionesses in contrast were more sedentary
because of having to raise cubs. They had to
procure more food than males in order to main-
tain both themselves and the cubs. Additionally
whenever a lioness with cubs killed an animal
and was driven off by a farmer, she usually
had to kill locally because a lioness’s method
of feeding solid food to cubs is to bring them
to the kill site, greatly limiting the size of area
over which she can hunt. By having to fetch
cubs, lionesses also gave hide collectors more
time to get to the carcasses before being ex-
tensively damaged. In short, in contrast to the
males, food procurement for lionesses was
difficult. The ones who suffered were the cubs.

Of 45 lions seen in the field which were
less than 18 months old, 29 were between
1-6 months, 11 between 7-12 months and 5
between 13-18 months. Assuming that the
sample representative of the population, and
these figures are a reflection of mortality rates,
then 53 per cent of cub mortality occurred bet-
ween 1-6 months and 7-12 months, and
another 17 per cent between 7-12 months and
13-18 months. These results agreed reason-
ably well with observed losses. Ten out of
17 cubs first seen between 1-3 months were
missing and presumed dead within 12 months
after birth. (These results do not include
mortality at birth for which there are no
data.) In contrast, in three }^ears only one

adult lioness was known to have died in my
study group of 16 adults.

Population Trend

Although the lions have dramatically de-
clined outside the sanctuary. I do not know,
apart from there being a very high cub morta-
lity, what effect the serious food limitations
are having on the lion population within the
sanctuary’s boundaries, because little reliable
data existed on which to determine the popu-
lation trend. However, in lieu of the magni-
tude of the food limitations, it is reasonable
to err on the side of conservation, and
assume that the impact on the lion population
is significant.

Ever since the first estimate of the lion
population size was made in 1936, investi-
gators have attempted to make trend deter-
minations by comparing new estimates of the
population size with the old. However ab-
solute numbers are very difficult to measure.
Moreover all but one of the counts has been
based on one method — lion recognition on
the basis of track size — which in itself
makes comparisons between counts suspect
unless differences are exceedingly gross, such
as the three fold reduction in lion numbers
outside the sanctuary boundary in recent
years.

However assessing the trend by no means
needs to be dependent on anv knowledge
about actual population size. For example,
changes over time in the number of lion
tracks and scats found along roads, or
changes in the number of cattle killed by
lions in villages are alternative, easier ways
to determine change in the lion population
size.

In 1971 I estimated data on lion tracks,
scats and kills as a base against which future

659

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

changes could be assessed. Considerable
effort was made to simplify and streamline
the means of gathering data in a standardised
manner that could be easily repeated.

Track recognition : Before assessing the
density of lion tracks, it was necessary to

+ Lion
o Leopard
. Lion or leopard

develop a method for differentiating lion
tracks from leopard, the only other species
with which it can be easily confused. Separa-
tion of lion from leopard tracks was done on
the basis of size. Firstly each of nine sets of
tracks of known leopard origin never exceeded

150

Length

(mm)

100

T- l •• vf.

+ *+f'\+ -

4t X *

A • + .*• •,+. .

• •

,• -I'i. + •- ‘

* *" » • .* ,

\+-

4-4- F-

:*♦*

• % •

• * »
* »

Length + width - 200 mm

100

Width (mm )

Fig. 6. Dimensions of lion and leopard tracks.

150

660

THE ASIATIC LION

200 mm when length and width were added,
while 41 sets of tracks of known lion origin ex-
ceeded this minimum. Secondly 212 recorded
tracks of either lion or leopard origin indicated
a bimodal distribution which separated at ap-
proximately these limits (fig. 6). Almost all
of the tracks falling within the leopard size
range were of solitary animals, while those
falling within the lion size range were fre-
quently of animals in groups, reflecting the
difference in social behaviour between leo-
pards and lions.

Assessment of track and scat numbers :
In April 1970, 275 km of road crossing all
major types of habitat within the sanctuary,
except hilltops, were surveyed for scats and
tracks. The survey was repeated in February
1971, covering most of the routes which had
been searched the previous year. It was
designed so as to make the minimum use of
labour in finding sign while restricting track
and scat identification to myself. Each
morning at dawn I stationed 4-6 men at 4-8
km intervals along a route to be surveyed;
approximately 20 km being surveyed daily.
Early morning was chosen before cattle or
vehicular traffic destroyed tracks. Each enu-
merator marked the beginning of his route
and walked the distance to the start of the next
beat. Scats were similarly marked. After
the men had walked their beats I drove the
length of the route, stopping at each location
to identify tracks and scats and to record
the location in kilometers when tracks were
found. I assumed that all cat tracks having
a length and width totalling greater than
200 mm and all scats which had a diameter
greater than 4.5 cm (see ‘food habits based
on faecal analysis’) were lion.

While both track and scat assessments were
made along roads, and therefore had some
of the same limitations, there were however

important differences. Tracks recorded in the
morning indicated only the presence of lions
in the area the previous night. Scats indi-
cated the presence of lions over several days.
Miss Dorothy Brewster kindly assisted me
by finding that the average time taken for
scats to disintegrate or be destroyed was 6.7
days in a sample of 94 initially fresh scats
inspected once daily. Another difference was
that the number of scats was affected by the
size of pride, whereas in the method used in
assessing track density no discrimination was
made between one or more lions travelling
the same distance at the same time.

Seven hundred and fifty-five kilometres
were travelled for track assessments; the
presence or absence of tracks was recorded
in units of one kilometre; 111 kilometres with
tracks were recorded; on average lion tracks
were found in every 7.2 km surveyed.

In order for the density of tracks to be
used in determining the trend of the lion
population it is essential that a constant re-
lationship exist between the number of tracks
recorded and the number of lions present.
However the number of tracks which could
be recorded depend on several factors. For
example, the nature of the substrate deter-
mined the visibility of tracks. When the
ground was soft and dusty, lions sometimes
left hundreds of tracks, while on stony ground
only a few were visible. The presence or
absence of tracks was for this reason recorded
in units of 1 km, assuming that any lion which
walked some portion of this distance would
leave at least one visible track.

Track density was also a function of topo-
graphy and the presence or absence of alter-
native routes, such as buffalo trails and dried
creek beds. Large, slightly raised roads
appeared to be walked less by lions than
smaller roads at grade level. Lions some-

661

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

times used roads to cross streams. They may
often have travelled on roads in areas of
teak forest to avoid a noisy walk over a
forest floor of dried leaves. In addition the
behaviour of lions also varied from making
no use of roads on some nights to walking
three or more kilometres on other nights.
The biases could not be easily removed, but
they could be averaged and made constant
by increasing the total distance surveyed until
local variations in track density had no signi-
ficant effect on the average density of tracks
recorded. Variations in the ratio of lion
track-kilometres over kilometres surveyed
leveled out after 200 km had been searched.

Five hundred and fifty-one kilometers were
travelled for scat assessments, and 86 scats
were collected, an average of one scat in
every 6.4 km. As with lion track-kilometres,
variations in the ratio of lion scats over kilo-
metres surveyed leveled out after 200 km
had been searched.

The methods used in assessing scat and track
densities ignored the influence of cubs. Lions
whose scats had a diameter of less than 4.5
cm and whose track total length and width
was less than 20 cm were not recorded. In
the case of scats it was my impression that
this eliminated most cubs below one year old.
Young cubs were usually kept in hiding, so
their tracks and scats were rarely seen along
roads. When not in hiding, cubs usually
travelled in the company of lionesses and so
were not detected because the method of as-
sessing track densities did not take group
size into account. Failure to record evidence
of cubs means that the data can only be
used to determine the trend of the adult lion
population. This limitation may be highly
desirable from the standpoint of management,
if the stability of the lion population in the

long term is more dependent upon the
stability of the adult population.

Assessment of lion kills : One method was
to ask herdsmen the number of days or weeks
since their last animal was killed. In this
method herdsmen had to recall both the
event and the day. Because herdsmen find
it difficult to remember dates, I used another,
more laborious method. Each herdsmen was
visited twice. The first time each herdsman
was asked to participate in a scheme to record
his losses, and given a certificate to reinforce
the occasion of our meeting. Within appro-
ximately 10-15 days each herdsmen was
visited a second time, and his losses recorded
for the intervening period. Because the time
interval was known, the herdsmen was only
required to remember whether an animal had
been killed and not when. The time between
visits was short to ensure that the event was
fresh in the herdsmen’s mind, and could be
confirmed. Data on the rate of killing was
collected in February-March 1971 in all six
districts within the sanctuary, involving a sam-
ple of 49 villages. Every herdsman in each
village was interviewed.

Twenty-seven kills were recorded in 652
days assessed, an average killing rate of 0.55
animals per village, or an estimated 15.1
animals per village per year. The average
killing rate per village in the time interval
between visits leveled out after 30 villages
had been visited. The average number of
days between kills was 24, and this figure
became more or less constant after data for
400 days had been assessed.

Recommendations

Outside the sanctuary nothing is being done
about the expansion of cultivation, nor should
there be, although there can be little doubt

662

THE ASIATIC LION

that this has been the major cause for the
lion's decline. Food for people is far more
important than food for lions, particularly
in light of present severe shortage.

Within the sanctuary cultivation is of some
concern, for although it occupies less than 6
per cent of the area, much of it is illegal and
rapidly expanding. Most cultivated lands
encroaching upon the boundary are associated
with forest settlement villages, which have
themselves developed largely since the turn
of the century. It is strongly recommended
that further expansion be curbed.

In 1972 the government of Gujarat sanction-
ed the construction of a wall around
parts of the sanctuary which should greatly
assist the forest department in combating
illegal encroachment by cultivators, as well as
curb the influx of cattle. Also sanctioned was
a proposal to relocate to the outside of the
sanctuary the majority of the indigenous cattle
graziers along with their stock. Both of these
actions should help a great deal in bringing
the impact of cattle grazing within the sanc-
tuary more in line with the carrying capacity
of the land, removing the long term problems
of overgrazing. While the Gujarat government
is to be commended on its plan, the effects
of even a limited reduction in domestic stock
numbers on the lion population should be
carefully studied, because of the lion’s high
dependence on domestic stock for its own
survival. The earliest descriptions of Gir
refer to cattle being there in large numbers,
which makes it even more imperative that
the reduction be very carefully monitored as
to its impact on the lion.

The food chain is further complicated by
the large amount of food stuffs imported into
the sanctuary each year. Herdsmen inter-
viewed in 50 villages reported feeding a daily
average of 3.8 kg of cotton seed and ground

nut to each adult buffalo and smaller amounts
to cow and oxen, or an estimated 19 million
kg fed to all domestic bovids within the
sanctuary each year.

As a result of having demonstrated that hide
collectors claim over half of the lion’s kills,
steps have been taken to make this activity
illegal. However, although this will most
assuredly make more food available to lions,
I am concerned for the welfare of the hide
collectors. Lion kills represent 20-25 per
cent of the skins taken by hide collectors, re-
presenting quite a sizeable part of the hide
collector’s carcass claiming livelihood. More-
over these people belong to the lowest social
strata, and do not do their unprofitable work
by choice. There have been a number of
good and successful schemes elsewhere in the
country to resettle such people as cultivators,
giving them a chance to succeed according
to their own abilities. Would it not be better
to give the hide collectors of the Gir a chance
to cultivate outside the sanctuary, as some
have asked, and in this way benefit not only
the lion but the people as well?

Hide collectors are not the only reason
why lions are required to kill far more than
they need to get enough to eat. Feeding was
poorest at night, when lions made kills within
villages and were driven off by villagers before
they had fed. They ate nothing from 41 per
cent of domestic animals killed at night. Much
of this loss of food would be reduced, and
fewer stock lost as a result, if herdsmen made
kills available to lions by moving carcasses
to the outside of villages immediately follow-
ing an attack. The means by which this
could be made operative is by making it one
of the conditions for compensation. At
present farmers are paid amounts ranging
from 100 to 300 rupees whenever a lion
kills one of their stock. However the system

663

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

of payment would have to be greatly improved
before it could be used to ensure that the
lion ate what it killed. Of the herdsmen to
whom I paid a mere ten rupees in order to
see their loss, less than 50 per cent said they
intended to apply for government compensa-
tion, and fewer actually did. Of the esti-
mated several thousand livestock killed bet-
ween 1969 and 1971, only 430 applications
for payment were made of which 25 per cent
were rejected. Few herdsmen understood the
conditions for eligibility, all had to wait
months for payment, and when it was not
forthcoming they were rarely told why.

While preservation of the lion is easily
justifiable on the grounds that it is a signi-
ficant part of India’s wildlife heritage, it is
difficult to financially justify it when the re-
sources of the country are so limited. The
future of the lion in the long run perhaps
ought to include more schemes which can
make it a better resource capable of paying

Refer

Berwick, S. H. & Jordan, P. A. (1971) : First
report of the Yale-Bombay Natural History Society
studies of wild ungulates at the Gir forest, Gujarat,
India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68: 412-423.

Daniel, J. C. (1956) : The Indian lion (Panthera
leo persica). Journal of the Bengal Natural History
Society 28 : 81-90.

Heaney, G. F. (1943) : Occurrence of lions in
Persia. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 44: 467.

Hodd, K. T. B. (1970) : The ecological impact
of domestic stock on the Gir forest. Proceedings

its own way. For instance, only a few thousand
tourists visit the Gir annually, while the cost
to the government in providing just the tourist
facilities is twice that which the tourist reve-
nue contributes. The Gir Wildlife Sanctuary
would benefit from greater promotion, espe-
cially outside the country where the lion’s
existence is little known, let alone knowledge

that within a few hours after leaving Bombay

visitors can both see lions in their natural
habitat and approach them on foot.

At present the majority of tourists who do
come do not stay overnight because after see-
ing the lions there is little else for them to do.
Improvement in the habitat of the Gir through
a gradual reduction in the number of cattle
should result in substantial increases in the
populations of many native wildlife species,
all of which should benefit the development
of a more varied program of wildlife related
activities which visitors could participate in.

e n c e s

of the 11th Technical Meeting, Vol. 1. Interna-
tional Union for Conversation of Nature and
Natural Resources publications new series No. 17.
Morges, Switzerland.

Schaller, G. B. (1972) : The Serengeti lion.
London : University of Chicago Press.

Talbot, L. M. (1959) : A look at threatened
species. London : Fauna Preservation Society.

Todd, N. B. (1965) : Metrical and non-metrical
variation in the skulls of Gir lions. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 62 : 507-520.

664

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS OXYURELLA DYBOWSKI AND
GROCHOWSKI, 1894, (CLADOCERA: CHYDORIDAE)

FROM INDIA1

Pramod D. Rane2

(With six text-figures)

The genus Oxyurella was described by
Dybowski and Grochowski in 1894 with
Oxyurella tenuicaudis (Sar, 1862) as the type
species. This genus is not so well known from
India as only one species O. singalensis (Daday,
1898) was previously reported from South
India. While examining the cladoceran collec-
tion from Madhya Pradesh I examined seve-
ral female specimens which appeared similar
to O. singalensis, but critical examination of
the male, showed that the specimens belonged
to a hitherto undescribed species.

Oxyurella sangramsagari sp. nov.

MALE.

Body oval. Postero-ventral corner of valves
rounded without denticles but row of spinules
on the inner side. Rostrum blunt. Valves with-
out lines. Antennules not reaching apex of
rostrum. Esthetascs of different lengths, pro-
jecting beyond apex of rostrum. Antennules
with a two-segmented sensory papilla present
on lateral side near the apex. Plate of labrum
rounded with a slight concavity to the upper-
side. Post-abdomen narrowing distally with
one large hook-shaped and one small anal

1 Accepted March 1983.

2 Zoological Survey of India, Central Regional
Station, Jabalpur, 482 002.

denticles; 5 to 6 groups of lateral setae in the
middle of post-abdomen. There is a distinct
incision at the base of claw. Claw slightly
bent at its distal end with two basal spines;
distal larger, about slightly less that \ length
of the claw and situated at about \ of the
total length of claw from base. Ventral side
of valve with setae along its entire margin.
First leg with two chitinized hooks on the
base of outer ramus of endite which serves
for attachment of the valve of female. Hooks
with large bunch of setae at the base.

FEMALE.

Female is larger than male, without lines
on the valves. Ventral margin of valve with
setae along its entire margin, Antennules not
reaching apex of rostrum. Plate of labrum
rounded. Rostrum with blunt apex. Post-
abdomen slightly narrowing distally, with 13
anal denticles decreasing in size proximally;
distal denticle longest and a small curved
denticle before it. Claw with three basal
spines, proximal two smaller and distal one
larger, about slightly less than \ length of the
claw. Group of lateral setae present on the
post-abdomen.

Measurements : Length of male 0.52 mm.,
length of female 0.6 mm.

665

Showing distinguishing characters of the species of the genus Oxyurella

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

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setation at distal end of claw absent. Present. Absent. Setae present proximal

to the spine.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 1-6. Oxyurella sangramsagari sp. nov.

1. Lateral view of male; 2. Lateral view of female; 3. Postabdomen of male showing
hook shaped anal spine; 4. Postabdomen of female; 5. Chitinized hook in 1st leg
of male; 6. Antennule of male with 2 segmented lateral papilla.

Type specimens : Holotype male, paratypes
fifteen males, allotypes forty five females, de-
posited in National Collection of Zoological
vSurvey of India, Calcutta. [C 3117/2, C 3118/2,
C 3119/2]

Type-locality : Sangramsagar tank behind

Medical College, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh.
Coll: P. D. Rane, l-xii-1978.

Discussion : Table 1 shows the charac-

ters on the basis of which Oxyurella sangram-
sagari sp. nov. can be distinguished from its
three closely related species.

Reference

Smirnov, N. N. (1974): Fauna of U.S.S.R.,
Chydoridae. N.T.I.S., 7(2) : 601-609 (Translated

from Russian).

667

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS BOSM INOPS IS RICHARD, 1895
(CRUSTACEA: CLADOCERA: BOSMINIDAE) FROM INDIA1

Pramod Rane2
{With three text -figures)

The Cladocera of family Bosminidae are
little known from India, and the genus Bos-
minopsis has not been reported from the In-
dian sub-continent. While studying the
Cladoceran fauna of Madhya Pradesh, I came
across a new species of the genus Bosminopsis
which is described here.

Bosminopsis devendrai sp. nov.

Material : 1 $ (Holotype) and 3 9 9 (Para-
types) Location: Pariat tank on Amerkantak
road, Jabalpur district, Madhya Pradesh,
India, Coll.: P. D. Rane.

Date of collection: 27 August 1977.

The types are on slides and are in
the National Zoological Collection, Zoological
Survey of India. (Holotype No. C 3115/2 and
Paratype No. C 3116/2).

Description

Body hyaline, valves thin, reticulate with
polygonal cells. Infero-postal angle with large
spine which is in between two rather small
spines, ventro-posterior side of the valve with
4-6 denticles. Basal part of the antennules
united with each other and with head to form
sinuate posterior margin. One large spine near
apex with several olfactory setae. Antenna
with three jointed rami. Post-abdomen with

1 Accepted June 1983.

2 Zoological Survey of India, Central Regional
Station, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, 482 002.

sinuate posterior margin. One large spine near
claws, more than half the length of post-abdo-
minal claw. The anterior lobe of the post-
abdomen with about four, and posterior with
about 7, minute spinules. Eye usually large,
situated dorsally. Postero-dorsal corner of valve
slightly protrudes out. Intestine not coiled, anus
terminal. Male unknown. Length of female:

0.28-0.33 mm.

Affinities

The new species Bosminopsis devendrai
appears to be similar to the only species
known under the genus namely, B. deitersi
Richard, 1895; but can be separated from it
as follows :-

1 . Post-abdomen of Bosminopsis deitersi
Richard tapering to point at claws, while in
B. devendrai it is sinuate.

2. Postero-dorsal comer of valve somewhat
protruding out in Bosminopsis devendrai,
while it does not protrude out in the other
species.

3 . The large spine on infero-lateral angle is
in between two rather small spines in Bosmi-
nopsis devendrai, while in B. deitersi only
one small spine is present at the proximal side
of the large spine. The large spine is com-
paratively larger in B. devendrai than in B.
deitersi. In addition to the above mentioned
differences, the ventral margin of valve with
4-6 small spines is a unique character for the
new species.

668

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 1-3. Bosminopsis devendrai sp. nov.

1. Parthenogenetic female; 2. Infero-postal angle of valve showing large spine between
two rather small spines and six denticles; 3. Post-abdomen.

References

Brooks, J. L. (1959): Cladocera: In Fresh Water
Biology, Edited by W. T. Edmonson: 2nd Edition,
John Wiley and Sons. New York: 587-656.

Richard, J. (1895) : Sur quelques Entomostrac6s
d’eau douce d'Haiti. Mem. Soc. Zool. France, VIII.
(2): 189-199.

669

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81

A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS MIXOCERA WARREN
(SUBFAMILY: GEOMETRINAE)1

V. K. Walia and H. R. Pajni2
(With seven text-figures)

The genus Mixocera Warren is so far repre-
sented by a single Indian species namely
parvulata (Walker) (Prout 1913). Out of a
total of 99 species of the family Geometridae
studied by us, one new species falls under
genus Mixocera Warren. The present commu-
nication includes the complete description of
Mixocera albilineata sp. nov., a revised charac-
terization of genus Mixocera Warren and a key
to the 2 Indian species of this genus.

Genus mixocera Warren

Mixocera Warren, 1910, Nov. Zool., 8: 206;

Prout, 1912, Gen. Ins., 129 : 1934, Seitz Macrolep.,

12: 133.

Gynandria Turner, 1910, Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S.

Wales, 35: 575; Gen. Ins., 129: 243 (subgen.)

Thelycera Prout, 1912, Gen. Ins., 129: 243 (sub-
gen.)

Frons smooth. Antenna weakly bipectinate
to nearly simple or ciliated, varying in both
sexes. Labial palpus in both sexes short;
second segment shortly rough scaled; third
segment minute. Proboscis weak. Hind tibia
in both sexes with only terminal spurs. Abdo-
men not crested. Fore wing with costa slightly
arched or even nearly straight; apex acutely
angulate; termen smooth, oblique or gently
curved. Discal cell about half of wing length;
DC2 more or less curved. Rx from near apex
of cell or from base of stalk of R2, R3, R.i, Rs
and M1 or anastomosing with or running into

1 Accepted March 1983.

2 Department of Zoology, Panjab University,
Chandigarh- 160 014.

Sc; R2 arising from before R5; Cui from
before or angle or shortly stalked with M3.
Frenulum absent in both sexes. Hind wing
with apex rounded; termen moderately to
rather strongly rounded; Discal cell less than
one-half; discocellulars oblique, at least poste-
riorly. Sc + Ri shortly appressed to or ana-
stomosing with cell near base, then diverging;
Rs and Mx stalked; M3 and Cm shortly stalk-
ed, occasionally both veins from lower angle
of cell. Uncus beak-shaped; socii slender;
gnathos ring-like; coremata present. Valva long;
sacculus produced into a pointed finger-like
structure; aedeagus broad in posterior two-
third length.

Type-species: Mixocera parvulata (Walker)
The only Indian species namely parvulata
(Walker) under the present genus (Prout
1913) could not be collected for study but a
new species from a different locality is des-
cribed.

Key to the species of Mixocera Warren

Thorax and abdomen bluish green; fore wing with
a curved antemedial and obliquely straight post-
medial white line; underside green, with promi-
nent postmedial band albilineata sp. nov.

Thorax and abdomen white; forewing having only
an oblique postmedial white band; underside
white, unmarked parvulata (Walker)

Mixocera albilineata sp. nov. (Figs. 1-7)
male. Head with vertex covered with white
scales; frons yellowish brown. Antenna serrate
and fasciculate, cilia long; flagellum slightly
longer than half the length of forewing. Eyes
black, with a row of white scales behind. Labial

670

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 1,2. Fore and Hind wings; 3,4,5. Male genitalia; 6. Female genitalia.
Abbreviations: 2A, Second anal vein; AE, Aedeagus; APO. ANT., Anterior apophyses;
APO. PO, Posterior apophyses; CRN, Cornutus/cornuti; CRP. BU, Corpus bursae;
Cu1? First cubitus; Cu2, Second cubitus; DU. BU, Ductus bursae; GN, Gnathos;
JX, Juxta; M1? First medius; M2, Second medius; M3, Third medius; OVP, Ovipositor;
R15 First radial; R2, Second radial; R3, Third radial; R4, Fourth radial; R5, Fifth
radial; Rs, Radial sector; SA, Saccus; Sc, Subcosta; Sc + R1? Stalk of Sc and Rx;
SL, Sacculus; SOC, Socii; TRA, Transtilla; UN, Uncus; YIN, Vinculum; VLV, Valva.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 81

palpus with first and second segments pale
ochraceous, sparingly suffused with brown;
third segment tipped with white scales.

Thorax bluish green dorsally, white ventrally.
Forewing with termen obliquely arched. Ground
colour bluish green; a curved antemedial and
obliquely straight postmedial line white; mar-
ginal fringe green, with a light green band.
Underside green, with a straight white post-
medial band. M3 and Cu± very shortly stalked
from lower angle of cell. Hindwing with ground
colour bluish green, with only white postmedial,
slightly arched line; marginal fringe green with
a light green band. Underside as described
under fore wing. Rs and long stalked from
upper angle of cell; M3 and On on a compa-
ratively shorter stalk. Legs clothed with white
appressed scales; hind tibia not dilated.

Abdomen bluish green on upperside, with-
out dorsal tufts; underside white. Male genitalia
with uncus narrowly beak-shaped and pointed
distally, strongly sclerotized, completely bare;
socii shorter than uncus, tubular, bearing short
setae; gnathos squarish, weakly sclerotized;
tegumen with V-shaped thickening; vinculum
broadly U-shaped, produced into a short coni-
cal saccus. Valva long and narrow; costa with
basal half bare, distal half densely setosed;
sacculus well sclerotized, produced distally into
an arched, shortly dentate and sharply pointed
process; coremata present. Aedeagus long, with
its anterior one-third part slender and bent,
remaining two-third distal portion broad; vesica
adorned with a bunch of long spines in addi-
tion to other sclerotized patches and lines,
distal end of vesica also carrying a few short
spines. Female genitalia with corpus bur-
sae globular, membranous and marked with
wrinkled channels distally; ductus bursae more
or less as long as corpus bursae, very wide,
well sclerotized, with its surface minutely den-
ticulate anteriorly; genital plate rugose, mode-

rately sclerotized; anterior apophyses straight,
less than half of posterior apophyses, the latter
slightly curved; ovipositor lobes furnished with
numerous setae.

Fig. 7. Mixocera albilineata sp. nov.

Wing expanse (Half) : Male 12 mm; Female
12 mm.

Holotype India: himachal Pra-

desh: Chambaghat, 14.viii. 1978, light, Coll.
V. K. Walia. Allotype $ , same data as for
holotype. Paratypes; 7 d\ Chambaghat,
August, light. Coll. V. K. Walia. (Types in
Entomology Section, Department of Zoo-
logy, Pan jab University, Chandigarh).
Distribution : India: Himachal Pradesh.
Apart from the much larger size, the new
species differs from parvulata (Walker) in the
coloration of the frons and the wings and
in possessing fasciculate and slightly serrate
antennae unlike weakly pectinate antennae of
parvulata (Walker).

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the University Grants
Commission for financing a 3 -year project on

672

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Family Geometridae under which this work
was carried out. We are also thankful to
Dr. D. S. Fletcher, British Museum (Natural
History), London for comparing the material.

The laboratory facilities provided by the Chair-
man, Department of Zoology, Panjab Univer-
sity, Chandigarh are also gratefully acknow
lodged.

References

Prout, L. B. (1912): Lepidoptera, Heterocera. (1913): Geometridae: Subfamilia

Family Geometridae, subfamily Hemitheinae. Gen. Hemitheinae. Lepidopterous Catalogus, Berlin No.
Ins. fasc., 129: 1-274, 5 pis. 14: 1-192.

FRESHWATER ALGAE OF KARNATAKA STATE (INDIA) :

COSMARIUM KAYCEDENSE SP. NOV. AND EUGLENA LUNARIS

SP. NOV. FROM DHARWAD1

G. R. Hegde2 and S. G. Bharati3
( With two text-figures )

Gandhi (1956) first reported 44 forms of
diatoms from Dharwad area. Subsequently,
Bharati and Gonzalves (1962) recorded some
new species of Desmids from this place and an
account of 49 species of Desmids was given
by Bharati (1965 and 1966). In an extensive
systematic survey of freshwater algae of Dhar-
wad, collections were made from six man-made
tanks in the Karnatak College Campus,
Dharwad. These tanks are fed with municipal
tap water and are being used for growing
aquatic plants like Hydrilla, Chara , Vallisneria,
Nymphaea and Salvinia. Samples collected on
25. iv. 1978 by squeezing these macrophytes
were preserved in 4% formaldehyde solution
for further study. They are now deposited in
the Phycology Laboratory, Karnatak Univer-
sity, Dharwad.

A detailed study of these samples from
Karnatak Science College, revealed two new
taxa, belonging to genera Cosmarium Corda

1 Accepted June 1983.

2 Department of Botany, Kittel College, Dhar-
wad-580 001.

3 Department of Botany, Karnatak University,
Dharwad-580 003.

and Euglena Ehr. They have been described in
the present paper.

Cosmarkam kaycedense sp. nov. (Fig. 1).

Cellulae singulares, parvae, c. \\ plo lon-
giores quam latae, ovato-ellipticae, profunde
constrictae, sino lineari et ad apicem paululum
dilatato; semicellulae pyramidali-truncatae ad
apicem, angulis basalibus rotundato-subtrian-
gularibus, lateribus primo parallelis deinde
apicem versus divergentibus; apex 13 granula;
sex circum granulum centrale, et alia in duobus
ordinibus disposita, ha bens. Semicellula a latere
visa elliptica, in centro sex incrassationes
granulosas proebens.

Longitudo 36.5-55.5 jam; Latitudo 28-29
ju,m; Isthmus 4-7 jam; Crassitudo 20 jam.

Locus typi: In stagna contra Departmentum
Zoologicum Collegii Scientifici Karnatak,
Dharwad.

Cells single, small, about i\ times as long
as broad, oval elliptical, deeply constricted,
sinus linear, slightly dilated at the apex; semi-
cells pyramidate-truncate at the apex, basal
angles rounded-subtriangular, sides parallel at
first, then converging towards the apex which

673

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

614

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

has 13 granules, 6 of which are round a central
granule and the others are arranged in two
rows. Side view of semicell elliptical with six
granular thickenings in the centre.

Length 36.5-55.5 /xm; Width 28-29 /xm;

Isthmus 4-7 /xm; Thickness 20 /im.

Locality : Planktonic in the pond opposite
to Zoology Department, Karnatak Science
College, Dharwad.

The new taxon resembles C. granatum Breb.
in shape, but differs in having thickened mid-
region and the granules in lateral view. Other
species which it resembles are C. galeritum
Nordst. var. westii Krieger et Gerloff, Forster
1969, pi. 15, fig. 5, p. 50 and C. incrassatum
(Fritsch et Rich) Krieger et Gerloff var. brasi-
liense Forster; Forster 1969, pi. 18, figs. 1 &
2, p. 51; but in view of major differences it
is named as a new species.

EugSena lunaris sp. nov. (Fig. 2, A-D)

Cellulae lunatae, metabolicae, elongatae, ad
extremitatem posteriorum rotundatae, ad ante-
riorem extremitatem attenuatae, manifeste bila-
biatam et falgello brevi praeditam. Membrana
tenuiterstriata. Corpora pyrenoides duorum
modorum : duae lamellae discoideae magnae
atque 2-12 lamellulae breves additicae.

Longitudo 55-57 /x m; Latitudo media in parte

11 'On, ad os 22.5 /xm; Longitudo flagelli

21-23 /xm.

Refer

Bharati, S. G. (1965) : A systematic survey of the
Desmids of the Bombay Karnatak Part I. ibid. 9: 2-7.

(1966): A systematic survey of

the Desmids of the Bombay Karnataka Part II. ibid.
11: 174-182.

Bharati, S. G. & Gonsalves, E. A. (1962) : Some

Locus typi : In stagno contra Departmentum
Zoologicum Collegii Scientifici Karnatak,
Dharwad.

Cells crescent shaped, metabolic, elongate
truncately rounded at the posterior end and
tapering at the anterior end, cospicuously
two lipped with a short flagellum. Membrane
finely striated. Paramylon bodies of two sorts,
2 big discoid plates and 2-12 additional short
plates. Chloroplast numerous, discoid.

Length 55-57 /xm; Width middle 11 /xm;
Width mouth 22.5 /xm; Length of flagellum
21-23 /xm.

Locality ; In the pond behind Zoology De-
partment, Karnatak Science College, Dhar-
wad.

This flagellate does not resemble any known
form and hence is considered a new species.

Ack nowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. G. W. Prescott for
the confirmation of new taxa and to Dr. H.
Croasdale for the Latin diagnosis. Thanks are
also due to Prof. M. S. Chennaveeraiah, Plead
of the Department of Botany, Karnatak Uni-
versity, Dharwad for the facilities afforded.
Financial assistance by C.S.I.R., New Delhi,
to one of us (G.R.LI.) is gratefully acknow-
ledged.

ENCES

new species of desmids occurring in Karnataka. The
J. Karnatak Univ. Sc. 7: 173-181.

Gandhi, H. P. (1956) : A contribution to the
knowledge of the freshwater diatomaceae of South
Western India. J. Indian Rot. Soc. 35: 194-209.

675

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

A NEW SPECIES OF 1MPAT1ENS L. ( B ALS AMINACE AE ) FROM

SOUTH INDIA1

M. Chandrabose, V. Chandrasekaran and
N. C. Nair2

( With eleven text-figures )

lmpatiens konalarensis sp. nov.

lmpatiens elegans Bedd. affinis, sed floribus
parvioribus; vexillo ovato-lanceolato; lobo ter-
minali alae obovato vel semi-circulari; et semi-
nibus glabris, tuberculatis differt.

Holotypus Chandrabose 69013 (CAL) et
isotypi Chandrabose 69013 (MH Acc. No.
126620, 126621, 126622, 126623, 126624,

126625, 126626) lecti in collibus Konalar,
Anamalai in Dist. Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
(ditione Madras), in 18-11-1980.

lmpatiens konalarensis sp. nov.

Allied to lmpatiens elegans Bedd., but differs
in having flowers smaller; standard petal ovate-
lanceolate; terminal lobe of wing petal obovate
or semicircular; and seeds glabrous, tubercled.

Herbs 20-75 cm high, rooting at lower nodes.
Leaves 1-9 x 0.7-4. 5 cm, alternate, ovate or
elliptic-ovate, crenate, glabrous excepting the
nerves, acute or acuminate at apex; base
rounded or subacute, sometimes inequilateral;
lateral nerves 4-6 pairs, arcuate; petioles up
to 6.5 cm long, slender, glabrous. Flowers 1.2-
1.5 cm across, pink, few in contracted race-
mes; peduncles up to 4 cm long, axillary,
slender, glabrous; pedicels ± 7 mm long,
slender, glabrous; bracts ± 4.2 x 2.5 mm,
ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, glabrous. Sepals 3;

1 Accepted April 1984.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore-641 003.

laterals 2, each ± 4.5 x 2.5 mm, green with
pink tinge, obliquely ovate, acute or acuminate,
glabrous; posterior sepal ± 8.5 x 5.5 mm,
pink, ovate-elliptic, concave, acuminate, gla-
brous; spur absent. Petals 3, pink; standard
petal ± 6.5 x 3.5 mm, ovate-lanceolate with
a pointed acumen, concave, glabrous; wing
petals 2, each ±12x5 mm, glabrous, 2-lobed;
terminal lobe ±11x5 mm, obovate or semi-
circular, rounded at apex, auricled at base;
side lobe ± 5.2 x 2.5 mm, oblong, obtuse
at apex. Stamens five; filaments ± 4 mm long,
free, shortly connate at apex; anthers ± 1 mm
long, cohering. Ovary ±3x1 mm, ovate-
elliptic, acute at apex, glabrous; stigma sessile,
5-toothed. Capsules ±9x4 mm, obliquely
ellipsoid, beaked, glabrous; seeds ± 4.5 x 3
mm, ovoid, tubercled, glabrous.

The holotype Chandrabose 69013 (CAL) and
isotypes Chandrabose 69013 (MH. Acc. No.
126620, 126621, 126622, 126623, 126624,

126625, 126626) were collected in Konalar,
Anamalai in Coimbatore District, Tamil Nadu
(Madras State) on 18.11.1980.

This herb grows usually in the sholas near
streams at an altitude of 1950 m.

Ack nowledgement

Grateful thanks are due to Dr. V. J. Nair,
Systematic Botanist, Botanical Survey of India,
Coimbatore for rendering Latin translation.

676

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Tnm

Figs. 1-11. Impatiens konalarensis sp. nov.

1. A twig; 2. Flower; 3. Bract; 4. Lateral sepals; 5. Posterior sepal; 6. Standard
petal; 7. Wing petals; 8. Androecium; 9. Gynoecium; 10. Capsule; 11. Seed.

677

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

A NEW SPECIES OF PARASYRPOPHAGUS GIRAULT
(HYMENOPTERA: ENCYRTIDAE) FROM ALIGARH, INDIA1

Anis Fatma and S. Adam Shafee2

(With a text -figure)

ParasyrpopSiagus aligarhensis sp. nov
(Fig. 1, A-G)

female. Head dark and smooth; frontovertex
slightly wider than long; ocelli brown, arranged
in obtuse triangle, lateral ocellus separated by
less than its diameter from inner orbital and
occipital margins separately; malar space as
long as eye width; malar sutures indistinct;
mandibles (fig. 1, A) tridentate; Antennae
(fig. 1, B) brownish except scape yellow; scape
long, six times as long as wide; pedicel slightly
longer than first funicle segment; funicle seg-
ments 1-6 gradually decreasing in length distad;
funicle segments first and second more than
twice as long as wide, sixth one and a half
times as long as wide; club 3 -segmented, four
and a half times as long as wide, slightly
longer than preceding three funicle segments
together.

Thorax dark, sparsely setose; axillae triangu-
lar, meeting medially. Fore wings (fig. 1,C)
hyaline, two and a half times as long as wide;
costal cell narrow; submarginal vein long, with
10 long setae; marginal vein longer than post-
marginal and stigmal veins separately (fig. 1,
D) ; marginal fringe short, spaced by a distance

1 Accepted May 1984.

2 Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim Univer-
sity, Aligarh, India.

equal to one-fourth their length. Hindwings
hyaline, about five times as long as wide. Legs
pale yellow except coxae dark brown; mid-
tibiai spur as long as basitarsus.

Abdomen dark brown except base of dor-
sum, and venter yellowish brown, shorter than
thorax; paratergites absent (fig. 1,E); sub-
genital plate (fig. 1, F) with anterior margin
straight, posterior margin with a wide notch
medially; ovipositor (fig. 1, G) short, arising
from apex of abdominal venter; first valvifer
triangular, third valvulae movably articulated
with second valvifers.

Body length: 0.82 mm.

comments. The new species is closely re-
lated to Parasyrpophagus lindus Mercet (Hayat
& Verma 1978), from which it can be sepa-
rated by its having antennae with pedicel shor-
ter than basal two funicle segments together,
all funicle segments much longer than wide,
fore wings with postmarginal vein much longer
than stigmal vein.

Holotype $, India: Uttar Pradesh, Aligarh.
University Agricultural Farm, 4.ix.l982
( Anis Fatma).

Acknowledgement

We are indebted to Prof. Nawab H. Khan,
Chairman, Department of Zoology, for pro-
viding research facilities.

Reference

Hayat, M. & Verma, M. (1978): Species of description of a new genus (Hymen optera : Encyr-
Helegonatopus and Parasyrpophagus from India, with tidae). Oriental Insects 12: 356-364.

678

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

679

Fig. 1. A-G. Parasyrpophagus aligarhensis sp. nov.

(A) Mandible; (B) Antenna; (C) Fore Wing; (D) Part of fore wing venation;
(E) Apex of abdomen, dorsal view; (F) Subgenital plate; (G) Part of external

genitalia.

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

A NEW COBITID FISH OF THE GENUS ABORICHTHYS
CHAUDHURI (PISCES: COBITIDAE) FROM INDIA1

R. P. Barman2
( With a text-figure)

Introduction

Chaudhuri (1913) established the genus
Aborichthys with A. kempi as the type species
from the Abor Hills, Assam. Subsequently
Hora (1921, 1925) described two more
species, A. elongatus from the base of Darjee-
ling Himalayas and A. garoensis from Tura,
Garo Mills, Assam. The genus Aborichthys is
so far known from these three species only.
During the course of studies on fish fauna of
Namdapha Wildlife Sanctuary, Tirap district,
Arunachal Pradesh (formerly NEFA), I have
come across three interesting fish specimens
which, on critical examination, prove to belong
to an undescribed species of the genus
Aborichthys. This new species is named after
Dr. B. K. Tikader, Director, Zoological Survey
of India.

The new species comes nearer to A. garo-
ensis Hora in having vent distinctly towards
the tip of snout than to the base of caudal
fin, but can be easily separated from the latter
by the possession of deeper body depth, shor-
ter eye diameter and less number of lateral
coloured bands.

material. Holotype (Fig. 1): 100.0 mm in
standard length. Reg. No. Zoological Sur-
vey of India, Calcutta, FF 2135.

Locality. Namdapha wildlife Sanctuary,
Arunachal Pradesh.

Collector. S. Biswas and party. Date of col-
lection 12.12.83.

1 Accepted August 1984.

2 Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta-700 016.

Paratypes, 2 exs., 104.0 mm- 110.0 mm. S.
L. Reg. No. Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta, FF 2136. Locality, Collector and
date of Collection are same as holotype.

Aborichthys tikaderi sp. nov.

Body greatly elongated and compressed.
Body and caudal peduncle are uniform in
height throughout so that dorsal and ventral
profile of the fish are almost parallel and hori-
zontal. Head depressed, length 5.77 to 5.88
and body depth 7.69 to 8.00 in standard
length. Eyes small, diameter 8.50 to 9.00 in
head length, 3.50 to 4.00 in snout length and
2.40 to 2.50 in interorbital distance. Snout
subconical anteriorly equal in length to post-
orbital part of head, length 2.25 to 2.43 in
head length. Nostrils situated close to inner,
anterior border of eye, the membrane between
two nostrils produced into a short barbel —
like projection. Mouth slightly behind tip of
snout and bordered by thick, papillated lips,
which hang loosely and prominently at angles
of mouth. Lower lip interrupted in middle and
greatly on each side. Barbels 3 pairs — 2 pairs
rostral and 1 pair maxillary. All barbels of
equal length and equal to eye diameter. Vent
situated far forward being distinctly nearer to
tip of snout than to base of caudal fin. Lateral
line incomplete, reaching before base of pelvic
fin.

Fins. D. ii/7, A. 6, P.11, V.8, C.18.

All fins widely separated from one another.
Paired fins horizontal and provided with thick
cutaneous pads in the nature of adhesive tissue
on ventral aspect of some of their rays. Dorsal

680

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1. Lateral view of holotype of Aborichthys tikaderi sp. nov.

fin small, its origin slightly behind that of
pelvic fin and considerably nearer to tip of
snout than to base of caudal fin. Longest ray
of dorsal fin is slightly shorter than body depth
immediately below it. Anal fin nearer to base
of caudal fin than to commencement of pelvic
fin. Pectoral fin considerably shorter than head
length, its length 1.38 to 1.40 in head length.
Pectoral fin situated at a distance more than
double the length of pectoral fin from pelvic
fin. Pelvic fin slightly shorter than pec-
toral fin and situated away from the anal
fin by a distance equal to two and a half times
their own length. Caudal fin long and more
or less rounded posteriorly, rather asymmetri-

cal, its length equal to or slightly longer than
head length.

Scales. Entire body covered with small,
elliptical scales. Scales on ventral surface rather
inconspicuous but are prominent in posterior
region of body.

Colour in alcohol. Body pale olivaceous
coloured. Dorsal surface of head marked with
short black lines which anastomose with one
another. Body marked with 15 to 20 black ver-
tical bands which encircle the body almost
completely except a very short space on ven-
tral surface. Black bands and yellow inter-
spaces are almost of equal width. A black
spot present at superior margin of caudal fin.

Table 1

Characters

A. tikaderi sp. nov.

A. garoensis Hora

Standard length/Body depth

7.69-8.00

9.50-10.00

Head length/Eye diameter

8.50-9.00

6.60-7.20

Caudal fin

Equal to head length

considerably longer than head
length

Pectoral fin

Situated far away from pelvic by
a distance more than two times of
their length

removed from pelvic by a distance
equal to their length

Pelvic fin

Removed from anal by a distance
equal to two and a half times
their length

away from anal fin by a distance
equal to one and a half times
their length

Body with vercal bands

15-20 bands which almost
encircle the body

30-35 bands which generally
anastomose dorso-laterally

681

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Measurements in

MILLIMETRES

Aborichthys tikaderi

Aborichthys garoensis

sp. nov.

Hora* ** *

from type series

Standard length

100.0

104.0

110.0

89.5

89.3

85.8

Length of caudal

17.0

18.5

18.0

16.0

15.8

15.7

Length of head

17.0

18.0

14.5

13.9

13.3

Depth of body

13.0

14.0

9.0

9.2

9.0

Eye diameter

2.0

Snout length

7.0

8.0

6.6

6.2

Interorbital distance
Height of head

4.8

5.0

3.8

4.0

3.0

at occiput

9.0

9.4

9.0

7.7

7.5

7.0

Width of head
Length of caudal

11.2

11.8

12.0

10.8

10.6

peduncle
Least height of

22.0

24.0

26.0

21.0

20.4

18.5

caudal peduncle

11.0

12.0

13.0

8.8

8.5

8.3

From tip of snout to vent

48.0

50.0

53.0

44.4

44.2

42.5

From vent to base

•

of caudal

From tip of snout to

51.0

54.0

60.0

45.0

43.3

commencement of dorsal
From commencement of

44.0

45.0

49.0

39.6

39.0

37.5

dorsal to base of caudal
fin

57.0

60.0

61.0

49.8

50.6

48.0

From tip of snout to

commencement of
ventral fin

41.0

44.0

35.5

36.0

34.7

Longest ray of dorsal

12.0

13.0

11.5

10.8

9.6

Longest ray of anal

10.0

11.0

12.0

10.3

8.6

8.0

Length of ventral

12.0

11.5

10.5

11.2

Length of pectoral
From commencement of

12.2

13.0

12.0

11.3

11.8

pectoral to that of
ventral fin

26.0

28.0

27.0

23.5

23.0

22.6

From commencement of

ventral to that of
anal fin

30.0

37.0

28.0

27.3

26.0

From commencement of

anal to base of
caudal fin

28.0

33.0

26.3

25.3

23.8

* Holotype

** After Hora, S. L. 1925. Rec. Indian Mas. 27: 236.

682

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Pectoral, pelvic and anal fins dull white colour-
ed. Dorsal fin provided with two or three
rows of black spots across their rays. Caudal
fin dull grey coloured with a semicircular black
margin posteriorly.

Affinities

Aborichthys tikaderi is related to Aborich-
thys garoensis Hora in having vent distinctly
nearer to tip of snout than to base of caudal
fin, but can be easily separated from the latter
by the characters given in Table 1.

Key to the species of the genus Aborichthys
Chaudhuri

1 . Vent almost equidistant between tip of snout

and base of caudal fin or slightly nearer to tip
of snout than to base of caudal fin 2

— Vent distinctly nearer base of caudal fin than
to tip of snout 3

2. Body depth 9.55 to 10.00 in standard length;

eye diameter 6.60 to 7.20 in head length; late-
ral black bands 30 to 35

A. goroensis Hora

R EFE

Chaudhuri, B. L. (1913): Zoological results of
the Abor expedition, 1911-12, Fish. Rcc. Indian Mus.
8: 243-257.

Hora, S. L. (1921) : On some new or rare species

— Body depth 7.69 to 8.00 in standard length;

eye diameter 8.50 to 9.00 in head length; late-
ral black bands 15 to 20

A. tikaderi sp. nov.

3. Vent nearer to tip of snout than end of caudal
fin. Barbels much longer than diameter of eye.
Black bands narrower than yellow interspaces
A. kempi Chaudhuri

— Vent equidistant between tip of snout and end

of caudal fin or nearer to the latter than to
former. Barbels as long as or slightly longer than
eye diameter. Black bands broader than yellow
interspaces A. elongatus Hora

Ack nowledgements

I thank Dr. B. K. Tikader, Director and Dr.
K. C. Jayaram, Joint Director, Zoological Sur-
vey of India, Calcutta for laboratory facilities
to work and for encouragement. I am also
thankful to Dr. A. K. Ghosh, Deputy Director
& Dr. P. K. Talwar, Superintending Zoologist,
Zoological Survey of India for their sugges-
tions.

EN CES

of fish from the Eastern Himalayas, ibid. 22 : 731-744.

(1925) : Notes on fishes in the In-
dian Museum. VIII. On the loaches of the genus
Aborichthys Chaudhuri. ibid. 27: 231-236.

683

REVIEW

FLOWERS OF THE HIMALAYA. By Oleg Polunin & Adam Stainton.
pp. xxx+443 (22x14 cm), with pp. 445-518 illustrations and 128 coloured
plates. New Delhi, 1984. Oxford University Press. Price Rs. 350.00.

This is the most colourful and eye-catching
book on Himalayan flowers so far produced.
As the authors have rightly pointed out in the
bibliography there was no book so far, availa-
ble which could be carried in the field, in the
Himalayas, and used for the identification of
plants. This book is in partial fulfilment of this
need.

The book, which is basically designed for
laymen and keen naturalists, describes over
1500 species out of about 9000 probables in
the area. The book has been prepared on the
same pattern as of “Flowers of the Europe, A
field guide” by the senior author. It covers
complete Nepal and three Indian high altitude
states namely Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.

The 960 colour pictures are of course the
major attraction of the book but in addition
there are 315 black and white sketches made
by Ann Farrer.

The text of the book is based on Bentham
& Hooker’s system of classification and species
descriptions are brief for the understanding of
common man. However, while going through
the text one gets the impression that the book
is written mainly for the naturalists from the
west, and lacks local information especially
the local names of plants, which would have
been appropriate.

On page 151, Pumpkin & Gourd, the com-
mon English names of Cucurbita maxima
Duchesne and Cucurbita pepo DC. respectively
have been interchanged. Similarly, on plate 9,
photograph no. 70 is labelled as Clematis roylei,
which looks like one of the Caryophyllaceae
and requires rechecking.

On the whole, the book is a very useful
addition to Indian Botany. The price is rather
high, but reasonable for Institutions.

M. R. ALMEIDA

684

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. STRANGE BEHAVIOUR OF A TIGER

On 9th June, 1983 at around 6.00 p.m. we
spotted a full grown tigress sitting near the
nullah of Lakarda in Ranthambore National
Park in Rajasthan. Her stomach was full and
she was undisturbed by our presence in the
jeep, actually she appeared to be too lethargic
to move. We watched her for a few minutes
and drove off but she continued to sit unper-
turbed. Mr. Fateh Singh Rathore, Field Direc-
tor, Project Tiger, observed that this tigress had
three nearly full-grown cubs and she frequent-
ed this area.

Next morning around 7.00 a.m. we went to
the spot again. It was a cloudy but hot summer
day. The tigress was found sitting not far from
the nullah in the grass near her partially eaten
sambar kill. While her cubs were not observed,
only the head and the front legs of the kill
had remained from the previous day’s eating.
It had also started smelling and was infested
with flies and maggots. Unlike the previous
evening, on seeing us the tigress was disturbed.
She picked up the kill and walked away. We
followed her in our jeep at a distance.

She moved straight for the Lakarda nullah
less than hundred odd yards away and entered
the water. Her manner showed a definite pur-

Area-Director,

Northern Region,

The Indian Hotels Company Ltd.,

The Taj Mahal Hotel,

New Delhi-110 011,

April 19, 1984.

pose. The kill was in her mouth all the while.
She stood in the water for a while with the
lower part of the kill dangling in it. Then quite
deliberately she dunked the kill three succes-
sive times in the water as if to get rid of the
fly nuisance. She settled down in the water
for a while, then got up with the kill still in
her mouth walked towards a bush on the bank
of the nullah and hid the kill under it. She
went back to the water, sat down partly in it
and went to sleep quite oblivious of our pre-
sence in the jeep.

This entire episode took place in some 15-20
minutes between 7.00 a.m. to 7.30 a.m. After
the tigress dozed off, we left the area. She,
however, was observed by us at the same spot
in the afternoon and evening of 10th June and
again on 11th morning in the nearby grass.
She had just killed and eaten a peacock before
we arrived around 7.00 a.m. After a while
she moved off.

Tigers are known to love water in the sum-
mer heat and they do carry their kills with
them into the water. I had never heard of a
tiger or seen one cleaning out its kill in the
water in the manner observed by us.

DIVYABHANUSINH

685

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

2. ON THE PRESENCE OF THE PANGOLIN MANIS
CRASSICAUDATA GRAY AND A FOX VULPES SP. IN KUTCH

( With a photograph)

The Indian Pangolin being strictly a noctur-
nal animal is not usually seen, and hence it is
often thought to be rare or absent from any
given place. I, for one, thought that it did not
exist in Kutch. However on 14th October,
1983, I was told that the rnali in the Collec-
tor’s Office in Bhuj had found a Pangolin and
had kept it in his house where it eventually
died. After making enquiries I traced the dead
animal to the local museum. It was a young
female. Subsequently I learnt from local

shikaris and villagers in the district that the
Pangolin is found all over Kutch. In the
Kutchhi dialect it is called chhallo, an apt name
descriptive of the scales the animal has all over

its body.

While on a trip to the Great Rann of Kutch
on January 7, this year (1984), I saw a fox
in a grassy patch about 8 km. west of Kuanvar
bet. But as our vehicle was being driven quite
fast, and the animal was running away, I was

Photo. 1. The Indian Pangolin in Bhuj-Kutch, Gujarat.

686

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

unable to note details of the animals colour a dark grey ring, or band, just above the black
etc. However the most outstanding mark was tip to the bushy tail.

Jubilee Ground, HIMMATSINHJI

Beiuj, Kutch,

May 12, 1984.

3. OBSERVATIONS ON UNUSUAL SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR

IN ELEPHANTS

During our field studies at the Periyar Tiger
Reserve two instances of unusual sexual be-
haviour were observed in wild elephants.

On 25th July 1979 a herd of elephants were
grazing near the Periyar Lake shore at Mana-
kkavala. There were two sub-adult tuskers in
that herd. One tusker attempted to mount a
female having a calf of about 2 years. The
cow did not allow the subadult tusker to
mount. The cow and the calf went towards
the forest followed by the tusker. The tusker
attempted to mount the cow again. The penis
of the tusker was everted from its sheath
throughout the period. The tusker continued
to follow the same cow, with its trunk holding
the tail of the cow and pulling it. The cow
freed itself by moving forwards and hurriedly
returned to the herd along with her calf. The
tusker went to the other smaller tusker which
was in knee deep water and smelled its penis
with the trunk tip. The tusker then mounted
the other tusker with its everted penis. The
second tusker moved away and then they be-
gan pushing each other. The bigger tusker
again mounted on the other tusker and after
some time they left the water.

Wildlife Biology Division,

Kerala Forest Research Institute,

Peechi 680 653,

July 9, 1984.

This kind of unusual sexual behaviour shown
towards smaller individuals after several un-
successful attempts to mount has been describ-
ed by Eisenberg et ah (1971) in Asiatic ele-
phants. They termed this behaviour as “re-
directed sexual activity”.

In another instance on 20th February 1980
a tusker slightly bigger than the one described
earlier mounted a female elephant with a calf
of about 4 years, after an elaborate and pro-
longed session of courting for about one and
half hours.

During the courting the calf was about 30 m
away from its mother feeding on grass. After
successful copulation the elephants moved
away.

In the first instance the calf was probably
too small and dependent on the mother. The
elephant seems to adjust its calving interval in
such a way that the previous, calf is fairly
independent before the birth of the next calf.

In Periyar the subadult tuskers seem to get
comparatively more opportunities for mating
due to the fewer number of adult tuskers in
the elephant population.

K. K. RAMACHANDRAN

687

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Reference

Eisenberg, J. F., McKay, George M. & Jainu- Asiatic elephant ( Elephas maximus maximus L.).
DEEN, M. R. (1971): Reproductive behaviour of the Behaviour 38: 193-225.

4. ADDITIONAL RANGE INHABITED BY BHARAL ( PSEUDOIS
NAYAUR) AND SNOW LEOPARD ( PANTHERA UNCIA ) IN NEPAL

We provide further information on the dis-
tribution of bharal ( Pseudois nayaur ) and snow
leopard ( Panthera undo) in Nepal. Observa-
vations, incidental to trekking activities, were
made during 1977-1978.

Both bharal ( Pseudois nayaur) and snow
leopard ( Panthera undo) have been subjects
of recent popular accounts (Matthiessen 1978,
Schaller 1979) and scientific reviews (Schaller
1973, 1977; Jackson 1979). Bharal occur main-
ly north of the central Himalayan massifs in
Nepal and are largely limited to alpine areas
west of the Kali Gandaki River (Schaller
1977). Snow leopard broadly overlap bharal
in distribution (Schaller 1977, Jackson 1979),
except in east Nepal where bharal distribution
is more limited (Schaller 1977).

Schaller and Matthiessen saw bharal along
the Seng Khola between Dhorpatan and Tara-
kot (Matthiessen 1978, Schaller 1979) and
Wilson (in Jackson 1979) reported them as
abundant in the former locality. However, we
travelled those areas north to Phoksumdo Taal
(Ringmo Lake) in November 1977 with no
sign of the species except for a hide in the
village of Murduwa, below Ringmo. From there
we paralleled the northern slopes of the Dhau-
lagiri Range east to the Kali Gandaki River.
Enroute we observed fresh tracks of a female
snow leopard and her half grown cub at a
spring near our camp site at 5300 m just north
of the 5700 m Mu La pass. No sign of bharal
was made until one of us (PMH) collected

the horn of a male at 4950 m near Sangda
La pass and later found the skull of a male
at the entrance of Cha Lungpa Gorge (4600
m). No further evidence of either species was
observed on that trek.

On 26 May 1978 we observed and photo-
graphed two herds of bharal with 12 and 3
individuals, respectively, between 4600 and
5050 m in an area west of Tilicho Lakes and
due north of the Nilgiri-Annapurna massifs.
Of interest is that the first group contained
one newborn. This coincides with the period
of parturition estimated by Schaller (1977). In
this same area, PMH collected several snow
leopard scats, all of which contained bharal
hair. Slightly north, in the village of Kagbeni,
we were shown the hide of a bharal and on
the north flank of the Thorang La pass, above
Muktinath, we observed another herd of 9
bharal at 4800 m. These are previously un-
recorded populations east of the Kali Gandaki
River. They may represent a southwestern ex-
tension of range (see Schaller 1977) or a part
of a larger disjunct distribution that continues
north in Mustang District. How far east bharal
occur along the Annapurna Range is unknown.

In mid-October 1978 we camped on the
east slope of the lower Jaljalle spur at 3900 m
under a large rock overhang that was used by
bharal, evidenced by fresh droppings and shed
hair. This is the southernmost range inhabited
by this species in east Nepal (Schaller 1977).
The Jaljalle lie east of the Arun River and

688

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

extend north toward Tibet at elevations of
3500 - 4800 m. The vegetation is both krumm-
holz and alpine while the western flank is
blanketed with impassible thickets of dwarf
bamboo (Arundinaria) . We continued north
to Sabhai Pokhari with no further sign of
bharal. However, visibility was poor and bad
weather forced us to return south.

Directly below this area on the upper Milke
Danda, we found pugmarks of a large feline
at 3650 m which we identified as either those
of the common ( L . pardus) or snow leopard.
This is a transitional altitude for both species
and the nearby occurrence of bharal, a favour-
ed prey, would suggest that the Jaljalle are
inhabited by snow leopard. However, several
kilometres south a common leopard was ob-
served (JHC) at close range on the crest of
the Milke Danda at 3200 m. Both this and
the preceding sightings were in rhododendron
( Rhododendron spp.) thickets.

Our expeditions attest to the decline and
scarcity of Himalayan wildlife. Combined,
these treks lasted five months yet the only other
large mammals encountered were a jackal
( Cards aureus), several common langur (Pres-
bytis entellus), and two barking deer ( Muntia -

Dept, of Biological Sciences,

University of Idaho,

Moscow, Idaho 83843, U.S.A.

National Crocodile Project,

P. O. Ambunti,

East Sepik Province,

Papua New Guinea,

March 27, 1984.

Refer

Jackson, R. (1979): Snow leopards in Nepal.
Oryx 15 (2) : 191-195.

Matthiessen, P. (1978): The snow leopard. The
Viking Press, N. Y. 338 pp.

Schaller, G. B. (1973) : On the behaviour of
blue sheep ( Pscudois nayaur). J. Bombay nat. Hist.

cus muntjak) in west, central, and east Nepal,
respectively. Few populations of ungulates and
carnivores in the Himalayan ranges are likely
to exist at sustained levels outside of managed
parks, preserves, or refuges. The Nepalese
government has done a commendable job of
establishing representative natural areas for
conservation purposes, considering its economic
resources. The Jaljalle and Tilicho Lakes areas
are uninhabited and may represent critical
habitat for bharal and snow leopard. We there-
fore urge His Majesty’s Government and the
Office of National Parks and Wildlife Conser-
vation of Nepal to give priority consideration
toward gazetting these areas in planning further
conservation programmes.

Acknowledgements

We thank Bill Brandenberger and Ridge
DeWitt for their good company on these ex-
peditions and our various porters for the ex-
cellent services rendered. Robert L. Fleming,
Sr. and Jr. greatly added to our enjoyment
of Nepal with their insights and hospitality. We
also thank Donald R. Johnson for reviewing
the manuscript.

PHILIP M. HALL

JACK H COX, JR.

E N C E S

Soc. 69(3) : 523-537.

(1977) : Mountain monarchs:

mountain sheep and goats of the Himalaya. Univ.
of Chicago Press, Chicago. 425 pp.

(1979): Stones of silence. The

Viking Press, N. Y. 292 pp.

689

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

5. A NOTE ON ANTLER CASTING OF BARKING DEER
(. MUNT1ACUS MUNTJAK) IN CAPTIVITY

The Barking Deer or Muntjac ( Muntiacus
muntjak ) are distributed over the greater part
of the Indo -Malayan countries, China, Formosa
and Japan (Prater 1971). This note on some
aspects of antler casting of barking deer is
based on the observations made at the Nan-
dankanan Biological Park, Orissa during the
period October, 1970 to March, 1983. The
park is within the geographical range of the
species. Specimens collected from different
parts of Orissa and those born and brought
up in the park are included in the study.
The number of stags under observation varied
from one to seven.

The thirty four antler castings recorded
during the observation period were distributed
as follows: March, 2; April, 20; and May, 12.
Majority of castings (94.12%) were recorded
in April and May only. The antlers are cast
annually and never retained to the next year.

The fifty one observations on the period of
Velvet rubbing were recorded as follows:
August, 14; September, 26; October, 9; and
November, 2. Majority of observations
(78.43%) were recorded in August and Sept-
ember only.

The antlers of both sides were cast either
in one day or within four days. Casting of
both antlers was observed within one day in
twenty instances (58.8%), on eleven instances
within two consecutive days (32.3%), on one
instance within three days (3%) and on two
instances within four days (5.9%).

The period required from the time of cast-
ing of antlers to the time when the stags start

Nandankanan Biological Park,

P. O. Barang, Dist-Cuttack.

rubbing off the velvet is taken as the span of
antler growth. This period recorded on 12
occasions varied from 4\ to 6\ months (41
months on three occasions; 5 months on one
occasion; 5J months on seven occasions and
6\ months on one occasion).

The weight and measurements of ten cast
antlers are given as follows:

Length in cm

Weight in gm

5.00

7,400

6.50

8,600

7.00

11,500

7.75

12,500

10.00

17,000

10.00

17,700

10.00

20,500

10.50

12,300

11.00

16,900

11.00

25,200

The small antlers were either unbranched or
with a short brow-tine as reported by Prater
(loc. cit). The antlers are shed in May and
renewed in August but it is doubtful whether
this occurs annually (Asdell 1964). Antlers
are shed annually in May in southern Asia and
they rarely exceed 125 to 152 mm in length
(Walker et al 1964). The antlers are cast in
May and June and the average Indian antlers
measure 5 to 8 cm, and maximum recorded
length is 17.8 cm (Prater, loc. cit.). Accord-
ing to Acharjyo (1971) nine antler castings
were recorded in April and May and both the
antlers were cast either in one or two conse-
cutive da vs.

L. N. ACHARJYO

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Wildlife Conservation Officer, Orissa,
145-Saheed Nagar, Bhubaneswar-751 007,
January 4, 1984.

Refe

Acharjyo, L. N. (1971) : Notes on Time of
Shedding of Antlers of Deer in captivity. Indian
Forester, 97(3): 150-151.

Asdell, S. A. (1964) : Patterns of Mammalian
Reproduction, 2nd Ed. Cornell University Press,
Ithaca, New York pp. 559.

S. K. PATNAIK

E N CE S

Prater, S, H. (1971) : The book of Indian Ani-
mals. 3rd (Revised) Ed. Bombay Natural History
Society, Bombay, pp. 294-295.

Walker, E. P. et al. (1964) : Mammals of the
world. Vol. II, The John Hopkins Press, Baltimore,
pp. 1385.

6. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF GREAT CRESTED GREBE
PODICEPS CRISTATUS CRISTATUS (LINN.) IN COASTAL

ANDHRA PRADESH

While on a nature trek to Thatipudi forest
area and the reservoir situated in the foothills
of Anantagiri ghats of Vizag District, on 27th
February 1983, we observed a pair of Great
Crested Grebes in the reservoir.

The reservoir is devoid of any marshy
vegetation and very deep with abundant sup-
ply of fish. The pair of birds were 30 feet apart
from each other at a distance of 50 feet from

Andhra Pradesh Natural
History Society,

Dasapalla Hills,

Visakhapatnam-3,

March 7, 1983.

the impoundment bund with prominent crests
visible to the naked eye. We also timed its
submergence and recorded the longest dive as
130 seconds, between 0400-0430 p.m.

This constitutes the first record of this species
for Andhra Pradesh and extends its known
range by about 450 km southwards from the
last coastal record at Puri on the East Coast
(handbook 1: 3).

K. S. R. KRISHNA RAIL
B. L. PRABHU
P. R. GOPALA RAJU

7. A NOTE ON THE CATCHING OF MIGRATORY BIRDS WFIICH
VISIT ALIPORE ZOO, CALCUTTA IN WINTER

(With a photograph )

Several thousands of migratory birds (wild
ducks) visit the Alipore Zoological Garden,
Calcutta each Winter and take shelter in its
lake. These birds include the following —

1 . Lesser Whistling Teal — [Dendrocygna
javanica (Horsfield)]

2. Garganey Teal — [Anas querquedula
(Linnaeus)]

691

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

3. Greater Whistling Teal — [Dendrocygna
bicolor (Vieillot)]

4. Pintail Duck — [Anas acuta (Linnaeus)]

5. Comb Duck — [Sarkidiornis melanotos
melanotos (Pennant)]

Among these birds. Lesser Whistling Teals
come in large numbers and represent about
70% of the total population. The precentage
of Garganey Teal is about 29% and the re-
maining 1% is represented by Greater Whist-
ling Teals, Pintail Ducks and Comb ducks.
They generally start coming in the middle of
October and leave the Garden at the end of
April each year. The number of these birds
in the Zoo varies from time to time but the

number of birds is generally seen in the month
of January.

The birds during their stay at the Zoo spend
the day in the lake and leave at dusk to feed
many miles away in the countryside and come
back to the lake at dawn. These movements
of birds at dusk and at dawn take place
throughout their stay (about 6 months) at this
Zoo.

It has been observed that some people of
the nearby Orphanage market area fly Kites,
the threads of which are full of fishing hooks
tied at intervals of 6 to 8 inches (as shown
in the plate) with the threads for catching
the birds. The kites are flown in the evening

Photo. 1. Photograph of a kite showing fishing hooks being tied with the flying string.

692

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

and also in the early morning on the flight
paths of the duck. These birds generally fly
in flocks, of 5 to 15 birds in each flock. The
bird-catchers fly the kites in such a way that
they can easily put the threads with hooks on
the flight paths of the birds by alternately pull-
ing and releasing the kite’s string. Some of
the ducks during their flight to and from the

Zoological Garden,

Alipore,

Calcutta - 700 027,

May 4, 1983.

lake of the Zoo become entangled with the
fishing hooks and are caught.

Acknowledgement

I wish to express my sincere gratitude to
Shri Humayun Abdulali, 75, Abdul Rahman
Street, Bombay-400 003 for his encouragement.

ADHIR KUMAR DAS

8. THE JUVENILE PLUMAGE OF THE LITTLE EGRET COMPARED
WITH THAT OF THE WHITE-PHASE INDIAN REEF HERON

{With a text-figure)

The Little Egret, Egretta garzetta (Linn.),
is mainly an inland species which is replaced
by the polymorphic Indian Reef Heron,
Egretta gularis Bose, on the western coast of
India. Whether these two are separate species
or merely the inland and coastal races of the
same species, has not been satisfactorily re-
solved as yet. In their recent study on the
systematics and evolutionary relationships
among the herons, Payne and Risley (1976)
have considered E. garzetta and E. gularis as
members of a super species.

The Little Egret resembles the white-phase
Reef Heron. A far-inland population of the
Little Egret can be clearly distinguished from
an exclusively marine Reef Heron population,
as the former is characterized by the presence
of a black beak whereas the latter has a yellow
beak. However, in the transitional zone where
both the marine as well as the inland waters
are important sources of food, the distinction
between the two species based on the beak

colour breaks down and the white birds with
the beak colour ranging from jet black to
yellow can be seen interbreeding with the grey
morphs of the Reef Heron in the same heronry
(Parasharya & Naik, unpublished) . That there
is a considerable overlap between the tarsus
length of the Reef Heron and Little Egret has
been demonstrated earlier (Ali & Ripley 1968,
Hancock & Elliot 1978). In view of these, we
thought it desirable to check the contention
of Ali & Ripley (1968) that the Little Egret
has ‘snow-white’ chicks in contrast to the Reef
Heron whose white chicks are dappled with
grey.

Materials and Methods

A heronry in the grounds of the Municipal
Hill Garden Zoo, Ahmedabad (23° 04' N,
72° 38' E) located about 92 kilometres from
the sea coast was visited on 28 September
1982. The Little Egret was breeding there along
with the Large Egret {Egretta alba). Median

693

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Egret ( Egretta intermedia ), Cattle Egret

( Bubulcus ibis). Night Heron ( Nycticorax
nycticorax) , Pond Heron ( Ardeola grayii) and
Little Cormorant ( Phalacrocorax niger). After
careful observations of adult birds attending
their nests, four nests of the Little Egret were
identified and from these nests six 2 to 3 -week
old chicks (three from one nest and one from
each of the other nests) were collected and
transported to an aviary in the Saurashtra
University Campus, Rajkot, where the birds
were maintained for a detailed study. We have
had for a comparison several white morphs
of the Indian Reef Heron in their juvenile

plumage in the aviary; these birds were collect-
ed from a Reef Heron colony in Gogha (Naik
et al. 1981) on the west coast of the Gulf of
Khambhat.

Results

The three siblings of the Little Egret had a
number of white feathers with grey streaks and
dapples; only the head, breast, abdomen and
thigh had all the feathers pure white, the other
regions having had most of the white feathers
streaked, or dappled, with grey at the distal
ends. Out of the other three nestlings collected,
one had feathers with grey streaks and dapples

Fig. 1. A nestling of the Little Egret showing grey streaks and dapples on the plumage.

694

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

as described above, whereas the remaining
two nestlings had exclusively pure white fea-
thers all over their body.

The juvenile plumage in the white morphs
of Reef Heron had variable amount of grey
in the form ranging from fine streaks to large
dapples. Some of these birds resembled the
Little Egrets with grey streaks and dapples
described hereinbefore.

Discussion

The juvenile plumage of Little Egret is not
always pure white, though it might be so in
some individuals. On the other hand, the
white-phase Reef Heron always has some
amount of grey in the form of streaks and
dapples in its juvenile plumage (Naik & Para-
sharya 1983) we have handled a large number
of chicks of the Reef Heron without ever
finding a chick with pure white plumage.

The white juvenile plumage is extremely
variable within the Little Egret-Reef Heron
complex and the Little Egret represents one
end of the broad spectrum of variability. This
is true with respect to the other physical
characteristics, such as beak and leg colour
(Parasharya & Naik, unpublished) as well.

Dept, of Biosciences,

Saurashtra University,

Rajkot 360 005,

Gujarat,

May 4, 1983.

Refer

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1968) : Handbook of
the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. I. Oxford
University Press, Bombay.

Hancock, J. & Elliot, H. (1978) : The Herons
of the World. London Editions Ltd., London.

Naik, R. M., Parasharya, B. M., Patel, B. H. &
Mansuri, A. P. (1981) : The timing of breeding
season and interbreeding between the colour phases
in the Indian Reef Heron, Egretta gularis (Bose).

The Little Egret and Reef Heron are allo-
patric in the transitional zone between inland
and coast and we have circumstantial evi-
dences that these two species interbreed there
(Parasharya & Naik, unpublished) . If the pure-
white juvenile plumage is the genotypic charac-
teristic of the Little Egret, as against the grey-
splashed juvenile plumage of the Reef Heron,
it is possible that the Little Egret would have
only the pure- white juvenile plumage repre-
sented in its populations that are far removed
from the sea coast. Both the pure-white as well
as grey-splashed juvenile plumages, however,
may be encountered in the populations rela-
tively closer to the coastal areas, because of a
regular gene flow from coastal populations of
the Reef Heron. Our investigations currently
in progress, are directed towards checking this
possibility.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Mr. H. G. Gor, Zoo
Superintendent, Municipal Hill Garden Zoo,
Ahmedabad, for providing facilities to collect
birds. A Junior Research Fellowship given by
CSIR, New Delhi, to one of us (B.M.P.) is
acknowledged.

B. M. PARASHARYA
R. M. NAIK

:NCES

/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78(3) : 494-497.

(In press) : Sequence

of plumage changes and polymorphism in the Indian
Reef Heron Egretta gularis. Communicated for publi-
cation in Sandgrouse.

Payne, R. B. & Risley, C. J. (1976) : Systematics
and evolutionary relationships among the herons
(Ardeidae). Miscellaneous Publications, Museum of
Zoology, Univ. Mich.: 150.

695

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

9. UNUSUAL FEEDING BEHAVIOUR IN THE PADDYBIRD OR
INDIAN POND HERON ARDEOLA GRAY II

During a visit to the Parambikulam Wildlife
Sanctuary, Kerala State, in December 1982
our attention was drawn to two unusual kinds
of feeding behaviour in the Paddybird Ardeola
grayii.

Within that sanctuary water from the 23
sq. km. Parambikulam dam feeds into the
c. 3 sq. km„ Thunacadavu dam through a 2
to 3 km long tunnel under high ground. The
exit of the tunnel lies at the head of a small
inlet or creek which extends for some 30 m
and broadens from 5 to 15 m before opening
into the lower dam proper. The banks of the
upper part of the creek are steep and overhung
by small trees, but nearer its mouth these
give way to the same flat, open pebble and
mud beaches that surround the rest of the dam.
The water in the creek is deep and fast flow-
ing, but not turbulent, and its current can be
traced for a further 200 to 300 m out into
the otherwise calm waters of the dam. The
dam is heavily stocked with Carp and Tilapia
spp. which tend to congregate towards the
head of this flow of fresh water. Mahseer
Barbus tor are also present and feeding flurries
of these predatory fish, which surge right up
to the mouth of the tunnel, cause frequent
showers of small 5 to 10 cm long fish to leap
into the air, apparently throughout the day.

The creek, which is near the small resthouse
in which we were staying, was visited at inter-
vals from the afternoon of the 1st to the early
morning of the 3rd December and on each
occasion from 15 to 25 Paddybirds were found
to be congregated there, although none were
to be seen on the open shores of the dam.
Those birds were perched either on low
branches near to or overhanging the water or
on a small group of boulders near the mouth

696

of the creek. Every few minutes one or more
of them would take off and fly low over the
water of the creek in an attempt to catch the
leaping small fish on the wing. Flights were
usually short and not more than 25 to 40 m
in length, in the course of which a bird might
swerve in pursuit of several different showers
of fish before returning to the same or another
perch. At no time was a bird seen to enter
or make contact with the water. The rate of
success in this method of fishing appeared to
be low and on only three occasions during a
total of perhaps \\ hours of watching was a
fish actually seen to be taken, although other
captures probably occurred which were not
observed. All fish caught were taken to a perch
before being eaten. Although several birds
might be in the air at once, fishing appeared
to be a purely individual effort and no kind of
collaboration was observed.

Much less frequently a single Paddybird, or
occasionally two, would take off and fly out
along the visible current line in the dam proper
at a height of from 15 to 30 m. There they
behaved in a rather clumsy, tern-like manner,
quartering the water, attempting (not too un-
successfully) to hover, and occasionally stoop-
ing towards its surface, presumably after the
less frequent showers of fish that were leaping
there as well. The distance was too great for
it to be seen if any fish were actually taken but
on one occasion a bird was seen to alight on
the water after such a stoop, which may have
indicated success. Such flights over the dam
rarely lasted for more than a minute or two.

On the 2nd December similar tern-like
feeding behaviour was observed in the same
species on the larger Parambikulam dam. On
that occasion from three to five Paddybirds at

(

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

a time were watched circling, half hovering
and occasionally stooping over each of the
two patches of disturbed water where flocks
of Cormorants Phalacrocorax carbo were fish-
ing submerged and occasionally surfacing, pre-
sumably again causing shoals of little fish to
leap into the air. At no time was a Paddybird
seen to make contact with the water at the
end of a stoop but on three occasions one
was observed afterwards to alight on it,
although the distance was too great to see if
it had anything in its beak. Both areas were
more than half a kilometre from the shore and
each Paddybird spent several minutes circling
over one or other of them before returning
to rest on the beach or in a group of dead
trees standing in the water.

Neither of these two methods of feeding
appears to have been described in this species
before, although tern-like behaviour has been
recorded in other Ardeidae, notably the
Eastern Reef Pleron Egretta sacra, the Inter-
mediate Egret E. intermedia and the Snowy
Egret E. thula (Sir Elugh Elliott, pers. comm.).
The pursuit of leaping fish during short flights
from a perch, which can perhaps be compared
to the “bellyflopping on the water from an
overhanging stone ledge” behaviour referred
to in Ali and Ripley, is probably an adaptation

to a particularly favourable local situation, be-
cause there can be few other places where
abundant shoals of small fish are forced into
the air so close to a bank with such day-long
regularity. If that is so the habit must be of
fairly recent origin, because the Parambikulam
dams were only completed in 1967 and, al-
though they are understood to have been stock-
ed shortly afterwards, it would be several
years before fish populations could build up
to the levels required to produce the present
situation. However the habit is at least seven
years old because we were told by both Mr.
Jayarajan, the present warden, and Mr. V.
Sadasivan, his predecessor, who have between
them served continuously in the sanctuary
since 1975, that they have regularly watched
Paddybirds feeding in the creek in the manner
described since they were first posted there.
They also reported Paddybirds to have fed in
a tern-like way on the open waters of both
dams throughout the same period, although
neither of them has seen either behaviour in
the species elsewhere.

We are most grateful to Mr. Jayarajan and
Mr. Sadasivan for drawing our attention to
the above phenomena and to Sir Hugh Elliott
for help in the preparation of this note.

I. R. GRIMWOOD

P. O. Box 45079,
Nairobi, Kenya.

4 Fulham Park Road,
London S.W. 6,

June 20, 1983.

M. J. C. BROCKLEHURST

Reference

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1968) : Handbook of the
Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 1. Oxford Univer-
sity Press, Bombay.

697

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

10. ON THE SIGHTING OF A FLOCK OF CRAB PLOVERS

AT KOLFIAPUR

On the 27th March 1983 we were at the
Rankala Tank (200 ha) on the outskirts of
Kolhapur (17° 32' N latitude and 74° 14' E
longitude), Maharashtra. At 9 O’clock in the
morning we saw a flock of unfamiliar black-
and-white birds flying very low over the tank.
Our curiosity being aroused, we went across
for a closer look, to the opposite bank, over
which the birds were persistantly circling.

The birds numbered about twentyfour in all
and flew swiftly with strong wing-beats in a
tight but constantly changing formation. Their
flight path seemed to hug the periphery of the
tank, making irregular circles over the shal-
lower areas. We watched this wheeling for more
than an hour, and they were still in flight when
we left. Throughout the morning they had not
settled on the ground. Subsequently the birds
have not been seen on the tank or anywhere
else in the vicinity.

The birds were primarily white, with a
black back and greyish black wings. The bill
was short, thick and black, and their longish
grey legs trailed behind them. The flock was a

23/5, Bund Garden Road,

Pune-411 001.

Department of Zoology,

Shiva j i University,

Kolhapur 416 004,

June 23, 1983.

[Instances of shore birds being found far inland
than their usual haunts have been recorded in the
Journal from time to time. The occurrence at Nasik
of a Red Sea Masked Gannet Sula dactylatra Lesson
was reported in July 1957 (JBNHS 55: 358). Earlier
in June/July 1957 large flocks of that rather rare
Great Skua Catharacta skua lonnbergi Mathews

beautiful sight and the photographs also con-
firm that they were indeed Crab Plovers.

The fascinating aspect is the occurrence of
these maritime birds so far inland at Kolhapur,
which is about 60 miles in a straight line east
of the sea, and is separated from it, by the
Western Ghats. Crab Plovers are being com-
monly found only in the coastal areas by and
large north of Ratnagiri.

How or why these coastal birds have chosen
to move inland is a mystery. However, we have
found that tanks such as Mayni in Satara dis-
trict, which is even further inland do attract
birds such as sea gulls and perhaps our Crab
Plovers followed them inland. Recently a sea
gull was also spotted by one of us at the Mula
Mutha Bird Sanctuary in Pune where they
have never been seen before.

We feel that increasing sightings of
such seaside birds, far away from their usual
home, might indeed indicate subtle changes
in their coastal habitat which at present may
not be overtly visible.

ERACH K. BHARUCHA

JAY S. SAMANT

arrived in Malwan on the Ratnagiri coast.

Nasik is about 70 miles and Kolhapur about 60
inland respectively from the nearest sea coast. Perhaps
the fact is there were lesser number of knowledge-
able birdwatchers in the country not so long ago
resulting in such strays going unnoticed and unrecord-
ed in the past. — Eds]

698

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

11. CRANES WINTERING IN SAURASHTRA

In January-February 1983 I had an oppor-
tunity to travel in the Saurashtra region of
Gujarat in the company of Dr J Van der ven,
chief of the Nature Conservation Department
in the Netherlands. In visiting the wetlands
and reservoirs of Saurashtra, our main pur-
pose was to look for the wintering numbers
of Demoiselle ( Anthropoides virgo) and Com-
mon ( Grus grus) cranes; but such v/as the
richness of the avifauna encountered, that it
was impossible to restrict oneself merely to
cranes. However, cranes being our first con-
cern, the estimated numbers of cranes observed
at different reservoirs are given below:

Date Name of
Wetland

Demoi-

selle

Number of
- Common

Sarus

27 Jan. Lalpari (Rajkot)

5000

Nil

„ Veri (Gondal)

Nil

28 Jan. Sayala

250

300

„ Thoriari

Nil

„ Muli

2000

Nil

29 Jan. Kharaghoda (Little
Rann)

Nil

3000

Nil

31 Jan. Vijaysagar (Kutch)

Nil

31 Jan. Jodiya

Nil

1 Feb. Singach

100

Nil

2 Feb. Alansagar ( Jasdan)

1000

Nil

„ Ponelia

Nil

„ Brahmani

Nil

3 Feb. Nyari (Rajkot)

3000

Nil

4 Feb. Mitana (Morvi)

3000

400

Nil

„ Ramdarda (Rajkot)

500

Nil

(The estimates are rounded to the nearest hundred.)

In addition small flocks of Common
cranes numbering 10 to 25 birds were observed
in flight several times. Distant views of large
flocks believed to be of Demoiselles, were
also seen especially around Rajkot and Jam-
nagar. In all, we must have seen an estimated
25,000 cranes belonging to both the species.

Pairs and small flocks of Sarus were also seen.
Rut Sarus appears to have a very dispersed
distribution and is by no means common in
Saurashtra.

Sightings of cranes indicate that Demoiselles
were more common in the west while, as you
travel from west to east, the Common becomes
more numerous.

The daily routine of cranes appears to be
as follows: The cranes leave roosting areas
which are normally on the banks of reservoirs,
early in the morning to feed in fields on fallen
groundnut of previous harvest. They return to
the roosting sites between 10.30 and 11.30
a.m. to spend the noon and afternoon there.
In the evening around 5 p.m. they go out
again to feed and return to the roost in gather-
ing dusk. Common cranes were also seen feed-
ing in jowar and gram fields.

A number of juveniles were seen among
flocks of Common cranes, though not many
among Demoiselles. On two occasions a Demoi-
selle pair with a young was seen feeding away
from the main flock.

On the whole, cranes permitted a fairly
close approach and were not unduly scared
by our presence. In certain areas like Sayala,
where they are protected by the local people,
they were even tamer.

All the reservoirs and wetlands also pre-
sented a rich diversity of aquatic birds.
Shovellers were seen to outnumber all other
ducks, though sizeable numbers of Pochard
and Tufted Duck were seen. Over two thou-
sand White and a few Grey Pelicans were
also seen. The Khijadiya wetland encompass-
ing freshwater and saltwater habitats, is extre-
mely rich in waterbirds including Pelican,
Greater and Lesser Flamingo, storks, heron
and egrets, various ducks, avocets and curlews

699

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

and other waders, coots and moorhens. This
extensive marshland may very well be a can-
didate for inclusion in the Ramsar list as a
wetland of international importance.

The lake in the centre of Jamnagar, a busy
industrial town, is a veritable paradise for

277 Sindh Housing Society,

Pune-411 007,

May 4, 1983.

birdwatchers. Scores of Greater Flamingos,
hundreds of ducks, waders, terns and coots
and many cormorants, darters, ibises and
moorhens, not to say skimmers, crowd this
shallow lake.

PRAKASH GOLE

12. A NOTE ON THE STATUS OF BRACHYPTERYX CRYPTIC A

In March 1979, in the Tirap District of
Arunachal Pradesh, our joint Smithsonian-
Bombay Natural History Society Expedition
collected a series of five specimens of a bird
species which Dr Salim Ali and I assumed we
had not previously encountered in our Indian
field studies. It was a small, buff -brown, un-
distinctive chat-like bird, which I subsequently
described as a new species of shortwing thrush,
Brachypteryx cryptica (Ripley, 1980). I postu-
lated that this new form was most closely
related to the poorly known Brachypteryx
hyperythra, from Sikkim and northeastern
India.

On returning to Arunachal Pradesh for con-
tinued ornithological field investigation in
December- January 1981-82, we collected four
more specimens, noting in one case the typical
chat-like stance of an individual standing on
an exposed rock. Later in Calcutta we saw
three more specimens collected by the Zoolo-
gical Survey of India, eight months earlier, in
1981, these being identified as the new Brachy-
pteryx. At this point. Dr. Salim Ali and I began
to have reservations. Could the species be a
timaliine ? In Washington, consultation with
Dr Richard Zusi revealed the fact that the
nasal operculum in our new species is only

partly closed, thus resembling forms in the
genus Trichastoma (a timaliine). Additional
evidence, the degree of fusion of the basal
phalanges of digits three and four (greater in
Trichastoma), coupled with the slightly longer
rictal bristles, placed these birds in that diffi-
cult timaliine genus. No specimens of Tricha-
stoma tickelli assamense had been identified
by us, although we had collected the species to
the north in heavy undergrowth in the Mishmi
Hills in 1946. Thus my supposed shortwing
becomes a synonym of Trichastoma tickelli
assamense.

None of the birds we collected uttered a
sound, a factor which, added to the presence
of other shortwings in the area, and none of
the Trichastoma abbotti or Pellorneum which
might have reminded us of assamense (the
widespread Pellorneum ruficeps was of course
common and noisy) served to throw us off
the scent completely.

The boundary separating the smaller chat-
like thrushes (Turdinae) from the similar small
Indochinese babblers (Timaliinae) is poorly
defined. Trichastoma is a timaliine genus gene-
rally considered to be on this borderline
(Deignan 1964). A perusal of the original
designations of many taxa now included in

700

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Trichastoma shows that earlier workers have
had difficulty separating the shortwing Brachy-
pteryx from this babbler genus. T. bicolor , T.
rostratum macropterum, T. sepiarium, T. m.
malaccense, and T. m. poligene were all origi-
nally placed in the genus Brachypteryx by their
describers. Thus even a wary ornithologist can
be trapped. A further study of the generic
limits of the genus Trichastoma is planned.

One final note on construction of names in
the genus Trichastoma : Deignan has consider-
ed the genus name to be neuter, and has
altered all modifying names accordingly. In
order to bring the nomenclature of my A
SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN
into accord with Deignan, species no. 1166 (p.

Smithsonian Institution,

Washington, DC. 20560, U.S.A.

May 18, 1983.

Refer

Deignan, H. (1964): Timaliinae. In Check-List of
Birds of the World. E. Mayr and R. A. Paynter, eds.
Harvard Univ. Press: pp. 240-427.

Ripley, S. D. (1980): A new species, and a new
subspecies of bird from Tirap District, Arunachal
Pradesh, and comments on the subspecies of

322, 2nd ed.) should read: Trichastoma

tickelli assamense, (not assamensis).

Acknowledgements

Research in India was facilitated by the kind
assistance of numerous authorities in the Wild-
life Department and Government of Aruna-
chal Pradesh. I thank curators at the American
Museum of Natural History, Field Museum of
Natural History, Museum of Zoology, Univer-
sity of Michigan, and Museum of Comparative
Zoology, Harvard University for loaning com-
parative material in their care. Finally, thanks
are due to Drs Salim Ali and Richard Zusi
who helped me to solve this provisional orni-
thological riddle.

S. DILLON RIPLEY

NCES

Stachyris nigriceps Blytb. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
77: 1-5.

(1982) : A Synopsis of the Birds of

India and Pakistan. 2nd ed. Bombay natural History
Society, Bombay.

13. SOME NOTES ON THE BREEDING OF THE COMMON BAYA

(PLOCEUS PHILIPPINES )

On 12th October 1969, HA while looking
for duck and snipe (which were not found!)
in a marsh along the Shil-Kalyan Road, Thana
District, near Bombay, saw large flocks of
Bayas ( Ploceus philippinus) flying from one
patch of grass ( Coix lachryma-jobi ) to another.
In one place, two birds in female plumage
were seen carrying grass. Closer examination
revealed seven or eight nests in various early
stages of construction spread over a distance

of about 20 yards in a patch of reeds 100
yards long and about 10 yards wide bordered
by a knee-deep ditch of water along the side,
where the nests were visible from outside. The
nests were slung from one or two reed-stalks
about 7 feet from the ground. They were not
hung from a single point as are normal baya
nests; the area of contact extended over three
or four inches along the stalks. They also
appeared to be of a coarser and looser texture.

701

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

None of them was complete. A male in breed-
ing plumage which had settled a few feet from
a nest was collected. This was found to be
the Common Baya but, as there was no record
of this species nesting in reeds, a mistake was
suspected.

On 19th October HA returned to the place
and saw at least two nests being attended to
by birds in ‘Female’ plumage which appeared
to be Common Bayas, but was unable to see
or obtain any accompanying male in breeding
plumage.

A third attempt was made about midday
on 20th October by HA with the late Mr. D.
E. Reuben on the way back from the opening
of the Karnala Bird Sanctuary. Though there
were bayas in the vicinity, none of them ap-
peared to be interested in the nests and yet
another visit was indicated at some other time
of day.

On 6th November the place was visited
again (with V.C.A.) intending to leave him
there for a longer period if the owners could
not be immediately identified. We got there
about 7 a.m. Though we waited for some time,
no weaver birds came near the nests and all

75 Abdul Rehman Street,

Bombay-400 003.

the grass of which the nests were made had
dried up making it fairly certain that work
had been discontinued. V.C.A. was quite
certain that they could only have been made
by the Common Baya. The nests were between
ten and fourteen inches in length and two or
three of them had been made as far as the
bar, with no egg chamber even commenced.
Most of them had bits of mud plastered on
to the inner wall above the level of the bar.

It has now been accepted for some time
that in the Common Baya, it is the male alone
in breeding plumage that builds the nest, with
the female only helping a little in the final
stages. Young males are known to build
‘doodling’ nests (Salim Ali JBNHS 34: 953).
It is possible that the birds seen building were
young males which were ‘practising’ among the
reeds, presumably not acquiring a breeding
plumage during the current season. Their
breeding in reeds does not appear to have
been recorded so far. If our conjecture is cor-
rect, this behaviour of immature birds possibly
suggests that the species was originally a reed-
builder ?

HUMAYUN ABDUL ALI

Bombay Natural History Society, V. C. AMBEDKAR

Horn bill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay-400 023,

March 1, 1983.

14. FIRST INDIAN RECORD OF CHAFFINCH
C FRINGILLA COELEBS )

During the afternoon of 4th December 1982 a visit to the Corbett National Park in Uttar
a female Chaffinch ( Fringilla coelebs ) was Pradesh.

watched by a party of British Birdwatchers on I first spotted the bird as it was mobbing a

702

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Jungle Owlet Glaucidium radiatum which was
perched completely in the open on the outside
of a tree at the forest edge not far from the
Park Headquarters. We watched the bird for
several minutes through telescopes mounted on
tripods and there can be no doubt as to its
identity as it is a very familiar species with
us in England, even in our gardens. Because
of this familiarity, most of the party preferred
to watch the owlet, which was of course a new
species for them !

The bird was about the size and general
shape of a female House Sparrow Passer
domesticus but rather longer-tailed. The upper-
parts were dull brown with a greyer tinge to
the head and the underparts became whiter
from the lower breast down to the under tail-
coverts. There was no supercilium, the rather
plain head being relieved by a slightly darker
shade which ran either side of the rear of the
crown down the sides of the nape. The wings

2 Church Row,

Sheviock, Torpoint,

Cornwall PL 11 3EH,

England,

March 4, 1983.

R E FE

Fleming, Robert L. sr., Fleming, Robert L.
jr. & Bangdel, Lain Singh (1979) : Birds of Nepal
with reference to Kashmir and Sikkim. (Second
Edition) . Kathmandu.

were darker than the mantle and had two very
conspicuous white bands, a broad band of
white on the median coverts and a narrower
one formed by tips of the greater coverts. As
it moved about the tree mobbing the Owlet
the conspicuous white outer tail feathers and
greenish tinge to the rump were noted and the
crown feathers were raised to form a marked
peak at the rear of the head. The greyish bill
was markedly pointed and quite conical and
the legs were greyish pink.

The occurrence of this species in Northern
India in winter is hardly surprising as it is
quite a frequent winter visitor to Afghanistan
(where I have also seen it) and according to
Ripley (1982) and Fleming et al. (1979) it is
an occasional winter visitor to northern Pakis-
tan and north-western Nepal. The most sur-
prising thing being perhaps that it hasn’t been
picked up in winter in the Indian Himalayan
foothills before.

S. C. MADGE

E N CE S

Ripley, Sidney Dillon (1982) : A Synopsis of
the Birds of India and Pakistan. (Second edition).
Bombay Natural History Society.

15. ADDITIONS TO THE BIRD SPECIES RECORDED FROM NEPAL

The following account provides data on
bird species recorded from Nepal but which
are not included in R. L. Fleming et al. (1979).

The nomenclature mainly follows Voous
(1977) which is becoming widely used as a
standard work for the names of Palaearctic

species. It forms the basis of a work currently
being prepared on the distribution of birds in
Nepal (C. and T. P. Inskipp in prep.). Diffe-
rences from the nomenclature used by Ali
and Ripley (1968-74) and Ripley (1982) are
indicated.

703

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Great care has been taken to assess the
accuracy of all sight records included here.
Full field notes of such records have been
provided. One or two species have been omitted
as details were not considered adequate. There
are also two species. Red Spurfowl Galloper -
dix spadicea and Xsabelline Shrike Lanius isa-
bellinus (- Lanius collurio isabellinus) which
were included for Nepal by Ripley (1982)
but we have not so far been able to discover
the source of these statements.

fulvous whistling duck (= Large Whistl-
ing Teal) Dendrocygna bicolor. Sharpe (1894)
refers to a specimen collected in Nepal by
R. H. Hodgson. Confirming this, an undated
specimen collected by Hodgson in Nepal was
located in the collection of the British Museum
(Natural History) in 1981.

baer’s pochard Aythya baeri. Observations
of two males and one female were made at
Kosi Barrage in the eastern terai (altitude 75
m) on 12 February, 1979 and 17 males and
three females on 20 February, 1979 by R.
Filby, R. Grimmett, F. Lambert, C. Murphy,
L. Norton and N. J. Redman (Lambert 1979,
Redman et al., in press).

long-tailed duck Clangula hyemalis. An
immature male was observed at Kosi Barrage
from 13 to 15 March, 1981 by T. P. and C.
Inskipp (1981).

saker falcon Falco cherrug milvipes
(= Falco biarmicus milvipes). Specimens were
collected in Nepal by B. H. Hodgson (Gray
& Gray 1846). Manuscript notes on Hodgson’s
unpublished paintings indicate that three speci-
mens were collected in the Kathmandu Valley
on 1 and 11 November and 12 December. No
year is given. It is listed for Nepal by Ali and
Ripley (1972).

barbary falcon Falco pelegrinoides babylo -
nicus {-Falco peregrinus babylonicus) . Listed
as collected in Nepal by B. H. Hodgson (Sharpe

1874). However during a recent examination
of specimens at the British Museum (Natural
Llistory) none which was unequivocally F.
pelegrinoides could be located. Several birds
were observed at Kagbeni and Tangbe, Thak-
khola, altitude 3-3200 m in late July 1977,
September and early October 1978 by J. M.
Thiollay (1978).

sanderling Calidris alpina. A single bird
was observed at Kosi Barrage on 11 February,
1979 by R. Filby, R. Grimmett, F. Lambert,
C. Murphy, L. Norton, and N. J. Redman
(Lambert 1979, Redman et al. in press).

* curlew sandpiper Calidris ferruginea.
An adult in breeding plumage was seen at
Kosi Barrage on 22 April, 1981 by M Hendrik-
son, N. Krabbe and O. Lou (Krabbe 1981).

terek sandpiper Xenus cinereus ( =Tringa
terek). One was seen at Kosi Barrage on 18
April, 1982 by J. Eames and R. Grimmett.
(Eames 1982, Grimmett 1982).

common gull Larus canus. A first year bird
was seen at Kosi Barrage on 12 February, 1979
by R. Filby, R. Grimmett, F. Lambert, C.
Murphy, L. Norton and N. J. Redman. It was
still present on 21 February 1979. (Redman
et al, in press). No previous published records
for the Indian sub-continent.

LESSER BLACK -BACKED GULL LOTUS fuSCUS.
An adult was observed at Kosi Barrage on 13
April, 1981 by D. Mills and N. Preston (1981).

white-winged black tern Chlidonias leu-
copterus. A bird in breeding plumage was
observed at Phewa Tal, Pokhara, west-central
Nepal, (altitude 900 m), on 4 May, 1981 by
M. Henriksen, N. Krabbe and O. Lou. (Krabbe
1981).

little owl Athene noctua. Collected in the
Dolpo at Terco Phi jar on 8 July, 1978 and at
Tnku, Do, Trap on 23 July, 1978 by H. S.
Nepali (pers. comm. 1982).

WHITE-VENTED SPINETAIL SWIFT HirundapUS

704

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

cochinchinensis rupchandi (= Chaetura cauda-
cuta rupchandi). Collected by W. Koelz at
Hitaura, central upper tarai on 24 June, 1947
(Biswas 1951).

ASIATIC house martin Delichon dasypus
cashmiriensis (= Delichon urbica cashmiriensis).
Listed for Nepal by Ali & Ripley (1972).
First definitely recorded by Diesselhorst (1968)
from Periche in the Khumbu (altitude c. 4250
m) on 27 August, 1962. Specimen obtained.

tawny pipit Anthus campestris. Collected
on 22 August, 1898 by E. Arigoni. This speci-
men was included in the O. V. Aplin Collec-
tion 1940 and was located in 1982 in the collec-
tion of the Oxford University Museum.

forest wagtail Dendronanthus indicus
(= Motacilla indica) . Recorded at Royal
Chitwan National Park in the central duns
(altitude 75 m) on 30 November, 1979 by K.
Curry-Lindahl (1980).

rufous-tailed thrush (= Dusky Thrush)
T urdus naumanni. Ali & Ripley (1973) state
central Nepal (large flocks in winter and
spring — Proud, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
48: 703). This is predated by specimens col-
lected by B. H. Hodgson (Gray & Gray 1846).
Manuscript notes on Hodgson’s unpublished
paintings indicate that two specimens were
collected in the Kathmandu Valley on 10 and
29 January (year not given).

mountain tailorbird (= Goldenheaded
Tailor-Bird). Orthotomus cuculatus. Ali &
Ripley (1973) state ‘Eastern Nepal not record-
ed since Hodgson’. However it is not listed in
the catalogues of Hodgson’s collections (Gray
& Gray 1846, Gray 1863). An undated Nepal
specimen without a collector’s name was locat-
ed in the collection of the British Museum
(Natural History) in 1981.

EASTERN GRASSHOPPER WARBLER LocUStella
naevia straminea. One was ringed at Kosi
Barrage on 11 April, 1976 by R. C. Gregory-

Smith (Gregory-Smith & Batson 1976).

BLACK-BROWED REED WARBLER AcrOCephaluS
bistrigiceps. A single bird was observed at Kosi
Tappu (altitude c. 75 m), on 19 January, 1981
by J. Hall (1981).

radde’s warbler Phylloscopus schwarzi • A
bird was observed at Charali (altitude c. 75
m) in the eastern terai on 25 December, 1979
by R. Fairbank (1979). No previous publish-
ed records for the Indian subcontinent.

red-headed parrotbill (- Greater Red-
headed Parrotbill) Paradoxornis ruficeps. A
specimen collected in Nepal by B. H. Hodg-
son is referred to by Horsfield & Moore (1854).
An undated specimen from the Seebohm col-
lection, presumably collected by Hodgson, was
located in the collection of the British Museum
(Natural History) in 1981.

Spanish sparrow Passer hispaniolensis. A
flock of about 50 birds was observed at Kosi
Barrage on 16 February, 1981 by T. Baker,
D. Mills and N. Preston (Baker 1981, Mills
& Preston 1981).

Eurasian siskin Carduelis spinus. A male
was identified at Nagarjung (altitude c. 1500
m) in the Kathmandu Valley on 7 April, 1982
by C. Winyard (pers comm. 1982) and later
seen by R. Fairbank, D. Mills and N. Preston.
First published record for the Indian sub-
continent by Gaston and Chattopadhyaya
(1981).

yellowhammer Emberiza citrinella. An
adult male was observed at Kagbeni (altitude
c. 2940 m) in west central Nepal on 25 Febru-
ary, 1981 by T. Baker, D. Mills and N. Preston
(Baker 1981, Mills & Preston 1981).

No previous published records for the Indian
subcontinent.

rustic bunting Emberiza rustica. A male
was seen at Sauraha (altitude c. 75 m) near
the Royal Chitwan National Park on 31 Janu-
ary, 1981 by P. Ewins and A. del Nevo (del

705

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Nevo & Ewins and A. del Nevo (del Neva No previous published records fur the In-
& Ewins 1981). dian subcontinent.

219 C Huntington Road, C. & T. P. INSKIPP

Cambridge CB3 ODL,

U.K.,

March 31, 1983.

References

Ali, Salim & Ripley, S. D. (1968-74): Handbook
of the Birds of India and Pakistan. 10 vols. Bombay.
Baker, T. (1981): Notes on Birds seen in Nepal

1981. Unpublished.

Biswas, Biswamoy (1951) : On some larger Spine-
tailed swifts with a description of a new subspecies
from Nepal. Ardea 39: 318-321.

Curry-Lindahl, K. (1980) : The Forest Wagtail
Motacilla indica recorded in Nepal. Bull. B. O. C.
100 : 201-202.

Diesselhorst, G. (1968): Beitrage zur Okologie
der Vogel Zentral und Ost-Nepal. Khumbu Himal. 2.
Fames, J. (1982): Notes on Birds seen in Nepal

1982. Unpublished.

Fairbank, R. (1979): Notes on Birds seen in
Nepal 1979. Unpublished.

Fleming, R. L., sr., Fleming, R. L. jr. & Bang-
del, L. S. (1979) : Field Guide to the Birds of Nepal.
2nd edition. Avalok Publishers. Kathmandu.

Gaston, A. J. & Chattopadhyaya S. (1981) :
Siskin ( Carduelis spinus ) in Solang Nalla, Himachal
Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78: 386-387.

Gray, J. E. & Gray, G. R. (1846): Catalogue of
the specimens and drawings of mammalia and birds
of Nepal and Thibet, presented by B. H. Hodgson,
Esq. to the British Museum. London.

Gray, J. E. (1863): ibid. (2nd edition). London.
Gregory-Smith, R. & Batson, F. (1976) : Birds
of South East Nepal. Unpublished.

Grimmett, R. (1982) : Notes on Birds seen in
Nepal 1982. Unpublished.

Hall, J. (1981) : Notes on Birds seen in Nepal
1981. Unpublished.

Hodgson, B. H. (undated) : Paintings in the Zoo-
logical Society of London library. Unpublished.

Horsfield, T. & Moore, F. (1854): Catalogue of
the Birds of the Museum of the East India Com-
pany. London.

Insicipp, T. P. & Inskipp, C. (1981): Notes on
Birds seen in Nepal 1981. Unpublished.

Krabbe, N. (1981) : India and Nepal Ornithologi-
cal Report. Unpublished.

Lambert, F. (1979): Notes on Birds seen in
Nepal 1979. Unpublished.

Mills, D. & Preston, N. (1981) : Notes on Birds
seen in Nepal 1981. Unpublished.

del Nevo, A. & Ewins, P. (1981): Birdwatching
in Nepal December 1980-February 1981. Unpublished.

Redman, N. J., Lambert, F. & Grimmett, R.
(In press) : Some Observations of Scarce Birds in
Nepal.

Ripley, S. D. (1982) : A Synopsis of the Birds
of India and Pakistan, together with those of Nepal,
Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. 2nd edition.
Bombay.

Sharpe, R. B. (1874): Catalogue of the Birds in
the Collection of the British Museum. Vol XXIII.
London.

(1881) : ibid. Vol. VI. London.

(1894): ibid. Vol. XXVII. London.

Thiollay, J. M. (1978) : Distributions des Falconi-
formcs nicheurs autour du massif de l’Annapurna
(Himalaya Central). L’Oiseau et R.F.O. 48: 291-310.

Voous, K. H. (1977) : List of Recent Holarctic
Bird Species. London.

706

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

16. OBSERVATIONS ON GEOCHELONE ELEGANS (SCHOEPFF) IN

CAPTIVITY, ORISSA, INDIA

Four adult Star Tortoises, Geochelone ele-
gans (Schoepff) were obtained from a collector
of the Park and kept for a minimum of three
years in the Nandankanan Biological Park,
Orissa, India, for captive breeding (see Table
1). All three females died during winter, and
although the cause of death was not deter-
mined, all females were reproductively active.
One animal laid 4 eggs which ranged from 37
to 41 mm in length, 29 to 34 mm in breadth
and 21.3 to 24.5 mm in height.

These observations show that females as
small as 21.0 cm (straight line) carapace
length can reproduce. They also show that, at
least in Orissa, nesting can occur from Octo-

ber through January. This is consistent with
Hutton’s report (in Smith, 1931: 139) of a
captive nesting in November with 4 eggs. In
contrast Deraniyagala (1930) recorded captive
nesting in June and October in Sri Lanka. The
egg dimensions reported here are comparable
to those described by Deraniyagala but smaller
than those reported by Smith (1931).

The fact that the females died while re-
productively active suggests that they incur
increased risks between vitilization and ovipo-
sition. It is known in other turtles that non-
viable eggs may not be laid (Ewert 1979), and
egg-bound females frequently die due to diffi-
culty in oviposition.

Table 1

Measurements (in straight line distances in cm) and observations on captive Geochelone elegans

in Nandankanan Biological Park

No.

Sex

27.5

22.5

21.0

26.5

Carapace length

20.0

14.0

13.0

16.5

Carapace width

13.0

10.5

12.0

—

Body depth

24.0

18.5

17.0

22.5

Plastron length

17.0

14.0

11.0

15.5

Plastron width
Weight (kg)
Date died
Remarks

3.020

1.530
(14. i. 1982)
enlarged
follicles

1.100
(xii.1980)
6 shelled,
oviducal eggs

1.200
(3.x. 1981)
laid 4 eggs

Superintending Zoologist, S. BISWAS

Zoological Survey of India,

27, J. L. Nehru Road,

Calcutta 700 016.

Veterinary Assistant Surgeon, L. N. ACHARJYO

Nandankanan Biological Park,

P. O. Barang, Dist. Cuttack,

Orissa 754 005,

May 16, 1984.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

References

Ewert, M. A. (1979): The embryo and its egg;
Turtles, Prospective and Research, Edited by M.
Harless & H. Mirlock. pp. 333-413, John Willy &
Sons.

Deraniyagala, P. E. P. (1939) : Tetrapod reptiles
of Ceylon, Dulau & Co. Ltd., London, i-xxxii, 1-412.

Smith, M. A. (1931) : The Fauna of British India.
Vol. 1. Taylor and Francis, London, 1-155.

17. EUBLEPHARIS HARDWICKll (REPTILIA, GEKKONIDAE) ,
THE KALAKUTA, OBSERVED AT TIKERPADA, ORISSA

{With a photograph)

The Common Fat-tailed Gecko, Eublepharis
macular ius is relatively better known and des-
cribed (Smith 1935, Daniel 1983) than its ally
Eublepharis hardwickii for which Smith em-
phasized a highly circumscribed range of
distribution and mentioned that nothing has
been recorded on the species’ habits. Smith

(1935) wrote: “It is definitely known from
Chota Nagpur and Orissa and the adjacent
districts of Bengal, the Madras Presidency, the
Central and United Provinces. .

In the Satkoshia Gorge Sanctuary of Orissa,
Eublepharis hardwickii is not uncommon at
Tikerpada, a village at the foot of hills rang-

Photo. 1. Eublepharis hardwickii.

708

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ing up to 600 m on the bank of the River
Mahanadi. In the night, during summer and
rains, these may be found on the forest roads
or on open areas, and in the day several indi-
viduals have been recovered from underneath
rocks and stones.

The body coloration varies from reddish
brown to very dark brown (as stated by Smith
1935) to almost black. The transverse mark-
ings are cream-coloured to light yellow. The
transverse markings on the tail are dull whitish.
During a period of about six years several of
these geckoes were received at the Gharial
Research and Conservation Unit, Tikerpada.
Ail these were accidentally caught and none
exceeded 20 cm.

In captivity E. hardwickii is very timid, allow-
ing to be lifted by hand and accepting a variety
of insects as diet. Attempts to catch a prey
was incited only by the victim’s body move-
ment. At least one definite case of cannibalism
was recorded in captivity — mode of capture
was from the neck and during swallowing the
victim lay with its ventral side up. E. hard-
wickii never took water from a container in

Gharial Research and Conservation Unit,
Tikerpada 759 122, Orissa,

June 18, 1984.

captivity; instead, they used to wait for an
artificial shower to lick off drops falling on
their head or sticking to the surfaces on the
surroundings. The tongue is pinkish red, flat,
thin and able to extend over to the eyes and
head. One or two leathery eggs (approx. 20 x
10 mm) are laid and buried in soil.

Eublepharis hardwickii is called the Kalakuta
Sapa in Orissa (Oriya: Kalakuta = one which
brings the message of death, and Sdpa - snake).
The local name originates from the belief that
these geckoes are highly poisonous, can climb
trees (which these can) and after a bite the
higher they climb the effect of the poison gets
gradually intensified. The gecko makes a shrill
vibrating noise when surprised.

Acknowledgements

Orissa Forest Department provided scope
for observing the ‘ Kalakuta in the sanctuary.
Dr. H. R. Bustard gave all encouragement;
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta identified
a specimen, and the staff at Tikerpada assist-
ed in obtaining and maintaining the geckoes
in captivity.

L. A. K. SINGH1

References

Daniel, J. C. (1983) : The Book of Indian Rep-
tiles. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Smith, M. A. (1935): The Fauna of British
India, Including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and
Amphibia Vol. II — Sauria. Taylor and Francis,
London. (First Indian Reprint Edition: 1974, Today

and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi).

1 Present address : Crocodile Research Centre of
Wildlife Institute of India, Camp: National Cham-
bal Sanctuary, Post Box 11, Morena 476 001, Madhya
Pradesh.

709

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

18. OCCURRENCE OF FLYING LIZARD ( DRACO DUSSUMIERI )

IN THE NILGIRIS

The distribution of the Southern Flying
Lizard in the subcontinent has been recorded
by J. C. Daniel (1983 the book of Indian
reptiles P. 46). Its occurrence in Mundan-
thurai Sanctuary, South Tamil Nadu was re-
corded by Mangalraj Johnson ( JBNHS 80,
pp. 229-230). The habitat of the Draco ac-
cording to Daniel is evergreen biotopes, are-
canut, coconut and betel vine plantations in the
plains. Mangalraj reported them in plantations
of teak, neem and bamboo in Mundanthurai.
I would like to add the Coffee /Cardamom
plantations also to their habitat. They are com-
monly seen on Silver Oak ( Grevillea robusta),
and Indian Coral trees ( Erythrina indica ) of
coffee plantations in one of the estates on the
southern slope of Nilgiris. When I stayed in
one of the old Bungalows of the Pilloor group

of estates in 1978 I have seen the Draco
on the eave of the roof of this building. The
bungalow is situated at an altitude of 1292 m
MSL. This increases the altitudinal distribu-
tional range of this lizard up to 1292 m from
1000 m (3250 ft).

All the three specimens whose stomach con-
tents I examined had white, and red ants. One
stomach had in addition the remnants of a fly
and another the mouth parts of a small beetle
and a few small black ants. During my Western
Ghats survey I have recorded this species from
Silent Valley, Nilambur forests, Valar forest,
Parambikulam, Thattakadu, Idikki, Periyar
Tiger Reserve, Sabaramali Forests etc. from
South. During 1980 when I visited Coorg I
saw a specimen in one of the coffee estates at
Sidhapuram near Mercara.

Camp Incharge, R. SUGATHAN

Avifauna Project,

Kodikkarai-614 807,

Tamil Nadu,

March 31, 1984.

19. A NOTE ON THE ASIATIC ROCK PYTHON (PYTHON
MOLURUS) FEEDING ON THE SPOTBILL DUCK
(ANAS POEC1LORHYNCHA )

On the early hours of 22nd May 1984, we
were cycling down one of the dykes intersect-
ing the marshes of Keoladeo National Park in
Bharatpur, Rajasthan in search of nests
of resident ducks. We examined all the Acacia
planted mounds near the dyke and were lucky
to see a Python capturing and devouring a
Spotbill duck.

The snake must have been waiting coiled

up on the mound, as it caught the duck entirely
unawares. Soon after the capture the massive
snake took to the water, and all that could be
seen for a few moments was the tail half
thrashing about above the water surface. Dis-
tressed over the loss of its mate, another
Spotbill which was seated nearby incessently
kept uttering a series of alarm calls. All the
herons and egrets perched on the trees around

710

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

silently witnessed the struggle between the duck for the Python to swallow its prey, after which
and the snake. It took approximately an hour it disappeared into the grass covered, waters.

Junior Field Biologists, U. SRIDHARAN

BNHS Ecological Research Station, B. RAM MANOHAR

Bharatpur 321 001 (Rajasthan),

July 9, 1984.

20. A COUCAL-PYTHON INCIDENT

On the morning of 27th April 1984, at about
7.30 a.m., we were walking down the metal
topped road running across the Keoladeo
National Park at Bharatpur, Rajasthan. On
both sides stratched the vast grassy wetlands
dotted here and there with planted acacia trees.
Suddenly one of us saw a black creature
thrashing about in the midst of the marsh
about 50 feet away from the road. We were
puzzled to see a ring of about 20 Egrets and
Pond Herons watching the creature, which was
apparently in great distress. On closer exami-
nation, it turned out to be a coucal Centropus
sinensis (Stephens) being strangled by a young
Python Python molurus (Linnaeus) about 125
cm long.

For the next two hours we observed the
one-sided battle between the reptile and the
bird. The snake tried its best to swallow the
bird but, being a young one, all its efforts were

Junior Field Biologist,

B.N.H.S. Ecological Research Station,
Bharatpur 321 001,

May 16, 1984.

in vain. From a distance of a few feet away,
we observed the python widening its gape now
and then to the utmost extent, yet the prey
could not be swallowed. At one stage, it in-
deed appeared that the bird would be injected
but the bill acted as a hindrance.

At the very beginning the coucal showed
signs of life but eventually, it died due to
the relentless strangling. The snake coiled itself
around the bird and squeezed it to such an
extent that the normally stout bird looked
slender.

Finally at 10 a.m. the python let go its prey
and disappeared into the water. Obviously the
coucal was too large for it to tackle.

Acknowledge m e nt

I am thankful to Dr. V. S. Vijayan, Project
Scientist.

OM PRAKASH DUBEY

711

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

21. PROTECTIVE METHODS FOR SNAKES FROM EXTERNAL

INFECTION OF MITES

Snakes are sometimes attacked by mites in
nature as seen on rat snakes, Ptyas mucosus
collected from nature for the study of their
behaviour, breeding and biology. Snakes are
usually free from parasites.

Sometimes, a few showed the presence of
either larvae of mites or adult, or both as
ectoparasites on the body. If such infected
specimens are kept with other snakes, the mites
are transmitted to one another. These mites
carry micro-organisms which may produce fatal
diseases. As the mites are able to travel from
one vivaria to another, it is necessary to exa-
mine freshly caught snakes for mite infection.
In case a snake is found to be infected with
mites it should be segregated and treated.

The preliminary sign of infection is the
presence of whitish deposits of mite feces on
the body scales of the snake. If the snakes are
then carefully examined, the presence of mites
of 1.00 d= 0.25 mm size can be seen as black
dots on the body. The young mites can be
seen as the moving dust particles on the scales
of the snakes. Acute mite infection is fatal for
the snake.

The following treatments and precautions are
used to keep the snakes mite-free in the ser-
pentarium.

i) Fresh caught snakes should be very
carefully examined for mite infection

Post Graduate Department
of Zoology,

Government College,

Dhar 454 001,

India,

January 11, 1983.

as ectoparasite before being added to
the serpentarium.

ii) Infected snakes should be immediately
segregated.

iii) Infected snakes and cages should be
thoroughly cleaned.

iv) Infected snakes should be bathed several
times in a tub containing gentle warm
water and then wiped up with soft
cotton cloth.

v) All the mites should be removed from
the water before immersion of another
infected snake.

vi) Infected cage should be washed with
boiling water to kill the mites and their
young.

vii) During the cleaning of the infected
snakes and cages, care should be taken
not to allow the mites to spread in the
serpentarium.

viii) In segregated and separated snakes
vivarium strips of “Anti mite Vapona
insectide” should be hung. With the
help of this insecticide strips these mites
disappear from the cages in couple of
days.

ix) Vapona insecticide can be bought from
Shellster Limited, 70, Brompton Road,
London, SW3, England.

x) DDT is not to be used for spraying.

MADHU VYAS
TEJ PRAKASH VYAS

712

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

22. OCCURRENCE OF PLEUROXUS SIMILIS VAVRA
(CLADOCERA: CRUSTACEA) IN INDIA

During a study of the Cladocera fauna of
Madhya Pradesh I came across six female
specimens of Pleuroxus similis Vavra which
were sorted out from the small zooplankton
sample collected by my colleague, Sri P. L.
Kankane from Deshi Nala, Kanha National
Park, Mandla district, Madhya Pradesh, in
April 1977. Existing records show that this
species is so far recorded from Australia;
Valdivia (Chile); Northern Caucasus lake,
Tashkent in the U.S.S.R., and Sri Lanka. The
present find therefore extends its known range
of distribution to Central India.

Pleuroxus similis Vavra, 1900

female. The specimens studied agree well
with the description by Smirnov (1971) which
is briefly reads: Dorsal margin uniformly con-
vex. Posterior margin almost straight. Maxi-
mum height 3-4 times length of posterior

Zoological Survey of India,

Central Regional Station,

Jabalpur (M.P.),

April 28, 1982.

margin. Rostrum pointed, reaching leval of ven-
tral margin of the valve. Valve with no
pattern. Ventral margin of the valve with
three rather blunt denticles. Antennules ending
far before apex of rostrum. Post-abdomen
slightly tapering. Dorsal distal corner of post-
abdomen situated slightly behind base of
claws. Preanal corner blunt, there are 13-14
anal denticles. Claw with two basal spines,
first is about half the length of second. Colour
of the specimens shows variation from yellow
to dark brown. Intestine with loops and with
caecum. Distance of ocellus to eye half its
distance to apex of rostrum. (Length range:
0.37 mm-0.45 mm)

I thank Dr. K. Raddiah, Deputy Director
of this station, for his keen interest, encourage-
ment and for going through the manuscript,
and Sri P. L. Kankane making this interesting
collection available to me.

PRAMOD RANE

References

Smirnov, N. N. (1974): Fauna of the U.S.S.R., Fernando, C. H. (1974): Guide to the Freshwater
Crustacea: Chydoridae N.T.I.S., Springfield, pp. 282. Fauna of Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Bull. Fish. Res. Stn.,
(Translated from Russian). Sri Lanka (Ceylon). 25 ( 1-2): 27-81.

23. NEW RECORDS OF GRIM ALDUS! A BRAZZAI RICHARD AND
BOSM1NOPS1S DEITERSI RICHARD (CRUSTACEA: CLADOCERA)

FROM INDIA

During the course of Cladocera Survey Bosminopsis deitersi Richard, from tanks of
in Madhya Pradesh I collected some Jabalpur, which constitute a new record from
specimens of Grimaldina brazzai Richard and India. The presence of these species in India

713

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

is quite interesting because the first was hither-
to known only from Sri Lanka (Fernando
1974), America (Brooks 1959) and West
Africa whereas the second was reported only
from Sri Lanka and America. Thus the distri-
bution of these species has been extended to
Central India.

1) Grimaldina brazzai Richard, 1892

This sole species of the genus can be easily
isolated from others in having a very large
compressed post-abdomen, with a long spine-
bearing notch. The other characters in brief
are as follows :

Body compressed, somewhat quandrangular,
with all margins of the valve slightly convex.
A notch divides the preanal portion into two
parts, of which the anterior is smaller. A long
spine in the notch marks the junction of anal
and preanal portions of the postabdomen.
There are two lateral rows of small slender
spines on the anal part, about 7 in anterior
and 5 in posterior row. Claw small, denticu-
late with one small basal spine. Antennules
with two basal sense hairs in female.

Material — 7 specimens, Budhager tank, c. 22
kms. North of Jabalpur on Sihora Road,
Jabalpur distt., Madhya Pradesh, 18.iv.81,
length, female — 1 mm.

The specimens were collected with other

Cladocera like Chydoras sphaericus, Cerioda-
phnia sp. and Simocephalus spp. At the time
of collection the tank was completely covered
with cultivated vegetation, mostly Trapa bis -
pinosa Roxb.

2) Bosminopsis deitersi Richard, 1895

This species is much like its closely related
Bosmina sp., but the main difference is that
the basal parts of the antennules are united
with each other and to the head to form a
very long rostrum, diverging laterally near the
apex, with long, straggling, olfactory setae. The
inferopostal corner of valve with- two (one
small and one large) teeth is also one of
the main differentiating characters. The
species closely resembles the original descrip-
tion but differs in the valve character which
is prolonged at the posterodorsal angle to form
a tooth-like projection.

Material — 5 specimens, Pariat tank, c. 30
kms. east of Jabalpur on Amarkantak Road,
Jabalpur distt., Madhya Pradesh 10.xii.1980,
length — 0.3 to 0.35 mm.

The water of the tank was green due to
the predominance of floating flora viz. , Volvox,
Fuglena and rooted plants. The associated
Cladoceran species includes Scapholeberis sp.
and Diphanosoma spp.

Zoological Survey of India, PRAMOD RANE

Central Regional Station,

Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh,

January 8, 1982.

References

Brooks, J. L. (1959): Cladocera in Ward &
Whipple, Fresh Water Biology, John Wiley and
Sons, London, Second Edition. 27: 587-656.

Fernando, C. H. (1974): Guide to the fresh
water fauna of Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Bull. Fish . Res.

Stn. Sri Lanka 25 (1&2): 27-81.

Richard, J. (1892): Cladoceres nouveaux du

Congo. Mem. Soc. Zool. France 5: 213-226.

(1895): Sur quelques Entomostraces

d'eau douce d’ Haithi. ibid. 8(2) : 189-199.

714

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

24. HYDROLOGY OF A LENTIC WATER BODY AND ITS
SIGNIFICANCE IN PLANKTON PRODUCTION

( With a text-figure)

The paper describes the seasonal variation of physico-chemical factors of Undasa
Pond (Madhya Pradesh) for one year from January to December 1978. The surface
water was found always alkaline, with pH ranging from 7.6 to 8.1. Dissolved
oxygen varied from 4.0 to 8.4 mg/L in March. Very low transparency was found
in monsoon season (July to September). Free carbondioxide in surface water was
recorded during July, August and September. An interrelationship with pH, dissolved
oxygen, alkalinity with total volume of plankton was also recorded. The high alkalinity

and low visibility indicate eutrophic nature
may be due to animal pollution.

Introduction

Undasa Pond is used mainly for irrigation.
However pisciculture is also undertaken in it by
Madhya Pradesh Government Fisheries De-
partment. The pond has an area of 212 hec-
tares. It is situated in Undasa village about
4-5 km from Ujjain at Ujjain-Makshi Road.
An embankment has been constructed around
the three sides of the pond to store water in
rainy season. The pond is perennial.

Material and Methods

The study of physico-chemical factors and
total plankton volume was made on every
15th of the month for 1978. The temperature
of surface water was measured by 110°C gra-
duated thermometer and transparency by
Secchi’s disc. pH was determined by narrow
range pH paper and B.D.FI. universal indi-
cator in the field and by pH meter (systronix
— 322) in the laboratory. Dissolved oxygen
was estimated by unmodified winkler’s method
and free C02 was determined by method
given by Welch (1952). Carbonate, bicarbo-
nate, inorganic phosphate, nitrate-nitrogen and
chloride were estimated by standard methods

of the pond. The high chloride content

(American Public Health Association 1955).
Surface water from a definite place and depth
was always used for above analysis. Plankton
volume was noted by filtering 100 litres surface
water through plankton net of bolting silk
No. 20 and after settling in graduated test
tube, all samples were analysed within an
hour of collection.

Result and Discussion

The summary of the observations is given
in Table 1 and Fig. 1.

Temperature. This is one of the most impor-
tant hydrobiological factors related to fish
production (Das & Pathani 1978). Surface
water temperature of Undasa Pond revealed
that there was seasonal variation. The tempe-
rature was found to increase from January to
June when highest temperature was recorded.
The temperature dropped from June to Dec-
ember with exception in September. The
decrease in temperature in July and August
was most probably due to cloudy atmosphere
and rain. The heavy influx of rain water from
neighbouring areas may be another reason for
low temperature. The lowest temperature was
recorded in January. The monthly water tern-

715

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

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TRANSPARENCY(Cm} ®“®

81 CARBON ATE CMq/L_)

Y 2 — pH _ _ _ _ _ o — O

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CARBONATE (Mg /V-3 —

'*'5 = TOTAL VOLUME OF PLANKTON ®

MONTHS -

(Fig. 1)

perature in the pond changes alongwith the
g change in air temperature (Oppenheimer et al.

•js 1978). The temperature difference between

g lowest and the highest was noted as 10°C in

\ Undasa Pond while Srivastava et al (1979)

S noted it as 10.2°C in a Govindgarh lake, Rewa.

ja Transparency. Seasonal changes in transpa-
> rency were quite apparent (Table 1). The

* transparency of a pond depends upon the

716

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

turbidity of water (Hitchinson 1957), which is
caused by silting, micro-organisms and suspend-
ed organic matters in the water (Khan &
Siddiqui 1974). The Secchi’s disc readings have
usually been converted into the depth at which
1% light was present (Strickland 1958, Riley
1941, Norden 1968). In present study visibility
values varied from 54 cm to 98 cm. Thus
euphotic depth of Undasa Pond appears to be
from 135 cm to 228.25 cm (conversion factor
= 2.5 as followed by Khan & Siddiqui 1974).
This indicates that production is only limited
to a narrow upper belt of water while rest of
the depth is consuming and unproductive. The
low transparency noted in rainy season which
may be attributed to colloidal mud particles
brought about by in coming water and to in-
creased depth of water. Ganapati (1962) re-
ported transparency variation from 50 cm to
120 cm in Red hill reservoir, Tamil Nadu.
George (1976) found transparency variation
from 47.4 cm to 85.5 cm in Lower Lake,
Bhopal and attributed to low transparency
during summer monsoon due to degeneration
of blue-green algae which reduce the light
penetration. Khan & Siddiqui (1974) reported
transparency variation from 33.7 cm to 56.3
cm in a perennial fish pond in Aligarh. Dis-
appearance of Secchi’s disc throughout the
year in Undasa Pond demonstrates the degree
of eutrophication occurring in the pond. The
pond receives rain water from the catchment
area which carries effluents, inorganic com-
pounds and particulate matters in the pond
which have converted the pond to an eutrophic
condition. Similar eutrophic condition was
noticed in Nainital Lake by Das & Pathani
(1978).

H-ion concentration. The pH of lake water
has an important bearing on both plankton
and fish production (Das 1961). The pH of
surface water of the pond was found within

alkaline range (7.6-8. 1). The high pH during
March, April, May, June and September may
be due to high photosynthetic activity. Das
& Srivastava (1956) and Sreenivasan (1963)
found that a pH of 7. 2- 8. 5 is only favourable
for the growth of plankton although the best
is 7. 2-8.0. Thus the pH of Undasa Pond is
suitable for plankton and fish production.
Swarup & Singh (1979) reported pH variation
from 7. 4-8. 9 in a Suraha Lake. Clearcut in-
crease in pH of Undasa Pond was noticed
from January to April while thereafter the
pattern was irregular.

Dissolved Oxygen. From the investigations
in the Undasa Pond it was found that dis-
solved oxygen increased from January to
March and may be attributed to low tempera-
ture and high photosynthetic activity. During
monsoon oxygen concentration was very low
because of influx of turbid drainage water, low
phytoplankton population and partly due to
increased respiration caused by organic matter
accompanying the drainage water (Khan &
Siddiqui 1974). The highest dissolved oxygen
content was recorded in March. The low oxy-
gen content during May and June may be
due to low water level, high temperature and
death and decay of macrovegetation. Ellis
(1946) also stated that the respiratory activity
of animals dwelling in the area and decay of
dead organic substances are the chief causes
of under saturation and depletion of oxygen
in tropical waters.

Carbonate, bicarbonate and free carbondio-
xide. The increased quantity of carbonate alka-
linity during cold weather (January to April)
showed photosynthetic activity while decrease
in bicarbonate in Undasa Pond during cold
weather may be due to its absorption by
phytoplankton and aquatic macrovegetation. An
inverse correlation between carbonate alkali-
nity and bicarbonate alkalinity was found in

717

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Undasa Pond. The carbonate value was absent
during July, August, September and October
when free C02 in surface water was present.
This may again be attributed to low photo-
synthesis. Jana (1974) found total absence of
carbonate alkalinity for a major part of the
year in a pond at Santiniketan while Ganapati
(1962) found that surface water in Red hill
reservoir contained carbonate alkalinity
throughout the year. The high value of total
alkalinity may be due to pollution, abundance
of macrovegetation, and organic materials
entering into the pond with rain water. Das &
Akhtar (1970) found that increase in alkali-
nity is due to pollution, decrease in water level
and seepage.

Chloride. High chloride content was pre-
sent all the year round. The high chloride
content is indicative of pollution derived from
animals which regularly visit the water. George
(1976) reported influx of drainage water and
temperature controlling the chloride content in
the Lower Lake of Bhopal.

Inorganic phosphate and nitrate-nitrogen.
Both the values were in traces only. In Undasa
Pond phosphate and nitrate were highest dur-
ing the monsoons which may be due to rain
washings, destruction of cell protoplasm by
bacteria and destruction of agencies consuming
the nutrients. Poor phosphate and nitrates
were also recorded by Mathew (1975) in a
Govindgarh lake. Ghosh et ah (1974) recorded
high phosphate and nitrate in sewage-fed fish
pond and Sreenivasan (1972) recorded extre-
mely high value of P04-P up to 22 ppm in
Vellore Moat. However according to Hora 8z
Pillai (1962, 114) the highest plankton pro-
duction which in turn allows for maximum fish
production occurs when the water contains
4 ppm of nitrogen with 1 ppm of phosphorus
and 1 ppm of potassium.

Correlation of various physico-chemical

FACTORS WITH TOTAL VOLUME OF PLANKTON

An interrelationship was observed among
pH, oxygen, carbonate, bicarbonate alkalinity
and plankton volume in the present study of
Undasa Pond (Fig. 1). The pH increased gra-
dually from January to April and then declined
until minimum was reached in August. The
dissolved oxygen content showed increase from
January to March and then decreased till
August-September. The carbonate alkalinity
also showed similar pattern and bicarbonate
indicated a reverse relationship with all the
three parameters (Fig. 1). The total volume
of plankton was directly related to pH, dis-
solved oxygen and carbonate alkalinity and
inversely related to bicarbonate content. The
water was always alkaline. Sreenivasan (1963)
reported that pH of 7 . 2 to 8 . 5 is only favour-
able for plankton growth. The pH of Undasa
Pond is between above range. No distinct rela-
tionship among total volume of plankton,
phosphate and nitrate was noted. Prescott
(1939) stated that phosphorus correlated with
plankton productivity, whereas Juday & Birage
(1931) found evidence of phosphorus as
limiting factor in pl^toplankton growth. Saha
et ah (1971) also observed that nitrate and
phosphate are not always correlated with
plankton growth.

Ack no wledge m e n ts

I am thankful to Dr. B. M. Sinha, Professor,
School of Studies in Zoology, Vikram Uni-
versity of Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh for super-
vision and to University Grants Commission
for financial assistance.

718

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Asstt. Research Officer, R. K. SINGH

Taraporevala Marine Biological
Research Station,

Netaji Subhash Road,

Bombay-400 002,

August 8, 1983.

References

American Public Health Association (1955):
Standard methods for examination of water, sewage
and industrial waste. New York, 10th ed. 522 P.

Das, S. M. (1961) : H-ion concentration, plankton
and fish in freshwater eutronhic lakes of India.
Nature 20. London.

& Akhtar, S. (1970): A report on

freshwater plankton from Da! lake, Kashmir. Kash-
mir Science 7(1-2) : 133-137.

& Pathani, S. S. (1978): A study

on the effect of lake ecology on productivity of Tor
tor and Tor putitora in Kumaun lakes, India. Matsya
4: 25-31.

& Srivastava, V. K. (1956): Quan-
titative studies on fresh water plankton pH. Corre-
lation between plankton and hydrobiological factors.
Proc. Nat. Acad Sci. India 26B(4) : 243-253.

Ellis, M. N. (1946): Determination of water
quality. Res. Rep. U.S. Fish. Wildl. Surv. 9.

Ganapati, S. V. (1962) : Studies on the sources
of Madras city water supply and other waters of
Madras State. D.Sc. thesis. Madras University.

George, J. P. (1976) : Hydrobiological studies on
lower lake of Bhopal with special reference to pro-
ductivity of economic fishes. Ph.D. thesis, Bhopal
University.

Ghosh, A., Hanumantha Rao, L., & Banerjee,
S. C. (1974) : Studies on the hydrobiological condi-
tions of a sewage-fed pond with a note on their
role in fish culture. /. Inland Fish. Soc. ndia 7:
51-61.

Hora, S. L. & Pillai, T. V. R. (1962): Hand
Book on fish culture in Indo-Pacific region. FAO
Fisheries Biology Technical paper No. 14. FAO.,
Rome.

Hutchinson. G. E. (1957): Treatise on Limno-
logy I. Geography, Physics & Chemistry. John in
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.

Jana, B. B. (1974): Diurnal rhythm of plankton
in a tropical freshwater pond in Santiniketan, India.
Ecot. Pol. 22: 287-294.

Juday, C. & Birage, E. A. (1931): A second re-
port on the phosphorus content of Wisconsin lake
water. Trans. Wisd Acad. Sci. Arts let. 26: 253-382.

Khan, A. A. & Siddiqui, Q. A. (1974): Seasonal
changes in the limnology of a perennial fish pond
at Aligarh. Indian J. Fish 27(2) : 461-478.

Mathew, P. M. (1975) : Limnology and producti-
vity of Govindgarh lake, Rewa, M. P. J. Inland
Fish. Soc. India 7: 16-24.

Norden. C. R. (1968): Light penetration studies
in the Milk Wankee harbour area of lake Michigan.
Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. Arts Lctr. 56: 197-205.

Oppenheimer, J. R., Ahmed, M. G., Huq, A.,
Haque, K. A., Alam, A. K. M., Ali, S., Haque, A.
S. M. (1978) : Limnological studies of three ponds
in Dacca, Bangla Desh. Bangla Desh J , Fish. 7(1):
1-28.

Prescott, G. W. (1939) : Some relationships of
phytoplankton to limnology and aquatic biology.
Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Publ. 10: 65-78.

Riley, G. A. (1941): Plankton studies III long
island sound. Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Coll. 7 : 1-93.

Sai-ia, G. N., Seeigal, K. L., & Nandy, A. C.
(1971): Studies on seasonal and diurnal variations
in physico-chemical and biological conditions of a
perennial fresh water pond. /. Inland Fish. Soc. India
8: 79-102.

Sastry, C. A., Aboo, K. M., Bhatia, H. L. & Rao,
A. U. (1970) : Pollution in Upper lake and its effect
on Bhopal water supply. Environmental Health 1:
218-238.

Sreenivasan, A. (1963) : Limnology of tropical
impoundments, upland impoundments of Nilgiris.
(Madras). Phykos 8: 10-16.

(1972) : Ecology of blue green

719

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

algae in tropical inland waters. In T. V. Desikachari
(ed) taxonomy and biology of blue green algae.
University of Madras, Madras.

Srivastava, S. P., Josh i, H. C., & Karamchan-
dani, S. J. (1979) : Observation of volumetric esti-
mation of planktonic biomass in relation to certain
hydrobiological conditions of Govindgarh lake, Rewa,
M. P. /. Inland Fish. Soc. India 2(2): 113-116.

Strickland, J. D. H. (1958) : Solar radiation pene-

trating the Ocean. A review of requirements data
and methods of measurements with particular refe-
rence to photosynthetic productivity. J. Fish. Res.
Bd. Canada 15: 453-493.

Swarup, K. & Singh, S. R. (1979) : Limnological
studies of Suraha lake (Ballia). I. variation in water
quality. J. Inland Fish. Soc. India 2(1) : 22-23.

Welch, P. S. (1952): Limnology. McGraw hill.
New York

25. A NEW RECORD OF PYEMOTES SP. (PEDICULOIDES) OF
MITE PARASITIZING THE COMMON INDIAN HOUSE FLY —
MUSCA DOMESTICA NEBULO FABR.

(With a text-figure )

Dhiman (1981) reported for the first time a
mite, Microtrombidium sp. parasitizing the
house fly. During the collection of house flies
for recording the data of infestation of this
species of mite, we came across another species
of mite, Pyemotes sp. (Acarina-Pyemotidae)
also parasitizing the house flies in good num-
ber. This is an extremely small mite being
0.12 ± 0.05 mm in length and 0.05 ± 0.02
mm in width. The body is elongated and
yellowish white in colour. Gnathosoma is
conspicuous and retractable. Chelicerae and
padipalps are minute in size. Palpi are closely
appressed to rostrum. Body setae well deve-
loped, six pairs of dorsal setae and four pairs
of ventral setae. Coxal apodemes are obvious.
A club shaped hair is present posterior to the
base of first leg on each side. A few tarsal
setae are considerably long than others, spe-
cially of first and 3rd leg. Claws well develop-
ed and curved. Claws of fore leg stouter and
shorter in size. A membranous empodium is
present in between the claws of second to
fourth legs. A pair of small eyes are present,
each one on lateral sides of dorsum (scutum)
(Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Dorsal view of the Pyemotes sp. of mite.

The mite parasitizes the house fly from
March to October which are the warmer
months in this region. During this period both
the host and the mite multiply rapidly while
during the winter months, November to Febru-

720

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ary, the papulation of the house flies decreases
considerably and not even a single parasitized
fly was observed.

The maximum number of the mite observed
on a single house fly was 24 and minimum 8.
Usually all the mites occurred gregariously
sucking the fluid of the host body. The most
preferred feeding point was the bases of hind
coxae. Besides this, the other attacked parts
of the host are, wing axillaries, head haustel-
lum, arthrodial membrane of the tergites and

Department of Zoology,

M. S. College,

Saharanpur 247 001,

U. P.,

February 17, 1984.

sternites of the abdomen.

Previously, Roy and Brown (1970) observ-
ed Pyemotes ventricosus Newport causing
dermatitis in human being. In view of this, the
present Pyemotes sp. of mite parasitizing the
house fly may cause dermatitis in man as it
can be easily transferred by the host insect.

We are grateful to the Commonwealth In-
stitute of Entomology, London, for the identi-
fication of mite and to the authorities of M. S.
College, Saharanpur, for providing facilities.

S. C. DHIMAN
J. P. MITTAL

References

Dhiman, S. C. & Dhiman, R. C. (1981): Micro-
trombidium sp. — An Acarine ectoparasite of Musca
domestica nebulo Fabr. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
77: 353-354.

Roy, D. N. & Brown, A. W. A. (1970) : Entomo
logy (Medical and veterinary), p. 567. The Banga
lore Printing and Publishing Company Ltd.

26. PREDATORY ANTS OF THE MOUND BUILDING TERMITE,
ODONTOTERMES W A LLONENSIS (WASMANN) WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO THE PREDATORY BEHAVIOUR OF
LEPTOGENYS PROCESSION A LIS (JERDON)

Introduction

Termites have many enemies including both
invertebrates and vertebrates. Among the in-
vertebrates the best known predators are ants
which prey on all stages of termites. They
capture termites at the time of swarming,
foraging and construction and expansion of
their nests. From India Mathur (1962) has
listed the following species of ants as enemies
of termites Acantholepis fravenfeldi Mayr,
Camponotus compressus Fab. (Formicinae);

Crematogaster sp., Monomorium destructor
Jerd., M. indicum Forel, (Myrmicinae) and
Leptogenys diminuta Smith (Ponerinae). Negi
(1934) reported Leptogenys processionalis as
an active predator of termites.

Wheeler (1936) reported that several spe-
cies of ants attack termites in the colonies
and deplete and destroy the population. He
recognised four categories of predatory ants.
1 . Cleptobiotic ants : Ants which attack

other ants and wrest their prey from
them.

721

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

2. Termitolestic ants : Ants which live in
the walls or partitions of the nests of ter-
mites and prey on them.

3 . Inquiline ants : These ants are extreme-

ly aggressive. They occupy portions of
inhabited or abandoned mounds.

4. Termitharpactic ants : Ants such as

Ponerines, Dorylines and Myrmicines.
They habitually raid colonies of termites
which constitute a large proportion of
their food.

The available reports on predatory ants of
termites are scanty though of general interest.
An attempt has therefore been made to investi-
gate the various species of ants associated
with termites.

Material and Methods

Observations were made on the various
species of predatory ants at the Campus of
the University of Agricultural Sciences, Hebbal,
during 1976-78. Field visits were made perio-
dically to the foraging sites and mounds of
Odontotermes wallonensis and also to light
sources during the monsoon season, to record
the different species of ants. The predatory
activity of Leptogenys processionalis was
observed regularly during the summer (Feb-
ruary and March) and the monsoon (July
and August) seasons of 1978, by visiting the
study site both in the mornings (between
0700 h to 1100 h) and in the evenings (bet-
ween 1630 h to 2100 h). However, counts
were made only during the morning hours.
The total number of workers returning with
termites was recorded at the nest. The enu-
meration, in each case, was performed conti-
nuously for 5 minutes using a tally counter.
The correlation between the predatory acti-
vity of ants and weather factors has been
worked out and presented in Tables 1 and 2.

Results and Discuission

During the present investigation the follow-
ing ant species were encountered as predators
of Odontotermes wallonensis.

Formicidae

I. PONERINAE

1 . Diacamma rugosiim (Le Guillou)

2. Leptogenys Jaeviceps (F. Smith)

3. Leptogenys processionalis (Jerd.)

II. FORM ICINAE

4. Anoplolepis longipes (Jerd.)

5. Camponotus rufoglaucus (Jerd.)

6. Camponotus sericeus Fab.

7. Oecophylla smaragdina Fab.

III. MYRM ICINAE

8. Crematogaster hodgsoni Forel

9. Leptomyrmex quadrispinosiis Jerd.

10. Monomorium jloricola Jerd.

11. Monomorium latinode Mayr

12. Myrmicaria brunnea Saunders

13. Solcnopsis geminata Mayr

14. Tetramorium smithi Mayr

IV. PSEUDOMYRM ICINAE

15. Tetraponera rufonigra (Jerd.)

V. DGLICHODERINAE

16. Tapinoma melanocephalum Fab.

These species of ants attacked those termites
which emerged from their mounds or were
engaged in activities such as foraging and nest
construction under the conditions prevailing
in Bangalore. The Ponerine ant, Leptogenys
processionalis, was found to be an important
predator of this species throughout the year.
However, with the onset of the monsoon, the
activity of this ant reached a peak. With the
coming of rains, termite activities, like con-
struction and expansion of the nest, food collec-
tion and alate emergence, reached a peak. It
is a common sight to see moving columns of
these ants fanning out at the foraging arena,
in fields and grasslands, and along and across
footpaths and roads. In the morning they are
active between 0700 h to 1100 h. While in
the evenings they are active between 1630 h

722

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

to 2100 h. On summer evenings their acti-
vity could extend upto 2300 h.

Initially, when searching for prey, these ants
move in single file. Once they encounter the
earthen sheathing of the termites they fan out
in all directions. The ants first confirm the
presence of termites by tapping their heads
on the earthen foraging runways. They then
proceed to find weak points in the runways.

Once the walls are breached at these points,
they start attacking the termites by producing
a “hissing” sound. Mukerji (1931), reported
that L. pequeti, a related species, too moved in
files and made stridulatory sounds audible at
a distance. Intense, continuous fighting was
observed between the ants and the termite
soldiers until the ants ultimately over-powered
the termites by holding them in their mandibles

Table 1

Predatory activity of L. processioncilis on Odontotennes wallonensis during february-march 1978 at

HEBBAL CAMPUS

Date of
observation

No. of ants
returning from
the foraging
site/5 min.

No. of ants

carrying

termites

Per cent
predators

Distance
from nest
to foraging
site (in
meter)

3-2-78

64.21

4-2-78

187

27.80

6-2-78

217

32.71

7-2-78

198

43.93

8-2-78

32.78

9-2-78

236

121

51.27

10-2-78

119

77.31

12-2-78

191

43.45

13-2-78

182

53.84

14-2-78

282

116

41.13

15-2-78

394

144

36.54

17-2-78

302

112

37.08

21-2-78

145

37.24

22-2-78

165

29.69

23-2-78

211

40.75

24-2-78

307

157

51.14

26-2-78

392

16.83

28-2-78

108

0.92

8-3-78

265

115

43.39

14-3-78

210

47.26

15-3-78

112

48.21

Total

4379

1734

857.48

270

Range

Mean with standard

61 to 394

1 to 157

0.92 to 77.31

9 to 20

deviation

208.53 ±90.98

82.58±38.39

48.84 ±= 1 5.85

12.86±3.56

21 observations from 3-2-1978 to 15-3-1978.

723

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

and stinging them with arched abdomen. Thus
paralysed, they carried the termites positioned
between their legs and clasped between clench-
ed mandibles, back to their nests. The number
of columns was dependant on the abundance
of the available food.

When termite mounds were exposed thou-
sands of these ants appeared suddenly and
attacked the workers and nymphs of the ter-
mites. In a few weak termite colonies,
the ants exterminated the colonies totally and
occupied the mounds. Ant nests were also
observed on the surface and in the vicinity of
mounds. A maximum of ten ant nest openings
were observed on the surface of a single
mound.

The predatory behaviour of L. processionalis
was observed during February and March
1978. The extent of predation is presented in
Table 1.

Percentage predation of L. processionalis
was worked out by counting both the total

number of workers returning to the nest and
the number of workers with termites return-
ing to the nest. The per cent predation was
found to vary from 0.92 to 77.31 per cent
with an average of 40.84 ± 15.85 per cent.

When termites were available in plenty, the
species concentrated only on them. L. proces-
sionalis was active throughout the year. They
were more active in the monsoon season with
their activity declining to a minimum during the
summer season. They were particularly active
on days preceded by rains as this coincided
with alate emergence and nest expansion by
termites.

In July, in one instance, the distance between
the ant nest and the foraging site was found to
be 15 cm and they were active from_0900h
to 1300 h. In the month of August similar
activity was observed between 0800 h to 1000
hr. The number of ants transporting termites
to their nest was 9990 in 4.5 h. in July (Ave-
rage rate of predation being 37 termites per

Table 2

Extent of ant predation as influenced by weather parameters during the summer (Feb.-March)

SEASON OF 1978. AT HEBBAL.

Temperature

Relative humidity

Maximum

Minimum

Morning

Evening

No. of ants returning

from the foraging site

+ 0.0587

—

0.3191

+ 0.0971

+ 0.0665

No. of ants

carrying termites

-I- 0.0814

0.1398

+ 0.2902

- 0.4489*

Percent predatism

+ 0.1227

0.5073*

+ 0.4620*

+ 0.1997

No. of ants returning

No.

of ants

Per cent

from foraging site

carrying termites

predatism

Distance from the nest

to the foraging site

- 0.2298

- 0.2571

+0.0087

No. of ants carrying

termites

+ 0.7011**

—

+0.4882*

n = 21 Correlation co-efficient values at 5% and 1% at
n = 21 are 0.423 and 0.537 respectively.

724

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

minute) and 3132 in 2 h in August (The
average rate of predation being 26 termites
per minute).

The inter-relationship between the predatory
activity of ants and the weather parameters,
like temperature and humidity, during 1978,
is presented in Table 2. Maximum tempera-
ture did not significantly influence the foraging
behaviour of ants, whereas minimum tempe-
rature appeared to influence negatively the
population of ants returning from the foraging
site, while it has a positive influence on per
cent predation. This indicates that lower tem-
perature increase predation of termites by
ants, perhaps because lower temperature causes
more movement of termites for foraging. This
helps in ants being attracted to the foraging
sites. Likewise, predation is positively influenc-
ed by relative humidity in the morning hours
perhaps because the termites forage during
the cooler hours, in humid weather.

The number of ants carrying termites de-
creased with increasing distance between the
nest and the foraging arena as is evident from
the negative relationship in Table 2.

C. sericeus, A. Jongipes (Formicinae) and

Dept, of Entomology,

University of Agril. Sciences,

Hebbal,

Bangalore-560 024,

July 6, 1983.

Refei

Fletcher, T. B. (1914): Some South Indian In-
sects. Govt. Press, Madras, pp. 565.

Mathur, R. N. (1962): Enemies of termites
(white ants). In Termites in the Humid Tropics
New Delhi Symposium, pp. 135-139 UNESCO
PARIS.

Negi, P. S. (1934) : The small red ant, Solenopses

D. rugosum (Ponerinae) attacked the termites
at the time of mound construction and alate
emergence during the night. They attacked
those alate forms which had dropped their
wings by basal fracture. These were also found
nesting in the peripheral region of mounds. O.
smaragdina was observed more in the foraging
sites of termites, on grass and trees.

Among the other species of ants, C.
hodgsoni and /. rufonigra were found asso-
ciated with termites when the nest was ex-
posed. The nests of C. hodgsoni were noticed
in the upper regions of the mound, and mea-
sured 3 x 5 cm in diameter. Although T. smithi
prey on termites they were not found to
directly attack the termites but seemed to pre-
fer wresting their prey from other ants.

Tapi noma melanocephalum, the only species
under Dolichoderinae was observed quite fre-
quently in large numbers and were found
attacking the exposed nymphs and workers and
termites. During the current period of study,
only in ten cases were these ants found to be
dragging the alate reproductives of termites
to their nests by holding on to their wings.

D. RAJAGOPAL
T. M. MUSTHAK ALI

EN CE S

geminata Jerdon and its usefulness to man.

Snyder, T. E. (1948): Our Enemy the Termite
XIII. Comstock Publications Co., New York, pp. 257.

Wheeler, W. H. (1936) : Ecological relations of
Ponerine and other ants to termites. Proc. Am.
Acad. Arts Sci. 71: 159-243.

725

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

27. AMARANTHUS V1RWIS (DESF.) A NEW HOST PLANT OF
HADDA BEETLE, HENOSEPILACHN A VIGINTIOCTOPUNCT AT A
(FAB.) (COLEOPTERA: COCCINELLID AE )

The hadda beetle, Henosepilachna vigintio-
ciopunctata (Fab.) is one of the important
species of phytophagous coccinellids causing
damage to vegetable crops. It is a serious
pest of several solanaceous and cucurbitace-
ous crops like brinjal, tomato, potato, gourds,
melons and cucumbers. The pest has also
been recorded on Solatium nigrum Linn., S.
xanthocarpum Schard; Datura indica Linn,
and Withania somnifera (Link).

During the 3rd week of August, 1983
Chaulai plants ( Amaranthus viridis ) which
grew near Solanum nigrum plants were found
to be infested by the hadda beetle at village

Department of Entomology,

Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana-141 004,

September 27, 1983.

Jangpur in district Ludhiana (Punjab). The
leaves of A. viridis had characteristic feeding
injury and both the grubs and the pupae were
found on the leaves. The grubs of this beetle
were brought in the laboratory and reared at
room temperature, on leaves of A. viridis
confined in glass jars (10 x 15 cm). The
adults emerged successfully in a fortnight.
A. viridis seems to be a new host plant of
EL. vigintioctopunctata.

We thank to Dr B. S. Chahal, Professor and
Head, Department of Entomology for provi-
ding facilities for the study.

D. NARANG
M. RAMZAN

28. NEW RECORD OF EYLAIS SP. AND ARRENURUS SP. OF MITES

PARASITIZING THE DAMSEL FLY

(With a text-figure)

Parasitic mites are of considerable economic
importance and their larval stages are usually
parasitic also. Their host range extends from
insects to mammals. During the course of a
survey of the aquatic fauna of the ponds of
Saharanpur region, I came across two new
parasitic mites parasitizing the damsel flies
(Odonata — Zygoptera — Megapodegridae).
The first mite is a species of genus Eylais
(Acarina — Eylaidae) and the second of the
genus Arrenurus (Acarina — Arrenuridae).
The larvae of Eylais sp. are dark green in

726

colour and those of Arrenurus sp. are bright
red. Larvae of both the species of mite infest
the wing axillaries, ventral part of the thorax
and neck region of the host. Maximum num-
ber of mite larvae have been found near the
wing articulation points of fore and hind wings
(Fig. 1). The data of the infestation are pre-
sented in the Table.

Maximum number of mites recorded on a
single damsel fly was 25 and minimum 1.
Furthermore, percentage of parasitization ex-
tends from 13.46 to 27.02. Infested flies are

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table

Showing the number of infested damsel flies and percentage of parasitization.

Date of the
survey

No. of damsel
flies caught

No. of in-
fested flies

Part of
infestation

Total No.
of mites

Percentage
of infestation

2nd July, 1980

W+S

15.00

16th Aug., 1980

w+s

14.28

12th Sept., 1980

W+N

13.46

15th July, 1981

W+N

21.05

4th Aug., 1981

s+w

26.19

5th Oct., 1981

13.79

17th July, 1982

D+W

18.18

21st Aug., 1982

N+W

17.85

2nd Sept., 1982

S+N

27.02

W — Wing bases, S

— Sternites, N

— Neck, D —

Dorsum.

available only during the rainy season in this
locality, i.e., July to September. The time
also coincides with the breeding season of both
the mites and the damsel flies. Adults of both
the species of mites have been collected from
the bottom of six ponds situated at a distance
from Saharanpur. Two infested flies were
collected sitting on the wall of my house below
a fluorescent tube (40 w) at night. Earlier,
Arrcnurus sp. have been reported attached to
mosquito larvae and pupae (Roy and Brown
1970). Damsel fly is a new host record for

both the mite species.

I am obliged to the Commonwealth Insti-
tute of Entomology, London, for the identifi-
cation of the mites and to Dr. G. D. Garg
for encouragement.

S. C. DHIMAN

Reference

Roy, D. N. & Brown, A.W.A. (1970) : Entomo-
logy (Medical and Veterinary), p. 587. The Banga-
lore Printing and Publishing Company, Ltd.

Fig. 1. Photograph of damsel fly showing the para-
sitization of Eylais sp. of mite at the wing bases.

Department of Zoology,
M. S. College,
Saharanpur 247 001,

UP.,

February 17, 1984.

Ill

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

29. A NEW COMBINATION IN ASPIDOPTERYS JUSS.

(MALPIGHI ACE AE)

Haines (1920) described Aspidopterys hut -
chinsonii as a new species closely allied to A.
obcordata Hemsl. A. hutchinsonii is also
closely allied to A. foment osa (Bl.) Juss. In
1928 Niedenzu found that the distinctions bet-
ween A. tomentosa and A. obcordata are not
sufficient to treat them as separate species.
He united these two and treated A. obcordata
as a variety of A. tomentosa and proposed the
new combination. Jacobs (1955) supported
the view of Niedenzu (1928) and added
another variety, viz. A. tomentosa var. longi-
rostris (Arenes) Jacobs. The present studies
on A. hutchinsonii have revealed that its dis-
tinction from A. tomentosa is not sufficient
enough to treat it as a distinct species but are
only just enough for a varietal status. Hence,
the following new status and combination is
proposed.

Aspidopterys tomentosa var. hutchinsonii

(Haines) Srivastava, status et comb. nov.

A. hutchinsonii Haines in Kew Bull. 1920

(2): 67-86. 1920.

Stout climbers. Branches sub-woody, rough
due to bases of fallen hairs; twigs tomentose.
Leaves orbicular, 7-12 x 6-11 cm, suddenly
cuspidate, bases straight or rounded, densely
silky hairy beneath, coriaceous; petioles c. 15
x 3 mm, rusty hairy. Panicles short, lateral.

Botanical Survey of India,

Allahabad 211 002,

June 6, 1983.

brown tomentose. Pedicels c. 1 . 2 cm long,
articulated at c. 3 mm near the base, glabrous
above articulation (in fruit). Sepals dorsally
hairy; petals oblong, c. 3 mm long, glabrous.
Samaras membranous, broadly elliptic to orbi-
cular, 1.3-1. 5 cm in diam etc, retuse at apex,
cristate at nucleus on dorsal wing, cristate 5-7
x 1-2 mm, corpophores 3-4 mm long.

FIs. : Dec.-Feb.; Frts. : April-June.
Distribution: India: Orissa, Mayurbhanj

hills (2000-3000 ft.).

Representative specimen: Orissa: Mayur-
bhanj hills, Bhajam (2000 ft.). Anonymous,
s.n. (DD 85846).

Key to the varieties of A. tomentosa (bl.) Juss.

la. Leaves elliptic-obovate. Samaras ovate, 3. 0-4.0
X 2. 5-3.0 cm.

2a. Leaf top shortly narrowed to rounded ....

tomentosa

2b. Leaf top truncate to emarginate, if emar-
ginate the top protruding from a wide api-
cal sinus giving the leaf three topped
appearance obcordata

lb. Leaves orbicular or ovate-elliptic. Samaras sub-
orbicular to orbicular or broadly elliptic,
1 . 3-2.5 cm in diam.

3a. Leaves ovate-elliptic. Carpophores c. 5-7 mm

long longirostris

3b. Leaves orbicular. Carpophores c. 3-4 mm
long hutchinsonii

R. C. SRIVASTAVA

References

Haines, H. H. (1920): Kew Bull. 2: 67-68. Niedenzu, F. (1920): Malpighiaceae. In Engl.

Jacobs, M. (1955): Malpighiaceae. In Flora Male- Pflanzenreich 4(141): 21-22.
siana 7(5): 129-130.

728

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

30. A NEW VARIETY OF HUM BO LOT l A UNIJUGA BEDD.
( C AES AL PIN! ACE AE ) FROM SOUTH INDIA

(With ten text-figures )

Humboldtia usiijuga Bedd. var. trijuga Joseph

& Chandrasekaran, var. nov.

H. unijuga Bedd. var. unijuga affinis, sed
foliolis 3-jugis (maxime raro 2- vel 4-5 jugis)
ad invicem 1 -jugis et staminodiis 5 ad invicem
nuliis, praecipue differ!.

Holotypus. Trivandrum Disk, Koviltheri-
malai, 2-10-1973, Joseph 44511 (CAL). Isotypi
Joseph 44511 (MH-num. ace. 85902, 85903,
118572, 118573, 118574). Paratypi: Trivan-
drum Disk, Koviltherimalai, 25-8-1975, Joseph
55994 (MH-num. acc. 118575, 118576, 118577,
118578).

Allied to H. unijuga Bedd. var. unijuga but
differs mainly in the leaflets being three paired
(very rarely two or four to five paired) instead
of one paired and in having five staminodes
instead of none.

Trees 10-15 m high; trunk 15-20 cm in
diam.; bark greyish brown; branches slender,
spreading, branchlets terete, nodes not con-
stricted. Leaves paripinnate, usually with three
pairs of leaflets (rarely two or four to five
pairs), stipulate; main rachis up to 8.5 cm
long with a swollen pulvinous, very narrowly
winsed between the leaflets. Leaflets 5.2-
17.5 x 1. 6-5.0 cm, sessile or subsessile, vary
in size and shape, lanceolate, oblanceolate,
elliptic to oblong, coriaceous, glabrous above,
glabrescent below, abruptly acuminate at apex,
unequal and oblique at base; main nerves up
to 11 pairs forming intra-marginal loops, pro-
minent on lower surface; midrib swollen at
base below, more or less warted. Stipules up
to 3 . 2 x 1 . 1 cm, erect, united along the auter
margin about half of its length, lanceolate,
oblique at base, bereft of appendage (spur).

Flowers bright pink, in fascicles or in very
short racemes from tubercles of main trunk
or axillary from leafy branchlets, not wide
opening. Bracts zb 2 . 0 x 1.2 mm, ovate, pubes-
cent, acute. Pedicels up to 1.75 cm long,
slender, pubescent. Bracteoles two, zb 10 x 7
mm, free, obovate to oblong, pubescent out-
side, glabrous inside except at base and
margins, concave, obtuse to sub-acute. Calyx
with a short tube (±5 mm); lobes four, 8.0-
13.0 x 5.0-10.0 mm, imbricate, unequal,
elliptic-oblong to obovate, pubescent outside,
sparsely puberulous inside, obtuse or subacute.
Petals five, each 12.0-17.5 x 7.0-13.0 mm,
pink, obovate, glabrous outside, sparsely pube-
rulous at base within, abruptly obtuse to sub-
acute at tip, shortly clawed at base. Stamens
five, ± 2 cm long, alternating the petals, ex-
erted; filaments bright pink, glabrous except
at base; anthers zb 4 mm long, oblong, versa-
tile; staminodes five, minute (zb 1 mm long),
erect, glabrous and acicular at tip, densely
pubescent and pinkish at base. Disc densely
pubescent. Ovary zb 8 mm long, stipitate,
pubescent; style zb 1.8 cm long, glabrous
above, pubescent at base; stigma capitate. Im-
mature pod 6.0-10.5 x 1.0-2. 5 cm, oblong,
oblique, puberulous, compressed with persis-
tent stylar beak. (Figs. 1-10).

The holotype Joseph 44511 (CAL) and
isotypes Joseph 44511 (MH. Acc. Nos. 85902,
85903, 118572, 118573, 118574) were collected
at Koviltherimalai, near Bonaccord Estate,
Trivandrum District, Kerala on 2-10-1973; and
paratypes Joseph 55994 (MH. Acc. Nos.
118575, 118576, 118577, 118578) were collect-
ed from the same locality on 25-8-1975.

729

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 81

Figs. 1-10: Humboldtia unijuga Bedd. var. trijuga Joseph & Chandrasekaran, var. nov.
1. Twig 2. Stipule with a portion of twig. 3. Bract. 4. Bracteole. 5 & 5a. Calyx lobes.
6. Petal. 7. Stamen. 8. Staminode. 9. Gynoecium with disc and staminodes. 9a. L. S.

of Gynoecium. 10. Immature pod.

730

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

This graceful tree occurs in the forest at
Koviltherimalai, near Bonaccord Estate in
Trivandrum District at an altitude of about
875 m.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. V. J. Nair, Systematic Bota-

Botanxcal Survey of India,

Shillong 793 003.

nist. Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore
for rendering Latin translation and Smt. C. P.
Malathi, Herbarium Assistant, Botanical Sur-
vey of India, Coimbatore for the help in the
preparation of illustrations.

J. JOSEPH

Botanical Survey of India, V. CHANDRASEKARAN

Coimbatore 641 003,

July 8, 1983.

31. SWERTIA SIKKIM ENSIS BURKILL (GENTIANACEAE) : A
LITTLE KNOWN PLANT FROM UTTAR PRADESH, INDIA

(With seven text-figures)

Swertia sikkimensis is described by I. H.
Burkill in the year 1906 based on the collec-
tions of several specimens gathered from
Sikkim, Bhutan and Himachal Pradesh. This
plant usually occurs in the alpine Himalayas
of Sikkim (Jongri, Tonglu, Phalut, Lachen
and Lachung valley, Gaigong and Kinchinjhow
etc.) ranging from 4112-5181 m (13, 500 ft. —
17,000 ft.). From Bhutan (Kungmet) it has
once been collected so far by Dungboo in
1884. In Himachal Pradesh it has once been
collected from Kuna war (Kinnar) by Natha-
niel Vicary in 1831.

But after its first description it has not been
collected from any of the areas mentioned.
It is hitherto unrecorded from Uttar Pradesh,
India and Nepal. Hence the present collection
of this plant from Pithoragarh District
(Kumaon), Uttar Pradesh, appears to be a
new record. Moreover, this plant has been
collected again after a long gap of about 70
years.

The distribution of this plant in Nepal is

expected as both Sikkim and Kumaon are
adjacent to East Nepal and West Nepal res-
pectively. Moreover, the present collection
locality is very close to West Nepal bordering
the River Kali.

It is described here again with an illustra-
tion as there is no further information except
the original one.

Swertia sikkimensis Burkill in J. Asiat. Soc.

Bengal, n.s. 2: 322. 1906. (Figs. 1-7).

Annual herb of 4-12 cm high, usually
branched at base, glabrous. Leaves subsessile
to shortly petioled, lower ovate to spathulate,
5-9 x 3-4 mm, upper lanceolate 4-10 x 1.5-3
mm. Inflorescence both axillary and terminal
raceme. Flowers mostly 4-merous rarely 5-
merous. Calyx cyathiform, lobes oblong-
lanceolate, 3-4 x 1-1.5 mm, slightly alternate-
ly heteromorphic. Corolla lobes oblong lanceo-
late, 5-8 x 1 . 8-2 . 5 mm, bluish-green; glands
obscure, two on each petal, linear-vertical,
placed towards the base, one on either side
of mid-vein. Capsule oblong, 6-9 x 2-2.5 mm.

731

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 81

Figs. 1-7. Swertia sikkimensis Burkill

1. plant. 2. flower, 3. calyx split open, 4. corolla split open, 5. stamen, 6. carpel and

7. capsule.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

dehiscence about one-third of the total length
of capsule. Seeds 10-15 in each capsule,
ellipsoid, testa reticulate, purple-red.

This plant grows in shady moist places
along with Swertia ciliata (G. Don) Burtt, S.
cordata (G. Don) C. B. Clarke and other
Gentians.

Sheets examined : (all are deposited at CAL).
Sikkim : Thangu, Sept. 1903, Prain s.n.;
Giagong, Sept. 1903, Prain s.n. (Syntype);

Bhutan : Kungmet, 3.8.1884, Dungboo 295
(Syntype);

Himachal Pradesh : Kunawar, 1831, N.

Vicary s.n. (Syntype);

Uttar Pradesh: Kumaon, Pithoragarh Disk,

Botanical Survey of India,

P. O. Botanic Garden,

Howrah -7 11 103,

May 23, 1983.

Kutti valley, Garbyang to Chhalek, 3124 m,
26.10.1976, G. G. Maiti 844; Kutti valley,
Chhalek to Budhi village, 2800 m, 26.10.1976,
G. G. Maiti 852 and Byans, Sirkha to Rung-
ling forest, 2500 m, 13.10.1976, G. G. Maiti
367.

Ack nowledgements

1 am indebted to the Council of Himalayan
Exploration and Research, Calcutta, for my
participation as a Botanist member in the
“Kutti valley Expedition 1976”. Thanks are
also due to the Deputy Director, Central
National Herbarium, Botanical Survey of India,
for providing facilities.

GAURGOPAL MAITI

32. EUPHORBIA TORTILIS ROTTL. EX WIGHT — A NEW

RECORD FOR KARNATAKA

Euphorbia tortilis Rottl. ex Wight was re-
corded in India only from Tamil Nadu. Dur-
ing collection trips to different parts of Mysore
and Mandya districts of Karnataka, we noticed
this plant in several places along hedges. The
species closely resembles E. antiquorum L.
and has often been confused with the latter.
However, E. tortilis can be distinguished from
E. antiquorum in having spirally twisted stems
and crowded cymes. It is quite likely that E.
tortilis occurs at many more localities on the
Deccan Plateau. A brief description of the
taxon is given below:

Euphorbia tortilis Rottl. ex Wight Ic. t. 898.

1844-45; Hook, f., Ft. Brit. India 5: 256

1887; Gamble, FI. Madras Rep. ed. 2: 894.

1957.

An erect shrub with abundant milky latex,
up to 2.4 m high. Main stem cylindric or
angled; branches thick, green, fleshy, jointed;
joints 3- to 5 -winged, up to 25 cm long, spirally
twisted; wings compressed, coarsely repand-
crenate, with pairs of sharp stipular spines;
spines c. 6 mm long. Leaves minute, ovate.
Cyathia in cymes of 3, shortly peduncled and
forming clusters in the sinuses, c. 4 mm in dia-
meter, green, with 5 large glands; bracts
minute, ovate; bracteoles numerous, fimbriate.
Male flowers many. Styles 3, shortly connate
at base, 2-lobed, glabrous. Fruit c. 13 mm
in diam., glabrous; cocci keeled.

733

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Post Graduate Department of Botany, K. GOPALAKRISHNA BHAT

University of Mysore, M. S. DINESH

Manasagangotri, C. R. NAGENDRAN

Mysore 570 006,

Karnataka,

April 27, 1983.

33. GENUS TYPHA IN THE NORTH WESTERN HIMALAYAS

Typha, a highly variable genus, is distribut-
ed in Asia, Europe, Africa, Tropical Austra-
lia, South and Central California with about
13 existing and 2 fossil species. It is repre-
sented by 3 species in the Kashmir Himalayas.
All the species are economically very impor-
tant. They are valued as ornamental plants
on the borders of ponds, pools and irrigation
canals.

In Kashmir all the species of Typha are
cultivated for the preparation of floating
islands as prevention against erosion, however,
caution needs to be exercise to control them
lest they should multiply excessively.

Dry fruiting spikes are used for decoration.
The strong fibrous culms or leaves are used
in weaving mats and basket work. The fine
plush got from the hairs of female spike were
used in the stuffing of pillows, but the practice
has been discontinued. The hairs of female
spike locally called kalroon mixed with mud
is used for plastering walls, which gives smooth-
ness to it and forms an excellent base for paint
work. The leaves are mainly used for the
weaving of mats (wagoove) and prayer rugs;
the peduncle is used in the preparation of win-
dow curtains. The stems and leaves are also
used for thatching huts and house boats.

Key to the species

1 . Male and female spikes not contiguous; usually
separated by 1-3 cm interval. Leaves flat above,

convex beneath, 13 mm wide

T. angustata

1 . Male and female spikes contiguous, not sepa-
rated. Leaves narrow slightly channeled; wavy
margined above the middle, less than 13 mm
wide

2. Plants more than 2 m long; stigma ovate-

lanceolate or spatulate

T. elephantina

2. Plants less than 2 m long; dwarf; stigma

subobtuse T. laximannii

Typha angustata Borry and Chaub. Exped.
in Bory Sci. Mores 3: 338 (1832); Hook. f.
FI. Brit. Ind. 6, 489 (1893); Graebner, in
Pflanzenr. 2: 14. f. 4F, (1900); Subra-

manyam, Aq. Angios. 74 (1962).

In the field it can be readily distinguished
by its very long, erect leaves and the dense
monoecious interrupted spicate inflorescence,
fuzzy brown at maturity. Leaves sheathing at
the base, conspicuously auriculate; auricles
scarious. Stigma fleshy; ovary linear or linear
oblong; sterile ovaries cuneate with a rudimen-
tary style on the truncate flattened apex; the
hairs on the stipe are in whorls terminating into
a club-shaped or ligulate tips. Fruits obconical
or fusiform, 1 mm long, tapering into the stalk.

Common in marshes, shallow waters of
lakes; along streams and sides of irrigation
canals; Nagin lake AMK 3732; Hokhar sar
AMK 3944; Dal lake AMK 3888.

Distribution. Asia, Europe, Africa, Hima-
layas, Kashmir.

Typha elephantina Roxb. FI. Ind. 3: 566

734

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

(1832); Hook. f. l.c. 481; T. lati folia Edgew,

Proc. Linn. Soc. 6. 194 (1862).

Superficially resembling T. angustata but
can be distinguished from it in having male
and female spikes contiguous; mature female
spikes much longer and thicker; stigma ovate-
lanceolate or spatulate; sterile ovaries ellipsoid,
tipped at the round apex by a rudimentary
style. Fruit cylindrical.

Mostly in the marshes, on the banks of
lakes; Dal lake AMK 3733; Nagin lake (near
Nandpora) AMK 3829; Hariparbat (inside)
Fort AMK 3946.

Distribution. Asia, Europe, America, Hima-
layas, Kashmir.

An anamalous form of the species with 2-4
pistillate spikes arising from a common stalk,
with a single terminal staminate spike was
found growing near Habak, Dal lake and
Harwan (Srinagar). This anamalous spike
showed no other morphological difference with
the normal T. elephantina Roxb. regarding
vegetative and floral characters and this seems
to be conspicuous anamalous feature for the
species and its frequency of occurrence was

Department of Botany,

Ismalia College of Science and

Commerce,

Srinagar 190 002, Kashmir (India),

January 27, 1981.

in no way less than that of the normal T.
elephantina Roxb. It was also observed that
the normal species grows under similar micro-
climatic conditions at various spots within this
altitudinal range.

Typfia laximannii Lepech. in Nva. Acta

Petersh 84: 355 (1801); Hook. f. l.c. 6.

586.

Rhizomatous perennial herbs, can be diffe-
rentiated from the other two species in being
smaller in size, leaves distichiously arranged
equal or longer than spikes, sheathing at the
base; male and female flowers usually conti-
guous; stigma subobtuse. Fruit 1 mm long,
cylindrical.

Common in marshes; on the banks of the
lakes; sides of the rice fields, Bemna AMK
3889; Shalteng AMK 3945.

Distribution. Russia, Pakistan, India, Kash-
mir.

Ack nowledgements

We thank the University Grants Commission
for providing the financial assistance.

A. MAJEED KAK
SULOCHANA DURANP

1 Department of Botany, Kashmir University,

Srinagar 190 006.

34. DISTRIBUTIONAL NOTE ON SOME INDIAN GRASSES

While working on the family Poaceae at
Central National Herbarium we noticed a few
grasses of doubtful identity. A critical study
of these resulted in finding new distributional
areas for the following grasses.

1. Chrysopogon serrulatus Trin.

This grass has been reported from NW
India, Bihar and Nepal (Kara 1966). A speci-
men collected from Arunachal Pradesh and
identified as Chrysopogon fulvus (Spreng.)

735

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Chiov. has been identified as C. serrulatus
Trin. due to the presence of cilia in the upper
quarter of the upper glume. This extends the
distribution of C. serrulatus Trin. to Aruna-
chal Pradesh.

Exsicc. Arunachal Pradesh; Kameng Dist.,
Dahing, 3 Oct. 1964, /. Joseph 40469 (CAL).

2. Iscliaemum tumidum Stapf ex Bor

This grass is known from Bombay (Old
Bombay Presidency) and Tamil Nadu. A speci-
men collected from Sanchi and labelled as
/. king'd Hook. f. has shorter pedicels and
swollen raceme joints which identify the speci-
men to /. tumidum Stapf ex Bor. It is a new
record for Madhya Pradesh.

Exsicc. Madhya Pradesh; Sanchi, Sept. 1907,
A. Meebold 9124 (CAL).

3. I. zeylasiicolitm Bor

The known distribution of this grass is
Bombay, Sri Lanka and Kerala (Nair &
Ramachandran 1980). A recent collection
from Humphreygunj extends its distribution

Botanical Survey of India,

P. O. Botanic Garden,

Howrah -7 11 103,

April 12, 1983.

to Andaman Islands.

Exsicc. Andamans; Humphreygunj, 23 Nov.
1973, N. P. Balakrishnan 631 (CAL).

4. Lolium remotum Schrank var. aristatum
(Doell) Aschers.

This grass was first reported from India
from localities in Himachal Pradesh and
Uttar Pradesh (Bhattacharyya 1976). We notic-
ed that a specimen identified as L. temulentum
L. has weak flexuous awns and smaller spike-
lets and identify the specimen as L. remotum
Schrank var. aristatum (Doell) Aschers, a new
record for Rajasthan.

Exsicc. Rajasthan; Jaipur, 9 Feb. 1964 S.
Sharma 406 (CAL).

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. S. K. Jain, Director, BSI and
Dr. K. Thothathri, Deputy Director, Central
National Herbarium for encouragement and
facilities and to Dr. V. S. Agarwal, Editor of
Publications for suggestions.

D. C. PAL
B. P. UNIYAL

References

Bhattacharyya, Baruna (1976): Lolium remo-
tum Schrank var. aristatum (Doell) Aschers (Poa-
ceae). A new record for India. Curr. Sci. 45(7) : 277.

Bor, N. L. (1960) : The grasses of Burma, Ceylon,
India & Pakistan. London.

Hara, H. (1966) : The Flora of Eastern Himalaya.
Japan.

Nair, V. J. & Ramachandran, V. S. (1980) :
Five plant records for Kerala. Bull. Bot. Surv. India
22: 193-194.

736

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

35. ARTHROMERIS LUNGTAUENSIS CHING: A NEW RECORD

FOR INDIA

{With four text-figures )

Arthromeris, a small genus of polypodiace-
ous ferns (subfamily Crypsinoideae) has a
very restricted distribution in North India,
China, Burma and Bhutan. In all, thirteen
species have been recognized by Ching and
Tagav/a (Christensen 1934, Pichi Sermolli
1965). Out of these six species have been re-
ported from India (Beddome 1892, Tagawa
1966, Nayar & Kaur 1974). With the addition
of a new species A. jarretti , from NEFA
(Sastry & Chowdhary 1969) the number of
species of Arthromeris in India rose to seven
and in the world to fourteen. Recently during
the course of a study of pteridophytic flora of
Pithoragarh district of Kumaon (West Hima-
layas), A. lungtauensis Ching a species earlier
known from China and Darjeeling in India has
been recorded from Kumaon Himalayas for the
first time. This species grows in moist shady
places and the following description is based
on plants collected from two localities near
Pithoragarh town (P.W.D. rest house and en-
route to Seloli village). The specimens are
lodged in the herbarium of Botany Department,
P. G. College, Pithoragarh.

A. lungtauensis Ching, Contr. Inst. Bot. Nat.
Acad. Peiping 2: 98, 1933: leones Filicum
Sinicarum, Fascicle 3, plate 150, 1935. Tagawa

National Botanical Institute,

Lucknow, India 226 001.

in Hara, FI. East. Himal. 490, 1966.

Rhizome thick, stout, clothed with lanceo-
late, brownish paleae with entire or dentate
margins. Fronds large usually upto 30 cm.
long, stipes erect, 7-12 cm. in length, naked,
brown in colour. Pinnae 1, 3 or 5 in number,
opposite or subopposite, distantly placed, 8-10
cm. long; terminal pinna larger than lateral
ones; lateral pinnae sessile, articulated to the
rachis, lanceolate, coriaceous with cartilagin-
ous entire and wavy margins, base cordate.
Sori irregularly distributed on either side of
midrib on under surface of lamina, sometimes
very close to each other; paraphyses long with
swollen heads. Spores yellow, bilateral, non
perisporiate, spinulose, 50 x 28 /x.

A. lungtauensis differs from other species
found in India in having (i) cordate
base of the pinnae, (ii) irregular distribution
of sori on under surface of lamina and (iii)
presence of swollen headed paraphyses.

Ack nowledgements

We thank the Director National Botanical
Research Institute, Lucknow for encourage-
ments. The junior author is also thankful to
the Principal, Govt. P. G. College, Pithoragarh
for providing facilities for collection.

SURJIT KAUR

Dept, of Botany, n. PUNETHA

Govt. P. G. College,

Pithoragarh, India 262 501,

June 1, 1983.

737

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 81

Figs. 1-4. Arthromeris liingtauensis Ching

1. Sporophyte showing habit. 2. Palea on the surface of the rhizome. 3. Paraphysis
found in between the sporangia. 4. Lateral view of a spore.

738

250 ji y -5 mm

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Beddome, R. H. (1892) : Handbook to the Ferns
of British India, Ceylon and Malaya Peninsula with
supplement. Thacker Spink & Co. Calcutta.

Christensen, C. (1934): Index Filicum. Supple-
mentum Tertium pro annis (1917-1933). H. Hagerup,
Hafniae.

Nayar, B. K. & Kaur, S. (1974): Companion to
R. H. Beddome’s Handbook to Ferns of British
India, Ceylon and the Malaya peninsula. The Chro-
nica Botanica, New Delhi.

Pichi Sermolli, R. E. G. (1965) : Index Filicum.

Supplementum Quartum pro annis (1934-1960). In-
ternational Bureau for Plant Taxonomy and Nomen-
clature. Utrecht, Netherlands.

Sastry, A. R. K. & Chowdhury, S. (1969) :
Arthromeris jarrettii, a new species of Polypodia-
ceae from Subansiri district, NEFA, India. Bull. Bot.
Surv. India 11: 442-443.

Tagawa, M. (1966): Polypodiaceae. pp. 489-499
in Kara, H. (ed.) : The Flora of Eastern Himalaya,
University of Tokyo, lapan.

36. A NOTE ON PHYTOGEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF
FERNS AND FERN-ALLIES OF ALMORA (W.H.)

Western Himalayan tracts have been explor-
ed extensively for pteridophytes from time to
time by a number of workers (see Awasthi &
Sharma 1980) but Almora, an important
Kumaon area remained unexplored. This
has necessiated a detailed investigation of
pteridophytes of Almora situated at an
altitudinal range of 1500 m to 2100 m.
Mainly Almora proper and its suburbs which
include Chitai, Kalimati, Sirntola, Kasar devi,
Ranidhara etc. were explored extensively.

The soil in this area is compact yellow to
brownish black clay and is rich in magnesium
salts. In the forests, ground floor is usually
covered with a thick layer of humus formed
by organic decay and thus provides a good
substratum for the growth of terrestrial species.
Conifers namely Pinus roxburghii and
Cedrus deodara form an important part of the
vegetation of this area. At Chitai, Kasar Devi
and Kalimati pure stands of conifers are pre-
sent. At other places intermingled with these
are species of Quercus , Rhododendron , Ficus,
Eugenia, Bauhinia, Terminalia etc. The
ground flora consists mainly of Anaphalis,
Polygonum, Geranium, Pi m pinell a, Fragaria,
Desmodium, Indigofera, Crotolaria etc. The

shrubs which are common in this area include
Berberis, Reinwardtia, Flemingia, Woodfordia,
Rhus etc.

In all 55 species of pteridophytes, 51 be-
longing to ferns and 4 to fern allies have been
collected from this region (see Table 1).

Lycopodium cernuum Linn., which was
found growing on dry exposed slopes is an
interesting species. It has not been reported
earlier from western Himalayas, though it has
been reported by Mehra & Bir (1964) from
eastern Himalayas. Botrychium daucifolium
Wall, is another interesting species which has
been recorded earlier only from Garhwal re-
gion of western Himalayas by Awasthi and
Sharma (1980). It was found growing on moist-
shady slopes at Kasar Devi and Sirntola. Other
interesting species include Lygodium flexuo-
sum (L.) Sw. (as climber on bushes), Ony-
chium siliculosum (Desv.) C. Chr. (on moist-
shady rocks), Athyrium setiferum C. Chr. (on
moist-shady slopes), Ctenitis hendersonii
(Bedd.) H. (on exposed dry rocks), Oleandra
wallichi (Hook.) Presl. (on damp and shady
slopes), Abacopteris multilineata (Wall.)
Ching (along streams), Cyclosorus mega-
phyllus (Mett.) Ching (on the forest floor).

739

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol SI

Fyrrosia mollis (Kze.) Ching (epiphyte on
Oak tree), Microsorium membranaceum (D.
Don) Ching (epiphyte on the lower part of the
trunk of trees), Arthromeris wallichiana (Spr.)
Ching (in moist and shady places), Phymatodes
hastata (Thunb.) Ching (on exposed rocks),
P. malacodon (Hook.) Ching (on tree trunks
of Quercus and Rhododendron ) etc.

The ferns and fern-allies which are met
with in this area are also common in the ad-
joining hills. 58% species are common to
Kumaon hills which include National and
Ranikhet; 74.5% species are common to
Garhwal Himalayas; 74.5% species are com-

mon to Himachal Pradesh hills which include
Simla, Dalhousie and Dharamsala and
43.6% species are common to Kashmir hima-
layas. On regional basis, the phytogeographi-
cal distribution of these reveals that : (a)

78.1% species are common to eastern Hima-
layas; (b) 42% species are common to south-
ern hills; (c) 22% species are common to
central Himalayas (i.e. Pachmari). (d) 92%
species are common to western Himalayas;
(e) 76.3% species are common to both eastern
and western Himalayas; (f) 21.8% species
are met only in western Himalayas; (g) 1.9%
species are met only in eastern Himalayas.

Lycopodium cernuum Linn.

Selaginella chrysocaulos Hook & Grev.
S. chrysorrhizos Spr.

Equisetum debile Roxb.

Ophioglossum reticulatum Linn.
Botrychium lanuginosum Wall.

B. daucifolium Wall.

Lygodium flexuosiim (L.) Sw.

Onychium japonicum (Thbg.) Kze.

O. siliculosum (Desv.) C.

O. contiguum (Wall.) Hope
Pteris quadriaurita Retz.

P. aspcrula J. Sm.

P. ere tic a Linn.

P. vittata Linn.

Cheilanthus farinosa (Forsk.) Kaulf.

C. albomarginata Clarke
Adiantum capillus-vcneris Linn.

A. incisum Forsk.

A. philippense L.

A. venustum Don
Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn
Athyrium nigripes (Bl.) Moore
A. setiferum C. Cbr.

Diplazhim polypodioides Blume
Hypodematium crencitum (Forsk.) Kuhn
Dryopteris odontoloma (Moore) C. Chr.

D. sparsa Ham. ex. Don

Table 1

D. chrysocoma (Christ) C. Chr.

Polystichum aciileatum (L.) Roth
P. squarrosum (D. Don) Fee
P. stimulans Presl.

Tectaria macrodonto. (Fee) C. Chr.

C ten i tis k en d erson i i (Bedd.) H.

Ncphrolepis cordifolia (Linn.) Presl.

Oleandra wallichii (Hook.) Presl.

Araiostegia multidentata (Bedd.) Copel.
DavaUia trichomanoid.es var. lorrainei (Hance)

Holtt.

D. bullata Wall.

Aspleninm dalhousiae Hook.

A. ensi forme Wall.

A. varians Wall.

A. trichomanes Linn.

Abacopteris muJtilincata (Wall.) Ching
Ampelo pteris prolifer a (Retz.) Copel.
Cyclosorus megaphyllus (Melt.) Ching
Pyrrosia mollis (Kze.) Ching
Lepisoras nudiis (Hook.) Ching
L. excavatus (Bory) Ching
Poly podium lachnopus Wall.

P. amoenum Wall.

Microsorium membranaceum (D. Don) Ching
Arthromeris wallichiana (Spr.) Ching
Phymatodes hastata (Thunb.) Ching
P. malacodon (Hook.) Ching

740

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Awasthi, D. K. & Sharma, M. P. (1980) : Eco- Sci. (Plant Sci.) 89 : 307-313.
logical and phytogeographical observations on the Mehra, P. N. & Bir, S. S. (1964) : Pteridophytic
ferns and fern-allies of Nagpur block (Chamoli flora of Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas. Res.
Garhwal), Western Himalayas. Proc. Indian Acad. Bull. Punjab Univ. 15 : 69-182.

Dept, of Botany, D. K. AWASTHI

M. M. P. G. College,

Modi n agar- 201 204.

Dept, of Botany,

Meerut College, P. C. PANDE

Meerut-250 001,

June 8, 1983.

37. NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON SOME PLANTS FROM

MAHARASHTRA

During our studies of the Flora of Sindhu-
durg district we have come across some plant
names which need corrections with reference to
the rules of ‘International Code of Botanical
Nomenclature’. In this communication, we
have discussed the status of the names of three
common endemic species from Maharashtra.

1. Mammea Sosigifolia (Wight) Planch. &
Triana, in Ann. Sci. Nat. Ser. 4, 15 : 240,

1861. Calysaccion longifolius Wight, 111. 1 :
130, 1840 & Icon. t. 1999, 1844. Oehrocarpus
longifolius Benth. ex T. Anders., in FI. Brit.
India 1: 270, 1874. Calophyllum suriga Buch.
-Ham. ex Roxb., FI. Ind. 2 : 608, 1832.

Mammea suriga (Buch. -Ham.) Kosterman, in
Comm. For. Res. Inst. Indonesia (Bogor) 72 :
23, f. 19, 1961; Santapau, in Bull. Bot. Surv.
India 3 : 19, 1961.

Kosterman (l.c.) made a new combination,
in genus Mammea Linn., based on Buchanan
Hamilton’s name Calophyllum suriga publish-
ed by Roxburgh. Rev. Fr. H. Santapau ad-
opted Kosterman’s name for our common
Indian species known by popular local name

as “Surangi” and since then it has been used in
Indian Floras as the correct name. However, we
have found that the basionym of Kosterman’s
new combination is a superfluous name and
has to be rejected. Roxburgh, in the proto-
logue of his new name has cited Calophyllum
soulattri Burm. f. as a direct synonym. Accor-
ding to Article no. 631 of ICBN, Roxburgh’s
name becomes an illegitimate name and should
be rejected. The earliest valid name for the spe-
cies is Calysaccion longifolium Wight. Since
the genus Oehrocarpus Thouars is merged
with Mammea Linn, the correct name for the
species should be Mammea longifolia (Wight)
Planch, et Triana.

2. Embdia aeufipetaium (Lamk. ex Hass-
karl) Comb. nov. Basal no. 1, Lamk., Encycl.
1: 381, 1783. Basal acutipetalum Lamk. ex
Hasskarl, Hort. Malab. Rheed. clavis, 40, 1867;

1 Article 63 states, “A name is illegitimate and
is to be rejected if it was nomenclaturally superfluous
when published, i.e. if the taxon to which it was
applied, as circumscribed by its author, included
the type of a name or epithet which ought to have
been adopted under the rules.”

741

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 81

Dauceria acuta Dennsted, Schllues Zuni Hort.
Maiab. 31, 1818. Emhelia acuta (Dennst.)
Alston, in Trimen Handb. FI. Ceylon 6 : suppl.
177, 1931. Embelia tsjarium-cottam (Roem.
et Schult.) A. DC., in Wight Icon. t. 1209,
1848; Santapau, FI. Khandala, ed. 3, 141,
1967. Embelia robust a auct. non Roxburgh,
1832; Brandis For. FI. 2 : 284, 1874; Clarke,
C. B. in Hook, f., FI. Brit. India 3: 515, 1832;
Cooke, T., FI. Presid. Bombay 2: 85, 1904.

Embelia tsjarium-cottam A. DC. is the com-
monly accepted name for the species known
in Maharashtra under vernacular name “Vau-
ding” or “Waurung”. Seeds of this species
are collected and used in preparation in Ayur-
vedic medicines for anthelmintic purposes.
Alfonse de Candolle made a new combination
Embelia tsjarium-cottam, based on Ardisia
tsjarium-cottam Roem. et Schult. (Syst. 4 :
518, 1819). Actually both of these names and
also Antidesma pubescens Roxb. (PI. Corom.
Coast 2 : 35, t. 167, 1798) are based on
“Tsjarium-cottam” of Rheede’s figure, in
Hortus Malabaricus (5 : 21, t. 11, 1688).
Plants based on Rheede’s above mentioned
figure are now considered conspecific with an
Euphorbiaceous species Antidesma ghasem-
billa Gaertn. (see also Cooke, T. l.c.). There-
fore E. tsjarium-cottam A. DC. should not be
used for our Myrsinaceous species. Rheede’s
text figure in Hortus Malabaricus (5 : 23, t.
12, 1688) ‘Basal’ (Besaal in plate) represents
our species, which also cites vernacular name
‘Vidingi’. In post-Linnean taxonomic works,
Lamark was the first to use Rheede’s ‘Basal’
for naming the plant. But unfortunately he
did not use binomial system for the nomen-
clature. After Lamark, it was Dennstedt who
named Rheede’s ‘Basal’ as Dauceria acuta
Dennst. But according to H. W. Rickett &
F. A. Staflew (Taxon 10 : 80, 1961) and H.
Manitz (Taxon 17 : 500, 1968) Dennstedt’s

name is nomen nudum. According to Article
no. 41 of ICBN, the name of species is not
valid if it is not published in combination
with an already published generic name.
According to Rickett & Staflew (l.c.) publi-
cation of genus and species which refers to
pre-Linnean work does not constitute a valid
publication. J. K. Hasskarl (Horti Malaba-
rici Rheedeani Clavis Locuplectissima, 40,
1867) gives Basal acutipetalum Lamk., attri-
buting the binomial to Lamark (Encycl. 1 :
381, no. 1, 1783). Since Lamark did not
publish the actual binomial, the name ‘ Basal
acutipetalum ’ should be effective from 1867,
and should be called Basal acutipetalum Lamk.
ex Hasskarl. Therefore a new combination
Embelia acutipetalum (Lamk. ex Hasskarl)
comb. nov. is proposed.

3. OSax psittacorum (Willd.) Vahl, Enum.
34, 1804. Fissilia psittacorum Willd., Sp. PI.
1 : 194, 1797. Olax scandens Roxb., PL Cor.
2:2, t. 102, 1798 & FI. Ind. 1 : 164, 1832;
Wight & Arn., Prodr. 89, 1834; Graham, Cat.
Bombay PI. 22, 1839; Masters, in FI. Brit.
India 1 : 575, 1875; Sleumer, in Pflanzenfam.
ed. 2, 16B: 27, 1935; Santapau, FI. Khandala,
ed. 3, 38-9, 1967.

Fissilea psittacorum Willd., is the oldest
name for the species which goes under the
name of Olax scandens Roxb. in our floras.
Vahl made new combination in genus Olax
Linn., based on specific epithet psittacorum.
Roxburgh, (in FI. Ind. 1: 164, 1832) cites
Fissilea psittacorum Willd. as a synonym under
the Olax scandens Roxb. Index Kewensis
lists Fissilea psittacorum Lamk., attributing
specific epithet psittacorum to Lamark. How-
ever, Lamark did not publish the specific
name psittacorum. He gave the diagnosis
and the plate of genus Fissilea Comm, ex
Juss. (Gen. 260, 1789) (see also Lamk., Illustr.
Gen. 1 : 102, t. 28, 1791). Willdenow, (in Sp.

742

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

PI. 1 : 194, 1797) named Lamark’s plate and
diagnosis as Fissilea psittacorum Willd. There-
fore the specific name psittacorum should not
be attributed to Lamark but to Willdenow.
However, Blanco, (FI. Filip, ed. 1, 28, 1837)
used the name F. psittacorum for species pre-
sently known as Olax wightiana Wall. ex.
Wight & Arn. and Masters (l.c.) has placed
Vahl’s name Olax psittacorum (Willd.) Vahl,
in the synonymy of Olax wightiana Wall, as
well as Olax scandens Roxb.

Roxburgh’s identification of his own spe-
cies — Olax scandens Roxb. — synonymous
with Fissilea psittacorum renders his name
superfluous and should be rejected.

Sleumer (l.c.) treats O. scandens Roxb. and

Blatter Herbarium,

St. Xavier’s College,

Bombay 400 001.

Alchemie Centre,

Thane-Belapur Road,

P. O. Box 155,

Thane 400 601,

March 23, 1983.

O. wightiana Wall, as conspecific. Rev. Fr. H.
Santapau (l.c.) keeps both these species as
distinct, but seems to be in trouble while
correctly placing his Khandala plants under
the proper species. Even if we consider
Master’s view as correct in keeping them as
distinct species, then Olax psittacorum (Willd.)
Vahl should replace Olax scandens Roxb.
According to Article no. 53 of ICBN, “When
a species is divided into two or more species,
the original specific epithet must be retained
for one of them or, if it has not been retained,
it must be reinstated for one of them.”

We are grateful to Prof. P. V. Bole, for
going through the manuscripts and making
some useful suggestions.

S. M. ALMEIDA

M. R. ALMEIDA

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ISSN 0006-6982

CONTENTS

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE BIOLOGY OF HOUBARA! 1982-83 WINTERING POPULATION IN
Baluchistan. By Afsar Mian

Oriental Lycaenidae, Rigdinidae, and Hesperiidae from the Central Nepal
Himalayas. By Oakley Shields

A report on a collection of Amphibians and Reptiles from the Ponmudi,
Kerala, south India. By Robert F. Inger, H. Bradley Shaffer, Mammen Koshy

N and Ramesh Bakde

Pollination ecology of Euphorbia geniculata (Euphorbiaceae) . By E. U. B. Reddi
and C. Subba Reddi

Adaptive modifications of the Reduviidae of the scrub jungles and semi-arid
zones of the Palghat Gap, India — an evolutionary approach. By D.
Livingstone and D. P. Ambrose '

A NOTE ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOME PLANTS IN GANGANAGAR DISTRICT, RAJAS-
THAN. By B. P. Singh and N. S. Brar

Breeding biology of the Indian Fruit Bat, Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl) in
Central India. By Satwant Sandhu

Birds of a polluted river. By Prakash Gole

Orchids of Great Nicobar Island and their conservation. By D. K. Hore and
N. P. Balakrishnan .

Is habitat destruction in India and Pakistan beginning to affect the status
of endemic passerine birds ? By A. J. Gaston

Food and feeding habits of fingerlings and juveniles of Mahseer ( Tor
putitora Ham.) in Nayar river. By Prakash Nautiyal and M. S. Lai

The environmental limitations and future of the Asiatic Lion. By Paul
Joslin

New Descriptions

Review

Miscellaneous Notes

Page

537

546

551

571

583

596

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613

626

636

642

648

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684

685

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